Chari Boru's Seminar Paper On Determinants of Food Security in Ethiopia-may-11-2024-Finale

A Seminar Paper on: Determinants of Food Security in Ethiopia By Chari Boru, May, 2024
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CONTENTS PAGE
ABBREVATIONS AND SYNONMY................................................................................................ii
ABSTRACTS.....................................................................................................................................iii
1. INTRODUCTION.........................................................................................................................1
1.1. Background of Food Security in Ethiopia.........................................................................1
1.2. Statement of the Problem...................................................................................................3
1.3. Objectives of Seminar Paper..............................................................................................4
1.3.1. General Objectives of the Seminar.........................................................................4
1.3.2. Specific Objectives of the Seminar.........................................................................4
1.4. Significance of the Seminar paper.....................................................................................5
2. REVIEW ON DETERMINANTS OF FOOD SECURITY IN ETHIOPIA.........................6
2.1. Food Security and Food Insecurity Understandings and Definitions................................6
2.1.1. Concepts and Definitions of Food Security............................................................6
2.1.2. Concepts and Definitions of Food Insecurity.........................................................7
2.2. Conceptual Framework of Food Security Dimensions......................................................9
2.3. Factors That Cause Food Insecurity................................................................................10
2.3.1. Population Growth................................................................................................10
2.3.2. Natural Factors......................................................................................................11
2.3.3. Economic Factors..................................................................................................12
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2.3.4. Socio-Cultural Factors..........................................................................................12
2.3.5. Institutional Factors..............................................................................................13
2.4. Indicators of Food Insecurity...........................................................................................13
2.5. Challenges in Achieving Food Security in Ethiopia........................................................15
2.6. Coping Mechanism of Food Insecurity............................................................................16
2.7. Policy Options to Minimize Food Insecurity...................................................................17
3. METHODOLOGY......................................................................................................................18
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS...............................................................................................19
4.1. Food security Status in Ethiopia......................................................................................19
4.2. Findings and Discussions of Determinants of Food Security in Ethiopia.......................19
5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS.....................................................................23
5.1. Conclusions......................................................................................................................23
5.2. Recommendation.............................................................................................................24
6. REFERENCES............................................................................................................................25
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ABBREVATIONS AND SYNONYMS

AFI Alliances for Financial Inclusions
CSA Central Statistical Agency
DPPC Disaster Prevention and Preparedness Commissions
EC European Commissions
EEA Ethiopian Economic Association
FAD Food Availability Decline
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
FSIN Federation of Sovereign Indigenous Nations
GDP Growth Domestic Products
MDER Minimum Dietary Energy Requirement
MoA Ministry of Agriculture
PSNP Productive Safety Net Program
RRC Relief and Rehabilitation Commissions
SDG Sustainable Development Goal
UN United Nations
UNICEF United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund
US Unites States
USAID United States Agency for International Development
USD United States Dollar
WB World Bank
WFP World Food Program
WFS World Food Summit
WHO World Health Organization
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ABSTRACTS
This Seminar paper is primarily centered on the causes, status, determinants, and coping
mechanism of food insecurity in Ethiopia. Recent studies in Ethiopia shows that, 13% of the rural
populations (approximately 9.7 million people) were food insecure, 2.7 million children under 5
age were acutely malnourished in 2016. At the outset of 2017, the government of Ethiopia estimated
as 5.6 million people would require emergency food aid. Climate-related shocks (drought, erratic
and limited rainfall), land degradation, population growth, stagnant technology (poor farming
technologies) and shortage of farmland deteriorated food security. Sixty four (64%) of the reviewed
studies pointed out that, the majority of households were food insecure in the country. Factors like
land holding, livestock holding, and off-farm activities, education of the household head, household
income, and household size, adoption of yield enhancing technologies, access to irrigation, rainfall
shock, and soil fertility status significantly determined the food security of the households. Family
planning, effecting sustainable agricultural systems and conservation of soil and water resources
for better productivity, income diversification activities and practical based youth education should
be looked at.
Keywords: Food security, food security dimension, determinants of food security.
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1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background of Food Security in Ethiopia
Food security is defined as a “situation when all people, at all times, have physical, social and
economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food
preferences for an active and healthy life” (FAO, 2001). Globally, food insecurity is a growing
public health problem predicted to continue increasing. Although rates of severe food insecurity are
higher in low-income countries, food insecurity is nonetheless a public health concern globally, with
an estimated prevalence of between 8% and 20% of the population in some high-income countries
(FAO et al., 2017).
According to Henok & Elsa .A (2019) findings, 52.1% of Ethiopians experienced moderate or severe
food insecurity in, up from 47.7% in 2014. Severe food insecurity rose from 12.0% to 15.8%.
