Construction Materials and Testing (CMT)

RESERCH
WOOD
Wood- is a structural tissue found in the stems and roots of trees and other woody plants. It is
an organic material – a natural composite of cellulose fibers that are strong in tension and
embedded in a matrix of lignin that resists compression.
- he hard fibrous substance consisting basically of xylem that makes up the greater part of
the stems, branches, and roots of trees or shrubs beneath the bark and is found to a limited
extent in herbaceous plants.
Timber- is a type of wood which has been processed into beams and planks. It is also known as
“lumber” in US and Canada. Basically, timber or Lumber is a wood or firewood of growing trees.
Any wood capable of yielding a minimum dimensional size can be termed as a timber or lumber.
It is a stage in the process of wood production. Timbers are used for the structural purpose. Those
woods which are adapted for building purposes are timbers. Finished timber is supplied in
standard sizes for the industry. Timber is used for building houses and making furniture.

Two Classes of Trees

1. Hard Wood- Hardwoods come from trees classified as
angiosperms (enclosed seed) that reproduce with a flowering
plant, like oak, walnut and maple. Hardwoods are stronger and
more hard-wearing than softwoods. This is because of their slower
growth time and more complex, condensed structure, which
results in greater density of the harvested timber. As a general
rule, higher density equals higher strength and durability.
2. Soft Wood- Softwoods come from gymnosperm trees (revealed
seed), such as conifer (evergreen) trees. These trees like pines,
cedars and spruces have needle-like leaves that usually remain green year-round, as opposed to
broad leaves that shed annually. Softwoods grow faster than hardwoods, usually taking around
40 years before being ready to harvest. This fast-growing nature tends to make them less dense
than hardwoods.
The Structure of Wood

WOOD DEFECTS
1. Natural defects, such as knots, shakes, cross grain, reaction wood, brashness, frost injuries,
pitch defects, mineral streak, bark pocket, and chemical stains.
2. Defects due to fungi, such as decay, blue stain, and sap stain.
3. Defects due to insects, such as bore holes, tunnels, and galleries.
4. Defects due to natural forces, such as wind cracks, rind galls, burr, and curl.
5. Defects due to seasoning, such as warping, checking, splitting, and honeycombing.
6. Defects due to conversion, such as wane, chip marks, torn grain, and diagonal grain.

PROPERTIES OF WOOD
Color, luster, texture, macro-structure, odor, moisture, shrinkage, internal tensions, swelling,
cracking, warping, density, and sound-electro-thermal conductivity are some of the fundamental
physical characteristics of wood. The appearance of wood is influenced by its color, luster,
texture, and macrostructure.

SEASONING LUMBER
Seasoning lumber is the process of reducing the moisture content of freshly cut wood to a
level where it can be used without fear of distortion or cracking. Seasoning also makes
wood more durable and suitable for woodworking or firewood. The most common method of
seasoning is air drying, but kiln drying is also used for more critical applications.

METHODS OF SEASONING LUMBER

1. Natural Seasoning: can be conducted through air or water.
o Air Seasoning: This is the most common method. It involves exposing the wood
to air in a controlled environment. Here’s how it works:
▪ A platform is built on the ground, about 300mm above the ground level.
▪ Wood is arranged in layers on this platform.
▪ Air circulation is maintained between the logs to reduce moisture content.
 ▪ Ideal conditions for air seasoning include a clean, shady, dry, and cool
place.
▪ Sometimes logs are coated with an impermeable substance to reduce
extreme moisture.
▪ To prevent fungal infection, logs can be treated with petrol or gasoline.
▪ Advantage: Results in good-quality seasoned wood.
o Water Seasoning: Involves immersing logs in flowing water to remove wood
sap. It is time-consuming (usually 2 to 4 weeks).
▪ Logs are kept with thicker ends towards the upstream.
▪ After water seasoning, the logs are allowed to dry.
▪ Disadvantage: Takes longer compared to air seasoning.
2. Artificial Seasoning: involves the use of controlled environment, including regulated
heat,humidity, and air circulation, to expedite the process. Seasoning can be completed
within 4-5 days.

1. Kiln Seasoning: This method uses an airtight chamber where heated, moist air circulates to
dry the timber quickly. Kiln-dried wood is commonly used for critical applications.

