Electrical Engineering

Principles & Applications

Chapter 2
Resistive Circuits

Slide 1
 Objectives
1. Solve circuits (i.e., find currents and voltages of
interest) by combining resistances in series and parallel

2. Apply the voltage-division and current-division principles

3. Solve circuits by the node-voltage technique

4. Solve circuits by the mesh-current technique

5. Find Thévenin and Norton equivalents and apply source

transformations

6. Apply the superposition principle

7. Draw the circuit diagram and state the principles of

operation for the Wheatstone bridge
Slide 2
 Series Resistances

From (a)
v1 = R1i
From (b)
v2 = R2i v = Req i
v3 = R3i
Thus,
Using KVL :
v = v1 + v2 + v3 Req = R1 + R2 + R3
= ( R1 + R2 + R3 )i
Slide 3
 Parallel Resistances

From (a) : From (b)

i1 = v / R1 1
i = ( )v
i2 = v / R2 R eq
i3 = v / R3 Thus,
1 1 1 1
By KCL = + +
R eq R1 R2 R3
i = i1 + i2 + i3
1
1 1 1 R eq =
1 1 1
=( + + )v + +
R1 R2 R3 R1 R2 R3

Slide 4
 Special Case
• Two Resistors in Parallel R1 and R2
R1 R2
Req =
R1 + R2

• Always Req is less than the smallest resistor

• If R1 or R2 is zero (short circuit), then Req = 0

Slide 5
 Example

Slide 6
 Exercise

Ans. 3 Ans. 5

Ans. 52.1 Ans. 1.5

Slide 7
 Circuit Analysis Using Series/Parallel
Equivalents
1. Begin by locating a combination of resistances that are in series
or parallel. Often the place to start with is the farthest from
the source.

2. Redraw the circuit with the equivalent resistance for the

combination found in step 1.

3. Repeat steps 1 and 2 until the circuit is reduced as far as

possible. Often (but not always) we end up with a single source
and a single resistance.

4. Solve for the currents and voltages in the final equivalent

circuit. Then go back one step and solve for unknown voltages
and current.

5. Repeat step 4 until the required current or voltage in the

original circuit is found.
Slide 8
 Example

Slide 9
 Example (cont.)

Slide 10
 Example
Find the currents labeled in the circuits below.

Ans. i1=1.04 A, i2=0.48 A, i3=0.32, i4=0.24 A

i1=1 A, i2=1 A i1=1 A, i2=0.5 A, i3=0.5 A

Slide 11
 Voltage Division
• A voltage applied to
resistors connected in
series will be divided
among them

• The voltage across a v total

particular resistance i=
will be related to the R1 + R 2 + R 3
ratio of the given
R1
resistance to the total v1 = R1i = v total
series resistance R1 + R2 + R3
R2
v 2 = R2 i = v total
R1 + R2 + R3
Slide 12
 Example
Find v1 and v4

1000
v1 = ×15 = 1.5V
1000+1000+ 2000+ 6000
6000
v4 = × 15 = 9V
1000 + 1000 + 2000 + 6000
Slide 13
 Current Division
• The total current flowing into a
parallel combination of resistors
will be divided among them

• For two resistances in parallel, the

current passing into one resistance
is related to the ratio of the other R1 R2
resistance to the sum of the two v= itotal
resistances R1 + R2
v R2
• If more than two resistances, you
i1 = = i total
need to combine them until you are
left with two and then use the
R1 R1 + R 2
above step v R1
i2 = = i total
R2 R1 + R 2
Slide 14
 Example
Find vx using voltage division and then find is and use it to find i3 using
current division

R 2 R3 30 × 60 Rx 20
Req = = = 20 Ω vx = vs = 100 = 25V
R2 + R3 30 + 60 R1 + R x 60 + 20

vs 100 R2
is = = = 1.25 A i3 = is = 3030
+
×1.25 = 0.417A
R1 + Rx 60 + 20 R2 + R3 60

Slide 15
 Example
Use current division rule to find i1

Req 20
i1 = is = 15 = 10A
R1 + Req 10 + 20

Slide 16
 Example
Find the labeled voltages in both circuits below

v1=10 V, v2=20 V, v3=30 V, v4=60 V v1=6.05 V, v2=5.88 V, v4=8.07 V

Slide 17
 Note

Although series/parallel equivalents and

the current/voltage division
principles are very
important concepts,
yet they are not sufficient to
solve all circuits !!