Individuals aged 35-44 years and in the second lowest income quintile had higher likelihood of food
insecurity.
Among the seventeen Sustainable Development Goals for 2030, attaining zero hunger, food security,
and advanced nutrition is worth mentioning (UN, 2015).
Food security is based on a variety of factors, including how well agricultural production is doing,
how much food we import, how many people are employed in the food industry, what public
policies are put in place, what decisions farmers make, how well our food is accessible to everyone,
how much financial assistance we receive, and how wisely we use our natural resources. In order to
achieve food security, we need to work together to improve all of these areas (Abide & Asfaw, 2022;
Assefa & Beyene, 2023).
Ethiopia is one of the most food-insecure and famine-affected country having nearly 33
million people are suffering from chronic undernourishment and food insecurity with 8.1 million
food-insecure people in need of urgent action(WB, 2020). Most rural communities in Ethiopia
depend on agriculture (FAO, 2015) as the source of food and income (FSIN, 2017). Nevertheless, it
is characterized as small scale with low productive and vulnerable to weather and production-related
shocks (Bezabih et al., 2014).
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In 2019, the agricultural sector in Ethiopia contributed 33% of GDP and the sector remained the top-
export earner for the country with close to 82% of all exports coming from it (EEA, 2021). Other
current food crises in Ethiopia are the failure to invest in sufficient local food production and the
collapse of pastoral livelihoods. As a result, hunger and poverty are prevalent, which leads farmers
to be chronically food insecure and around 10 million chronically food-insecure people are targeted
to PSNP (FSIN, 2017).
In the developing world like Ethiopia, different challenges face rural communities to be food secured
like multifaceted variability of rainfall and temperature (MoA, 2014). Also during 2016 a large
segment of the population in Ethiopia was vulnerable to drought as a result of food insecurity
(Cochrane, 2017). To give remedy for food security problem, social protection program by the
governmental and non-governmental organizations was implemented (Food Sovereignty Brief, 2013;
MoA, 2014; WB, 2013). In addition, government and donor organizations were working together to
tackle food insecurity through the “Food Security Program” starting from 2003. Not only the
governmental and non-governmental organizations but also local communities tried to resolve the
problem of food security through diversifying their assets, income, and activity (Barrett et al., 2001;
Ellis, 2000) but the problem is still prevalent in the country particularly in the study area.
Endalel et al. (2014) researched food insecurity status and analysis of factors affecting food
insecurity in households of the Farta district. However, this research varies on the location in which
it was conducted. Yehuala et al. (2018) also researched West Belasa to identify the food security
status of the households, its determinants, but the research focuses on productive safety net program
(PNSP) beneficiaries only, and the study location was different. With different objectives and
locations, Welay (2017) researches the impact of food security package loans on food insecure
households’ income in west Belesa.
FAO (2018) has provided evidence that in Ethiopia, prolonged drought conditions are severely
affecting the livelihoods in most southern and southeastern pastoral and agro-pastoral areas of
SNNPR, Southern Oromia and Southeastern Somali Regions. Review of empirical studies confirmed
that the major factors that determine food security status of household are socioeconomic factors,
having access to different kinds of livelihood as well as different institutional factors and policies
(Sani and Kemaw, 2017).
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As stated above, different empirical studies have been conducted in Ethiopia but this study was
initiated due to a lack of detailed information about food security status and determination factors
affecting food insecurity in study areas. This investigation was also varying in location, time and the
method used. So, this seminar gives the readers to have a summary of holistic image and aggregate
results and discussions of the Ethiopia’s food security dimensions and its determinants. In addition,
it was conducted to generate and compile the knowledge gap on food security status and
determinants of households in food-insecure different study areas of Ethiopia.
1.2. Statement of the Problem
According to report FAO (2017) While Ethiopia is in the process of recovering from the El Niño-
induced drought which affected large areas of the country in 2015 and 2016, a new drought in 2017
has put 8.5 million people in urgent need of emergency food aid. The drought, which has
predominantly affected the south and south eastern pastoral regions of Somali, Oromia and SNNP
Regions, has led to widespread livestock deaths and extreme emaciation among dwindling herds.
This has resulted in increasing rates of malnutrition amongst the local population. “Pastoral
communities are almost entirely dependent on livestock for their food and income,” RedR’s Kara
Jenkinson explained from her base in Addis Ababa. “And this drought is predominantly affecting the
livestock, which have limited pastures and water. In some localized areas of Ethiopia’s Somali
Region more than half of some herds have died.” “The severe drought in the southeast has led to
widespread food insecurity in many of the pastoral communities in these regions,” Kara said. “In
addition, drought is again affecting some areas hit by last year’s drought, in places where people had
already planted seeds.”