2. Seasoning by Boiling in Water: Timber is immersed in boiling water for about four hours.

3. Seasoning by Steaming: Similar to boiling, but the timber dries quickly after steaming.

4. Chemical Seasoning: Involves treating the wood with chemicals to accelerate the drying
process.

5. Electrical Seasoning: Uses electrical heating to dry the timber.

6. Progressive Kiln Seasoning: A gradual process where the temperature and humidity are
controlled.

7. Compartmental Seasoning: Timber is divided into compartments for controlled drying.

USES OF WOOD

The following are common uses of wood:

• Fuel for heating and cooking

• Construction material for homes, fences, and roads
• Making tools and weapons
• Furniture and paper production
• Purified cellulose and its derivatives, such as cellophane and cellulose acetate
• Making utensils, art, musical instruments, toys, and sports equipment

METAL
METAL- Metal - a chemical element, such as iron or gold, or a mixture of such elements, such
as steel, that is generally hard and strong, and through which electricity and heat can travel:
Metal, paper, and glass can be recycled. Silver, gold, and platinum are precious metals. The
wooden beam is reinforced with a metal plate.

FEROUS AND NON- FEROUS

Ferrous metals contain iron and are magnetic, while non-ferrous metals do not contain iron
and are non-magnetic. Here are the key differences:
• Ferrous metals: Examples include steel and cast iron. They are valued for their
strength and durability but are prone to rust and corrosion.
• Non-ferrous metals: Examples include aluminum, copper, and brass. They are
chosen for their malleability, corrosion and rust resistance, and non-magnetic
properties.

Pure Iron- is a silver-colored metal that conducts heat and electricity well. Iron is too reactive to
exist alone, so it only occurs naturally in the Earth's crust as iron ores, such as hematite,
magnetite, and siderite. Also, its a bright silvery-white metal which oxidizes (rusts) rapidly in
moist air or in water containing dissolved oxygen. It is soft, malleable, and ductile, and is
strongly magnetic (ferromagnetic). It is rare to find it in elemental form on the Earth, but the
sample at right was found in Greenland.
Characteristics pure iron - iron is a lustrous, ductile, malleable, silver-gray metal (group VIII of
the periodic table). It is known to exist in four distinct crystalline forms. Iron rusts in damp air, but
not in dry air. It dissolves readily in dilute acids
Smelting - the act or process of getting a metal from rock by heating it to a very high
temperature, or of melting objects made from metal in order to use the metal to make something
new: Iron mining and smelting reached their peak during the second half of the nineteenth
century. The mining and smelting released lead and other dangerous metals into the river basin.
Reduction occurs when a metal in a compound loses oxygen, to form the elemental metal.
Wrought iron is an iron alloy with a very low carbon content in contrast to that of cast iron. It is
a semi-fused mass of iron with fibrous slag inclusions, which give it a wood-like "grain" that is
visible when it is etched, rusted, or bent to failure.
Characteristics if Wrought iron: Soft, Ductile, Magnetic Strong - high elasticity and tensile
strength, Malleable - can be heated and reheated and worked into various shapes, Becomes
stronger the more it is worked and Suitable for members in tension or compression (whereas
cast iron is suitable for members in compression only
Cast iron is produced by smelting iron-carbon alloys that have a carbon content greater than
2%. After smelting, the metal is poured into a mold. The primary difference in production
between wrought iron and cast iron is that cast iron is not worked with hammers and tools.
Characteristics if Cast iron: It contains 2 to 4 percent carbon, along with varying amounts of
silicon, manganese, and other impurities. It is made by reducing iron ore in a blast furnace. It
has a low cost and good casting qualities. It has a high compressive strength and wear
resistance, but low ductility and tensile strength. It has an excellent machinability and a low
melting point and It is brittle and not malleable at any temperature.

Ore - is a deposit in Earth’s crust of one or more valuable minerals. The most valuable ore
deposits contain metals crucial to industry and trade, like copper, gold, and iron.
- is natural rock or sediment that contains one or more valuable minerals concentrated
above background levels, typically containing metals, that can be mined, treated and sold at a
profit.
Alloying elements are elements other than iron and carbon that are added to steel to
improve its mechanical and chemical properties. Some of the most common alloying
elements are chromium, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, silicon, vanadium, and
boron. Alloying elements can also be used for other metals, such as aluminum, to create
different types of alloys, such as casting alloys and wrought alloys.