Slide 18
 Node-Voltage Analysis
• Techniques learnt so far are not applicable to more complex networks.
• For example in the network below there are no series or parallel
combinations to reduce. Also, voltage division and current division
cannot be used.

Slide 19
 Nodal Analysis
• In nodal analysis, the variables used to describe
the circuit will be “Node Voltages”
– Nodal voltage are the voltages of each node with
respect to a pre-selected reference node

– Usually the reference node has many branches

connected to it

– The reference node is also called ground

– The node voltages are selected as being positive with

respect to the reference node

Slide 20
 Nodal Analysis

v1 − v 2
i=
R1
Slide 21
 Writing KCL Equations in Terms of the Node
Voltages

Sum of currents leaving a node = 0

Sum of currents leaving node 2 = 0

v 2 − v1 v2 v2 − v3
+ + =0
R2 R4 R3
Sum of currents leaving node 3 = 0

v3 − v1 v3 v3 − v2
+ + =0
R1 R5 R3
Voltage for node 1 is known

v1 = v s
Slide 22
 Circuits with independent current sources
Sum of currents leaving a node = 0
Node 1:
v1 v1 − v 2
+ + is = 0
R1 R2
Node 2:
v2 − v1 v 2 v 2 − v3
+ + =0
R2 R3 R4
Node 3:
v3 v3 − v 2
+ = is
R5 R4
Slide 23
 Example
Write the node equations for circuit shown

Slide 24
 Standard Form
• Group node-voltage variables on the left hand side of
the equations

• Place other terms on the right hand side

• For example, for two node voltages:

g 11 v1 + g 12 v 2 = i1
g 21 v1 + g 22 v 2 = i 2

Slide 25
 Example
Find the node voltages v1 and v2
v1 − v2 v1 − 10
Node1 : + = 1 : x 10
5 2
2v1 − 2v2 + 5v1 − 50 = 10
7v1 − 2v2 = 60
0.7v1 − 0.2v2 = 6 (1)
v2 v2 − 10 v2 − v1
Node 2 : + + = 0 : x 10
5 10 5
2v 2 + v2 − 10 + 2v2 − 2v1 = 0
− 2v1 + 5v2 = 10
− 0.2v1 + 0.5v2 = 1 (2)
Solving (1) and (2)
v1 = 10.32 V
v2 = 6.129 V
Slide 26
 Example
Find ix using nodal analysis

0.35v1 − 0.2v2 − 0.05v3 = 0

− 0.2v1 +0.3v2 − 0.1v3 = 10
− 0.05v1 − 0.1v2 + 0.35v3 = 0
Solving
v1 = 45.45 V
v2 = 72.73 V
v3 = 27.27 V
v1 − v3
ix = = 0.909 A
20

Slide 27
 Another Example
With a different choice of the reference node, find ix using nodal
analysis

v1 = −27.27V
v2 = −72.73 V
v3 = −45.45 V
v1 − v3
ix = = 0.909 A
20

Note: Different values of node voltages but final

answer for current is the same.
Slide 28
 Circuits with Voltage Sources

Slide 29
 Circuits with Voltage Sources
v1 v1 − (− 15) v2 v 2 − (− 15)
+ + + =0
R2 R1 R4 R3

Using this supernode will result in a dependent equation

Avoid using all nodes in the circuit
Slide 30
 Circuits with Voltage Sources
• To get another equation we use the voltage source
as follows: v2 − v1 = 10
• Thus, we have two equations with two unknowns

Slide 31
 Example
Write the set of equations for node voltages for the circuit
shown

v1 − v2 = 10
At node 3:
v 3 − v1 v 3 − v 2 v3
+ + =0
R2 R3 R4
At the super node:

v1 v1 − v3 v 2 −v 3
+ + =1
R1 R2 R3

Slide 32
 Node-Voltage Analysis with a
Dependent Source

First, we write KCL equations at each node,

including the current of the controlled source
just as if it were an ordinary current source

Slide 33
 Example
Write the set of nodal equations for the voltages. Assume
the is is given.
v1 − v 2
At node 1: = is + 2i x
R1
At node 2:

v 2 − v1 v 2 v 2 − v 3
+ + =0
R1 R2 R3
At node 3:

v3 − v 2 v3
+ + 2i x = 0
R3 R4

Slide 34
 Example (cont.)