These kinds of redundant drought impact exposed the people in the district to food insecurity in
addition to others multifaceted factors contributed for food insecurity. Having clear view of food
security dimensions and determinants is helpful to tackle food insecurity problem in the area.
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1.3. Objectives of Seminar Paper
1.3.1. General Objectives of the Seminar
 To review the determinants of food security Ethiopia
1.3.2. Specific Objectives of the Seminar
 To review on causes food insecurity in Ethiopia

 To review on indicators of food insecurity in Ethiopia
 To review on challenges in achieving food security in Ethiopia
 To review on coping Mechanism and Policy options to minimize food insecurity
The main objective of this seminar are: to review the food security status Dimensions and
determinants in the Ethiopia, and to provide an overlook for policy makers and implementers on
what areas to focus in the respective study area in particular and Ethiopia in general.
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1.4. Significance of the Seminar paper
This Seminar assists the readers to have a holistic image and aggregate results and discussions of the
Ethiopia’s food security dimensions and determinants briefly.
A study of determinants of household food insecurity is vital because it provides with information
that will enable effective measures to be undertaken so as to improve food security status and bring
the success of food security development programs. It will also enable development practitioners and
policy makers to have better knowledge as to where and how to intervene in rural areas to bring food
security or minimize the severity of food insecurity. The positive role of the agricultural sector in
terms of ensuring national food security is measured by the contribution of the domestic food
production to the national food availability and reduced dependence on food imports. Although food
deficit in Ethiopia has never been overcome during the last three decades, the domestic production is
playing a significant role to reduce the gap and dependence on food imports to a limited extent. The
national food security goal is to attain food self-sufficiency by increased use of package of modern
farm inputs through agricultural extension program, as well as improved husbandry conditions in
livestock producing areas. Improved domestic food production under Ethiopian context will have the
following positive social benefits:
 Reduced dependence on food imports and saving foreign exchange; allocating the saved
foreign exchange for other alternative public uses will increase the social benefits;
 It contributes to human resources development. This would be possible through improved
nutritional status and reduced health costs of the society (minimize poor health conditions
that arise from poor nutrition and health consequences);
 It will enable the supply of healthy and productive labor force required for economic growth.
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2. REVIEW ON DETERMINANTS OF FOOD SECURITY IN ETHIOPIA
2.1. Food Security and Food Insecurity Understandings and Definitions
2.1.1. Concepts and Definitions of Food Security
Food security is defined in different ways by international organizations and researchers. World
Food Summit, when the definition was broadly set as achieving food security “at the individual,
household, national, regional and global levels when all people, at all times, have physical and
economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food
preferences for an active and healthy life” (FAO,2010).
Currently, a synthesis of these definitions, with the main emphasis on availability, access, Stability,
and utilization, serves as working definition in the projects of international organizations. Food
security is a concept that has evolved considerably over time. Most definitions of food security vary
around that proposed by the World Bank (Maxwell, 1996); wherein, food security defined as access
by all people at all times to enough food for an active, healthy life (WB, 1986).
The essential elements in this definition are the availability (adequate supply of food); access
through home production, purchase in the market or food transfer; stability, when availability and
access are guaranteed at all times; and utilization which refers to the appropriate biophysical
conditions (good health) required to adequately utilize food to meet specific dietary needs and
security, as the balance between vulnerability, risk and insurance; and time (Maxwell and
Frankenberger, 1992).
Food availability means that sufficient quantities of appropriate, necessary types of domestically
produced food, commercial imports or food aid are consistently available to individuals or are within
reasonable proximity to them. At the national level, it is the sum of domestic food stocks, net
commercial imports, food aid, and domestic production. Individuals have sufficient access to food
when they have “adequate incomes or other resources to purchase or barter to obtain levels of
appropriate foods needed to maintain consumption of an adequate diet or nutrition level”.
Finally, adequate food utilization is realized when “food is properly used, proper food processing
and storage techniques are employed, adequate knowledge of nutrition and child care techniques
exists and is applied, and adequate health and sanitation services exist” (USAID, 1992).
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Gradually, the concept of food security took on a more subjective meaning than at the outset,
integrating the quality and diversity of needs from one individual to another, respect for local eating
habits beyond a purely quantitative approach. Food security is a multidisciplinary concept, which
includes economic, political, demographic, social, cultural and technical aspects (EC, 2009).
2.1.2. Concepts and Definitions of Food Insecurity
Food insecurity is defined as a condition in which people lack the basic food intake necessary to
provide them with the energy and nutrients required for fully productive lives. It can either be
temporary (transitory food insecurity) or continuous (chronic food insecurity) (FAO, 2010).
Undernourishment exists when caloric intake is below the minimum dietary energy requirement
(MDER).The MDER is the amount of energy needed for light activity and to maintain a minimum
acceptable weight for attained height. It varies by country and from year to year depending on the
gender and age structure of the population (WFS, 2010).
Food insecurity, on the other hand, is a situation that exists when people lack secure access to
sufficient amounts of safe and nutritious food required for normal growth and development and an
active and healthy life (WFP, 2004). It is a dynamic phenomenon: its impact varies depending on its
duration, its severity, and the local socioeconomic and environmental conditions (EC, 2009).
Food Availability Decline (FAD) approach explains that famine or food shortage occurs when there
is an aggregate decline in food supply. According to this approach people starve because of a local,
national or regional decline in food availability to a level below the minimum requirement for
survival. However, FAD has been criticized for its only dealing with supply side which disregards
the demand side. It said nothing about people’s income and purchasing power. Furthermore, it failed
to address the vulnerability differences and access to food from outside the affected area (Ejiga,
2006).
According to the Food Entitlement Theory (FSET), food availability at global or national level alone
could not bring food security at household level. Thus, according to the entitlement approach, a
growth in domestic production does not necessarily prevent famine or hunger as far as what is
produced is not equally distributed and the entitlement system that determines access to food is not
changed. Food insecurity affects people who cannot access adequate food (e.g. because of poverty)
irrespective of food availability food insecurity can occur even if food supplies are adequate and
markets are functioning well (Deveruex, 2001; and Vadala, 2009).
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2.1.2.1. Types of Food Insecurity
Food insecurity can be transitory (when it occurs in times of crisis), seasonal or chronic (when it
occurs on a continuing basis). A person can be vulnerable to hunger even if he or she is not actually
hungry at a given point in time (Stamoulis and Zezza, 2003).
Chronic food insecurity means that a household runs a continually high risk of inability to meet the
food needs of household members. In contrast, transitory food insecurity occurs when a household
faces a temporary decline in security of its entitlement and the risk of failure to meet food needs is of
a short duration. Transitory food-insecurity focuses on intra and tine-annual variations in household
food access. It has been argued that this category can be further divided into cyclical and temporary
food insecurity (Maxwell and Frankenberger, 1992). Temporary food insecurity occurs for a limited
time because of unforeseen and unpredictable circumstances.
Cyclical or seasonal food insecurity occurs when there is a regular pattern in the periodicity of
inadequate access to food; this may be due to logistical difficulties or prohibitive cost in storing food
or borrowing. Chronic food insecurity is commonly perceived as results of overwhelming poverty
indicated by a lack of assets. Both chronic and transitory problems of food insecurity are wide
spread and several in Ethiopia.
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2.2. Conceptual Framework of Food Security Dimensions
The conceptual frame work shows the food security dimensions of availability, access, utilization,
and stability in food security.
Access [Income,
Availability
Income Distribution
[Production, Stocks,
within household,
Trade, aid]
prices]
Food Security
Utilization [Dietary Affordability

intake, Dietary [within the reach of
safety, Health status, demanders
Hygiene..] purchasing power]
Figure 1. Conceptual Framework of Food Security Determinants
Food security has four interrelated elements: availability, access, utilization and stability.
Availability: is about food supply and trade, not just quantity but also the quality and
diversity of food. Improving availability requires sustainable productive farming systems,
well managed natural resources, and policies to enhance productivity.
Access: covers economic and physical access to food. Improving access requires better
market access for smallholders allowing them to generate more income from cash crops,
livestock products and other enterprises.
Utilization: is about how the body uses the various nutrients in food. A person’s health,
feeding practices, food preparation, and diversity of their diet and intra-household
distribution of food all affect a person’s nutrition status. Improving utilization requires
improving nutrition and food safety, increasing diversity in diets, reducing post-harvest loss
and adding value to food.
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2.3. Factors That Cause Food Insecurity
The factors that cause food insecurity are wide and vary from place to place but in this literature the
following major causes will be discussed:
2.3.1. Population Growth
There are two competing theories regarding the relationship between population growth and food
insecurity. According to Malthusian theory the growth of human populations always tends to outstrip
the productive capabilities of land resources. In general, Population pressure has become a factor in
accelerating food insecurity in situations where: all accessible land is fully under cultivation; failure
to improve upon the old methods of cultivation; and opportunity for alternatives employment is
absent (Brehanu, 2017).