Next, we find an expression for the controlling variable

ix in terms of the node voltages

v3 − v 2
ix =
R3

Slide 35
 Example (cont.)
Substitution yields
v1 − v 2 v1 − v 2 v3 − v 2
= is + 2ix = is + 2
R1 R1 R3

v2 − v1 v 2 v 2 −v 3 v 2 − v1 v2 v 2 − v 3
+ + =0 + + =0
R1 R2 R3 R1 R2 R3

v3 − v 2 v3 v3 − v 2 v3 v3 −v 2
+ + 2ix = 0 + +2 =0
R3 R4 R3 R4 R3

Then, we can solve these equations for the node voltages

Slide 36
 Example
Write the set of nodal voltages equations for the circuit
shown. Assume the is is given.
Dependent voltage source :
v1 − v2 = 0.5v x

Node 3
v3 v3 − v2 v3 − v1
+ + =0
R4 R3 R1
supernode (nodes 1 and 2)
v1 v1 − v3 v2 − v3
+ + = is
R2 R1 R3

Contolling variable
v x = v3 − v1
Slide 37
 Summary: Node-Voltage Analysis
1. Select a reference node and assign variables for the unknown node
voltages
• If the reference node is chosen at one end of an independent voltage
source, one node voltage is known at the start, and fewer equations need
to be computed

2. Write network equations

• First, use KCL to write current equations for nodes and super nodes
• Write as many current equations as you can without using all of the nodes
• Then, if you do not have enough equations because of voltage sources
connected between nodes, use KVL to write additional equations

3. If the circuit contains dependent sources

• Find expressions for the controlling variables in terms of the node
voltages
• Substitute into the network equations, and obtain equations having only
the node voltages as unknowns

4. Put the equations into standard form and solve for the node
voltages
5. Use the values found for the node voltages to calculate any other
currents or voltages of interest
Slide 38
 Exercises

Find ib using nodal analysis

Find ia using nodal analysis

ia = 1.33 A ib = −0.259A

Slide 39
 Exercises

Find iy using nodal analysis

Find ix using nodal analysis

i y = 2.31 A
i x = 0 .5 A

Slide 40
 Loops, Meshes and Loop Currents
in a circuit, the current through any component
can be expressed in terms of the loop currents
2 b 3 c
a
Each component EXAMPLES The direction of the loop
is characterized currents is significant
1 I1 7 I2 4 by the voltage
I a f = − I1 − I 3
across it and the I b e = I1 − I 2
current flowing
e d
f 6 5 through I b c = I 2 + I3
A BASICI CIRCUIT
3
Not every loop current is required to compute all
A loop is a closed path that does not go twice the currents through components
over any node. This circuit has three loops
2 b 3 c
a Using two loop currents
− −
fabef ebcde fabcdef −
1 7 4 Ia f = − I1− I3
I1
−
A mesh is a loop that does not enclose
Ibe = I 1
any other loop. fabef, ebcde are meshes f 6 e 5 d
−
A BASIC CIRCUIT − Ibc = I 3
A loop current is a “fictitious” current I3
that is assumed to flow around a loop
For every circuit there is a minimum number of loop
I1 , I 2 , I 3 are loop currents currents that are necessary to compute every current
in the circuit. Such a collection is called a minimal set
A mesh current is a loop current associated (of loop currents).
to a mesh. i1, i2 are mesh currents
Slide 41
 Loops, Meshes and Loop Currents
For a given circuit let
B: number of branches Determination of loop currents
n: number of nodes
kvl on left mesh
The minimum required number of
loop currents is
L = B − ( N − 1)
KVL on the right mesh
Mesh currents are always independent
+ vs 2 + v4 + v5 − v3 = 0
An example: Using Ohm's law
v 1 = i1 R 1 , v 2 = i1 R 2 , v 3 = ( i1 − i 2 ) R 3
v 4 = i2 R 4 , v 5 = i2 R 5
Replacing and rearranging

Two loop currents are

B=7 required.
The currents shown are
N =6 mesh currents. Hence
These are loop equations for the
circuit
L = 7 − (6 − 1) = 2 they are independent and
Slide 42 form a minimal set
 Writing the Mesh Equations
+ v R1 − = i1R1
Branches = 8
Nodes = 7

Loop currents needed = 2

And we are told to use mesh currents! − v R 2 + = (i1 − i2 ) R2+

This defines the loop currents to be used + v R5 = i2 R5
v R3 = − i2 R3
−
−
Identify all voltage drops + v R 4 − = − i2 R4
Write kvl on each mesh
Top mesh : − vS 1 + vR1 − vS 2 + vR 2 = 0