In Ethiopian case population growth is increasing at 2.52%, the alarming rate, now it is estimated at
over 129 million, as of www.woldometre.info., and since 1960 the population has almost multiplied
itself six times (WB, 2024).
Food insecurity in Ethiopia is caused by population pressure, drought, shortage of farmland, lack of
oxen, deterioration of food production capacity, outbreak of plant and animal disease, poor soil
fertility, frost attack, shortage of cash income, poor farming technologies, weak extension services,
high labor wastage, poor social and infrastructural facility and pre and post-harvest crop loss (Birara
E, Mequanent M and Samuel T, 2015).
At current rates, the population is estimated to grow to 132 million by 2025, and to 214 million by
2050, however, food production shows little increase (Ararso et al., 2009). So in Ethiopian case
since much of the Ethiopians livelihood is depending on agriculture and until people shift from
agriculture to other sectors of the economy for their livelihood, population pressure on agricultural
land can be cause of food insecurity in Ethiopia (Vadala, 2009).
The impact of population growth is manifested on farm size; and it leads to high land fragmentation
thereby small landholdings and finally reduces productivity.
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2.3.2. Natural Factors
Natural disasters such as drought, climate change and flooding are said to reduce food production for
a particular period. In the case of Ethiopia, there is no doubt that droughts have created severe food
shortages. According to the World Bank (2006), the whole Ethiopian economy is dependent on
rainfall and data on rainfall variation and GDP growth from 1982 to 2000 illustrate that there is a
positive correlation between the two. Thus, natural disasters have obvious negative impacts on food
production and even on the economic performance of the country and thereby bringing food
insecurity (Vadala, 2009). A frequent drought which was occurred for long years ago is the major
causes for the death of many citizen and animals because of high shortage of food and forage. The
famine which was seen few years ago also threat for the people .because about 14 million Ethiopian
people were exposed to such famine in 1970 and 1980; famine was occurred in Ethiopia (Zerihun,
2005).
According to Yenesew S. (2015), Natural disasters such as drought and climate change, shortage of
farm land, lack of functional multi-party democratic systems, land reform policy, lack of appropriate
policies and institutions, lack of rural infrastructures, population growth and lack of education are
the major causes of food insecurity in rural Ethiopia.
Drought is the major cause for the loss of food production in areas where agricultural activity has
been overwhelmingly dependent on rainfall. In cases like Ethiopia, the contribution of irrigated land
in agriculture is very minimal and the whole food production activity has depended on rain-fed
agriculture; the disruption of rain for a season has brought a massive food shortage and consequently
hunger and famine (Brehanu, 2001). Thus it is clear that drought and rainfall variability constrain
food security status of the rural agricultural dependent farmers.
Natural Hazard Frequency (1980-20200)

1% 6%
9% Flood Epidemic
2% Drought Wild fire
1% Volcanic Activity Misceleounous
12% 47% Mass Movement Land slide
23%
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2.3.3. Economic Factors
Many studies conducted in different parts of Ethiopia showed that farm land, credit, livestock
holding and access to different productive assets are affecting food security status of rural
households in Ethiopia. More land size holding means more cultivation and more possibility of
production which in turn increases farm income and improves food security (Tesfaye, 2003).
According to Adugna (2008) conducted his study in Boloso Sore district wolayita zone, shortage of
oxen, lack of farm input and land shortage are the most influential causes of food insecurity.
Similarly according to Amsalu etal.(2012) study done shashemene district oromia region logit model
result showed that total cultivated land , total annual farm income per adult equivalent, total off farm
income, and livestock size have positive and significant relationship with food security.
Climate change affects food availability through its increasingly adverse impacts on crop yields, fish
stocks and animal health and productivity, especially in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, where
most of today’s food insecure live. It limits access to food through negative impacts on rural
incomes and livelihoods. Smallholder farmers and agricultural workers are more vulnerable to the
impacts of such disasters. Severe droughts or floods can sharply reduce incomes and cause asset
losses that erode future income earning capacity. In addition, to the extent that food supply is
reduced by climate change, food prices will increase (FAO, 2016).
2.3.4. Socio-Cultural Factors
In our country Ethiopia gender division of labor due to cultural factors constrain productivity and
food security. According to the study conducted by McBriarty (2011), in all his study areas of rural
Ethiopia, it is not socially acceptable for women to plough. This is a major constraint to preparing
fields for planting on time for the season. Single women therefore had to resort to begging neighbors
and waiting until everyone else has finished their ploughing, otherwise they must pay someone to do
it for them.
Tsegaye (2009) reviewed that Socio-cultural event such as eating habit and food preference, cultural
ceremonies and festivals also influence the food security status of the given communities and way of
saving or expenditure, also directly or indirectly affects the food security situation of that particular
community.
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2.3.5. Institutional Factors
A number of studies agree that poor infrastructure including roads; schools and health services
constrain productivity and thereby bringing food insecurity and dependence on food aid.
One study conducted on factors contributing rural women food insecurity in Ethiopia showed that
The lack of roads and transport result in fewer market opportunities, less influence from outside and
added difficulty in acquiring medical treatment or access to information and it seriously affect their
attainment of food security(McBriarty, 2011).
Ethiopia has relative political stability in Horn of Africa, however several areas are insecure.
According to UNCEF report (2015), Conflict and civil unrest is the major sources of food insecurity
problems and lead to serious disaster in Ethiopia, by disturbing the country ongoing economic
growth and development progress.
2.4. Indicators of Food Insecurity
Assessment of food insecurity/security is a challenging work for researchers dealing with it as there
are no universally established indicators which serve as a measuring tool. It requires a multi-
dimensional consideration, since it is influenced by inter-related socio-economic, environmental and
political factors.
Because of this, analyzing food insecurity follows a variety of approaches ranging from mere
qualitative to a combination of both qualitative and quantitative measurements (Debebe H, 1995). In
this context, a number of indicators have been identified. In most cases, the purpose and the depth of
the study influence the choice of the indicators.
In early warning studies conducted by the then RRC and now DPPC, have used three indicators such
as, food supply indicators (including rain fall, area planted and yield estimates), social stress
indicators (such as market prices, availability of food in the market, labor pattern, wages and
migration) and individual stress indicators (nutritional status, disease and mortality variables) to
identify food insecurity situations (RRC, 1990).
According to (Maxwell and Frankenberger, 1992), Food security indicators are generally categorized
in to two main categories: “process and outcome” indicators. Process indicators are divided in to
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two: indicators that reflect food supply and indicators that reflect food access. Outcome indicators
are used to measure the status of food security at a given point in time and grouped into direct and
indirect indicators. Direct indicators of food consumption include actual food consumption rather
than to marketing channel information or medical status. The indirect indicators include storage
estimates, subsistence potential ration and nutritional status assessment (Alison and Slack, 1999).
However, there is no fixed rule as to which method to employ due to the diversified characteristics
of food insecurity and the different level of consideration. The decision to rely on a particular
method usually depends on resource and time constraints, objectives of the study, availability of
data, type of users and degree of accuracy required (Debebe, 1995).
As also described by (Alem, 1999) indicated that the major supply indicators include Agricultural
production, access to resources, institutional development and market infrastructures. According to
his observation, these indicators are in most cases aggregated and hardly serve to assess food
insecurity at household level but it could provide a general picture of an area or society (Maxwell
and Frankenberger, 1992).
Unlike the supply indicators, access indicators are relatively effective to assess food insecurity
situations at household level. The most important issue related to food access indicator is the
households diversified coping strategies and their sequential responses they enter, the response
varies from the disposal of productive and non-productive assets to distress migration, to avert
decline in food availability at their disposal.
The outcome indicators such as level and changes in food consumption and the amount of food
stores serve as proxy estimates for measuring household food situation, it is capable of
disaggregating at household level, unlike the food supply indicators (Davies S., 1994).
The major challenge in the use of these response indicators are the difficulty associated with
identifying the normal phenomenon of the household and the response of the household forced by
food stress or its response to avoid risks of food stress. On the other hand, indicators related to food
availability for consumption, level and change in food intake serve as measurement to define
household food insecurity (FAO/WHO 1992). Fluctuation in level of food production and possession
of productive capitals are also useful indicators.
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2.5. Challenges in Achieving Food Security in Ethiopia
There are some drawbacks that need to be tackled in achieving food security in the country, some
among others are:
 Misconception of food insecurity as it occurs in the general context of poverty and

vulnerability which doesn’t warrant any explicit focus on food security and the belief that it
can be solved in the normal course of development. This has reduced particular attention that
could be given to alleviate the food insecurity problems.
 The complementarities and tradeoffs between achieving self-sufficiency through domestic
production and export of agricultural commodities in the long run and urgency and current
reliance on external aid to meet the demand by the majority of food insecure population.
 Availability of inappropriate institutions and lack of effective instruments of the current
policies, in that the current policy emphasizes and gives advantages to the better potential
areas, its recommended inputs and technologies are appropriate to those productive potential
areas who are easier to serve and better able to take the advantages of the services provided
to them, leaving the drought prone vulnerable segment of the population at disadvantage
 At last but not least, is the lack of data to support effective policy formulation and
implementation in the area of food security (Senait, 2018).