Bottom : − vR 2 + vR 5 − vR 4 + vS 3 − vR 3 = 0

Use Ohm’s law

Slide 43
 Example
Find Io using loop analysis An alternative selection of loop currents

Shortcut: polarities are not needed. Apply ohm’s

law to each element as kvl is being written

KVL @ I1 KVL @ I1
KVL @ I2 KVL @ I2 −12+6k(I2 + I1) +3kI2 +3 = 0
Rearrange 12kI1 − 6kI 2 = 12 NOW I O = I1
− 6kI1 + 9kI 2 = −3 multiply by 2 and add This selection is more efficient

12kI 2 = 6 ⇒ I 2 = 0.5mA Rearrange 12kI1 + 6kI 2 = 12 multiply by 3

12 kI 1 = 12 + 6 kI 2 ⇒ I1 =
5
mA 6kI1 + 9kI 2 = 9 multiply by 2 and substract
4 3
express variable of interest as function 24kI1 = 18 ⇒ I1 = mA
of loop currents 4
Slide 44 IO = I1 − I 2
 Example

Using this pattern for mesh 1 of the figure shown, we

have:
R2 (i1 − i3 ) + R3 (i1 − i2 ) − v A = 0
For mesh 2:

R3 (i2 − i1 ) + R4 i2 + v B = 0
For mesh 3:

R2 (i3 − i1 ) + R1i3 − v B = 0

Slide 45
 Example
Similarly, using this pattern for mesh 1 of the figure
shown, we have:
R1i1 + R2 (i1 − i4 ) + R4 (i1 − i2 ) − v A = 0
For mesh 2:
R5i2 + R4 (i2 − i1 ) + R6 (i2 − i3 ) = 0
For mesh 3:
R7 i3 + R6 (i3 − i2 ) + R8 (i3 − i4 ) = 0

For mesh 4:
R3i4 + R2 (i4 − i1 ) + R8 (i4 − i3 ) = 0

Slide 46
 Example
Solve for the currents in each element in the circuit

mesh 1 : 20 i1 + 10 (i1 − i2 ) − 150 = 0

mesh 2 : 10 (i2 − i1 ) + 15i2 + 100 = 0
30 i1 − 10 i 2 = 150
− 10 i1 + 25 i 2 = − 100
i1 = 4 . 231 A
i 2 = − 2 . 308 A
The current in the 10 - Ω is i1 -i 2 = 6 .539 A
Slide 47
 Exercise

Slide 48
Mesh Currents in Circuits Containing Current
Sources

A common mistake made by beginning students is to

assume that the voltages across current sources are zero

In the circuit shown, we have:

i1 = 2A

10(i2 − i1 ) + 5i2 + 10 = 0

Slide 49
Mesh Currents in Circuits Containing Current
Sources
Supermesh: Current source common to two meshes

Slide 50
Mesh Currents in Circuits Containing Current
Sources
Combine meshes 1 and 2 into a supermesh. In other
words, we write a KVL equation around the periphery of
meshes 1 and 2 combined.
i1 + 2(i 1 −i3 ) + 4(i2 − i3 ) + 10 = 0

Mesh 3:

3i3 + 4(i3 − i2 ) + 2(i3 − i1 ) = 0

i2 − i1 = 5

Slide 51
 Exercises

Slide 52
 Circuits with controlled sources

− 20 + 4i1 + 6i2 + 2i2 = 0

vx
= i2 − i1
4
v x = 2i2
Slide 53
 Mesh-Current Analysis
1. Define the mesh currents flowing around each mesh. For
consistency, we usually select a clockwise direction for each of the
mesh currents, but this is not a requirement

2. Write KVL equations, stopping after the number of equations is

equal to the number of mesh currents
• First, use KVL to write voltage equations for meshes that do not
contain current sources
• Next, if any current sources are present, write expressions for their
currents in terms of the mesh currents
• Finally, if a current source is common to two meshes, write a KVL
equation for the supermesh

3. If the circuit contains dependent sources, find expressions for the

controlling variables in terms of the mesh currents. Substitute into the
network equations, and obtain equations having only the mesh currents as
unknowns

4. Put the equations into standard form. Solve for the mesh currents by use
of determinants or other means

5. Use the values found for the mesh currents to calculate any other currents
or voltages of interest
Slide 54
 Thévenin Equivalent Circuits