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2.6. Coping Mechanism of Food Insecurity
Coping strategy defined as a mechanism by which household or community members meet their
relief and recovery needs and adjust to future disaster related risks by themselves without outside
support (Tesfaye, 2005).
The coping mechanism used by different households may be different from place to place. A study
conducted in three most deprived and poverty stricken regions in the Northern parts of Ghana
showed that households use a wide range of mechanisms and communal support networks to cope
with the situation which includes collection of wild foods, market purchases, in kind (food) payment,
support from relatives and friends, sales from livestock and household valuables, migration and
wage labor, reduction in the number of meals served each day, reduction in the portions/ sizes of
meals and consumption of less preferred foods (Wilhemina,2008).
There are four types of coping strategies that food insecure households typically use: Changing the
diet to include less costly and less preferred alternative foods; Increasing food supplies through non-
sustainable means (e.g., borrowing money, consuming seed stocks, begging); Decreasing the number
of individuals being fed by the household (i.e., migration); and Rationing available foods by
reducing meal size or frequency (Maxwell et al. 2002).
Another study conducted by Negatu (2011) in southern Ethiopia found that a range of coping
mechanisms used by respondents which includes: minimizing the number of meals and amount of
food consumption; diversifying their livelihood; cultivating more crops, wage labor, seasonal
migration to neighboring community during peak season; and inter cropping are some of
mechanisms used by households.
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2.7. Policy Options to Minimize Food Insecurity
Food aid, today, is mainly considered as an instrument in addressing for both transitory and chronic
types of food insecurity in low-income country. It is noted that the humanitarian agencies, or donors,
implement food aid programs in these countries in order to give immediate response to the needy
people, to increase income sustainability, to improve agricultural productivity, and improvement in
health and nutrition among the residents. Moreover it leads to improvement in the availability of
food supplies at the national or regional level, or to increase access to food at household levels
through higher home production of food crops, market purchase and/or other means or to make more
effective utilization of food at the individual level to meet human biological needs (USAID, 1999).
According to African development bank food security brief (2014), creating Policies and regulations
that are conducive to enhancing regional trade, sustainable access, and use of natural resources and
private investments are also essential to the success and the sustainability of the benefits derived
from any intervention and thereby bringing food security.
According to Mukherjee (2008) the following strategies are appropriate to eliminate hunger:
1. Strengthen productivity and incomes: Diversification and growth of the economy; low-
cost, simple technology (water management, use of green manures, crop rotation, and agro
forestry); rural infrastructure development (roads, electricity, etc.); provision for improved
irrigation and soil nutrition, natural resource management (including forestry and fisheries);
market and private sector development, Food safety and quality Agricultural research,
extension and training.
2. Linkages maximizing synergy: Democratic Governance Vibrant Civil Society Strong
“Fourth Estate” Local food procurement for safety nets, Support to rural organizations;
Primary health care and reproductive health services; Prevention and treatment of
HIV/AIDS; Asset redistribution (including land reforms); Education especially for girls and
women Potable drinking water
3. Provide direct access to food: Mother and infant feeding; Supplementary nutrition to
children (such as mid-day meals in Schools) and pregnant women; Unemployment and
pension benefits Food-for-work and food-for-education; Targeted conditional cash transfers
Food banks and Food Distribution System for the indigent people (Safety Nets); and
Emergency ratio.
17
3. METHODOLOGY
To prepare this seminar report paper, I employed secondary data from websites and journals to
synthesize the food security status and its determinants in Ethiopia. The secondary data I employed
are related empirical literatures, reviews, and other collective research findings which have
significance on analyzing the food security status and its determinants in different study areas at
different times with respect to different methodologies and in different contents and context in terms
of inclusion and exclusion of similar and different variables.
18
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
4.1. Food security Status in Ethiopia
Not all people are experienced by food security status in the same way at all times even the changes
have happened (Hadley et al., 2011). The finding of FAO (2012) also confirmed that more than half
(52%) of the Ethiopia’s rural population was food insecure. Besides, a study conducted by Sani and
Kemaw (2019) revealed that more than half (53.62%) of a household were food insecure. Similarly,
households with more than half (67%) were unable to meet their daily food energy requirement
(Echebiri et al., 2017).
4.2. Findings and Discussions of Determinants of Food Security in Ethiopia
There are several factors that affect food security/Insecurity either positively or negatively. Different
studies show the determinants of food security in various parts of Ethiopia.