Slide 55
 Thévenin Equivalent Circuits

Vt = voc
voc
Rt =
isc
Slide 56
 Thévenin Equivalent Circuits

Slide 57
 Finding the Thévenin Resistance Directly

1. Turn off independent sources in the original network:

- A voltage source becomes a short circuit
- A current source becomes an open circuit

2. Compute the resistance between the terminals

Slide 58
 Finding the Thévenin Resistance Directly

Slide 59
 Finding the Thévenin Resistance Directly
Example 2.15

Note: voltage across R2 = 0 (short circuit)

i2=0
i1=20/5 = 4 A  isc = 4 + 2 = 6 A
Vt=Rtisc= 4 x 6 = 24 V
Slide 60
 Example
Find the Thévenin resistance for each circuit

Rt=10+(5||20)=14 Rt=10+20 = 30

Rt = ((20||5)+6)||10) = 5
Slide 61
 Thévenin Equivalent Circuits

Slide 62
 Circuits with Dependent Sources
1. Find Voc and Isc
2. Compute Rt = Voc/Isc and Vt = Voc

Slide 63
 Circuits with Dependent Sources
voc
voc
ix + 2ix =
10
10 − voc

.
ix =
5
Vs=10 V
10 − voc voc voc
3 =
5 10
voc = 8.57
_____________________________________________
10V
ix = = 2A
5Ω

isc = 3ix = 6A

voc 8.57 V
Rt = = = 1.43Ω
isc 6A

Slide 64
 Norton Equivalent

Slide 65
 Step-by-step Thévenin/Norton-Equivalent-
Circuit Analysis
1. Perform two of these:
• Determine the open-circuit voltage Vt = voc
• Determine the short-circuit current In = isc
• Zero the sources and find the Thévenin resistance Rt looking
back into the terminals

2. Use the equation Vt = Rt In to compute the remaining

value

3. The Thévenin equivalent consists of a voltage source Vt

in series with Rt

4. The Norton equivalent consists of a current source In in

parallel with Rt

Slide 66
 Circuits with Dependent Sources

Example: Find the Norton equivalent for the following circuit

Slide 67
 Circuits with Dependent Sources
voc
v x voc − 15
4
+
R1
+
voc
R2 + R 3
=0 Vs=15 V .
R3
vx = voc = 0.25voc
R2 + R 3

0.25voc voc − 15 voc

+ + =0
4 R1 R2 + R 3

voc = 4.62V

vs 15V
and we got: isc = = = 0.75A
R1 20Ω

voc 4.62V
Rt = = = 6.15Ω
isc 0.75A
Slide 68
 Circuits with Dependent Sources

voc = 4.62V

Isc= vs/R1= 0.75A

Slide 69
 Exercises

I n = 1.67 A, Rt = 9.375Ω I n = 2A, Rt = 15Ω

Slide 70
 Source Transformations

Slide 71
 Source Transformations

R1i1 + R2i2 + 10 − 20 = 0

10
i1 = = 0.667A
R1 + R2
Back to original circuit:
i2 = i1 + 1 = 1.667 A

Another approach

Slide 72
 Source Transformations

Slide 73
 Maximum Power Transfer
The load resistance that absorbs the maximum power
from a two-terminal circuit is equal to the Thévenin
resistance

V t2
PL = = i L2 R t
4Rt
Slide 74
 Example
Find the load resistance for maximum power transfer. Also
find the maximum power

Rt = 20 || 5 = 4
RL = 4
Vt = voc= 50*(5/25)=10 V
PL = Vt2/(4Rt)=100/(4*4)=6.25 W

Slide 75
 Superposition Principle
The superposition principle states that the total response
is the sum of the responses to each of the independent
sources acting individually. In equation form, this is:

rT = r1 + r2 + L + rn

Slide 76
Slide 77
 Superposition Principle
Example

Slide 78
 Superposition Principle
Exercise

Slide 79
 The Wheatstone bridge
Used to measure unknown resistances

Slide 80
 The Wheatstone bridge
The Wheatstone bridge is used by mechanical and civil engineers
to measure the resistances of strain gauges in experimental stress
studies of machines and buildings
Operation:
• Adjust the values of R1 & R2 until the detector current
ig = 0
Applying KCL at node a, we get: i2 = i4
Applying KCL at node b, we get: i1 = i3

When the bridge is balanced, vab = 0

R1i1 = R2i2 & R3i3 = Rxi4

From which we get:
R
R x = 2
R 3
R 1
Slide 81