According to Taye T. (2014), determinants of food security conducted in Gode District, Shebelle
Zone of Somali Regional State Ethiopia using binary logic model, family size, annual income,
livestock holding, livestock disease, livestock feed, and dependency ratio are the major determinants
of food security, from those family size, livestock disease and dependency ratio are negatively
related to food security, while the remaining are positively related.
Abdirahman A. (2015), using binary logic model, shows that seven variables were significant
determinants of household food insecurity. These were distance to nearest market center,
dependency ratio, cultivated land, livestock ownership, oxen ownership, remittance and off-farm
income from those distance to nearest market center and dependency ratio were positively related to
food insecurity or negatively related to food security and the remaining are negatively and positively
related respectively.
According to Tekle L. and Birhanu K. (2015), Age of household head, family size and access to
extension services had a negative effect on household food security status while household income,
credit access, oxen ownership and cultivable land size had a positive effect on household food
security.
19
According to studies conducted in Jigjig a District of Ethiopia, use of fertilizer by farming

households, total household income, access to veterinary services and access to extension services
was found to have a positive and significant impact on household food security; whereas, the agro-
ecology stratum in which the households’ farmland was located found to have a negative and
statistically significant impact on food security (Wali H. and Pen porn J., 2013).
Meseret M. (2012), using binary logic model, sex and age of the household heads, dependency
ratios, household size in adult equivalent, livestock ownership in tropical livestock unit, and fertilizer
utilization were determinant factors for food security status.
The study by using binary logic model indicated that household size and age of the household head
have positive and significant effect on household food insecurity; whereas, educational status of the
household head, asset possession, credit access and access to employment have negative effect
(Girma ,2012).
According to Hussien W and P.Janekarnkij.(2013), conducted in Jigjig a District of Ethiopia, use of

fertilizer by farming households, total household income, access to veterinary service and access to
extension service was found to have a positive and significant impact on house hold food security;
whereas the agro ecology stratum in which the households farm land was located found to have a
negative and significant effect on household food security.
The study by using binary logic model showed that dependency ratio and distance from nearest
market were negatively and significantly related to house hold food security, on the other hand, age
of the house hold head, educational statues of the house hold head, livestock holding in tropical
livestock unit and frequency of extension contact were found to be positively and significantly
related to the food security status of household (Eshetu, 2013).
Kahsay.S and Mulgeta.M. (2014), using multiple linear regression indicated that age of the
household head, use of improved seed and adult equivalent have negative effect and statistically
significant factor for food security; whereas, land size in hectare and number of livestock in tropical
livestock unit positively affect food security of households.
20
As of Mequanent M, Birara E and Tesfalem K. (2014), Educational status of household head, family
size, use of farm input and number of oxen owned by households were determinants of food
security.
Sisay B. (2012), indicated in his study entitled on Food insecurity and coping strategies: a
perspective from Kersa District, East Hararghe Ethiopia using binary logic model found that out of
eleven significant variable six significant variables were thought to influence the food security
status. Those variables that showed significance in the model were: age of the household head, sex
of the household head, household size in Adult Equivalent, total cropping land, oxen owned and
remittances in Birr. From this household size in adult equivalent and age of the household head
affect food security negatively.
Amsalu M and Beyene T. (2012), in their study entitled on Empirical analysis of the determinants of
rural household’s food security in Southern Ethiopia in Shashemene District has shown that the
major factors affecting food security of rural households were family size, total cultivated land size
of household head, annual farm income, total cultivated land size, total off-farm income and
livestock holding. Study also indicates that annual farm income; off farm income have a significant
and positive influence on the state of household food security while family size and food security
were negatively related.
According to Yilma M.(2005), by using binary logic model different variables like family size, age
of the household head, amount of fertilizer usage, market distance, annual off/non-farm income, total
farm income and soil fertility problem were determinants of food security status.
Age of households is inconsistent with the findings of different authors like Sekhampu (2013) who
present positive relationship between age of household head and Food security. Converse to these
results older households may face the challenge of declining productivity and efficiency hence result
in less probability to be food security (Echebiri et al., 2017; Faustine, 2016; Sani & Kemaw, 2019).
The result of FGD and KII also confirmed that older farmers have better experience compared with
youth. In addition, dependent families decrease with the increasing age of households.
The sex of the household head had a positive relationship with the food security status of the
households. In particular, the male head household had a positive impact on household food security.
21
Contrary to the result, Sekhampu (2013) reported that female-headed households were better food
secured than male-headed households due to better utilization of resources.
The result of the research presented by Bogale & A. (2009) indicated that, family size is found to be
highly significant to determine household food insecurity in the study area.
According to Kahsay et al., (2019) the research finding showed that 72.67% of the sample
households were found to be food insecure at an average consumption of 2100 Kcal/AE/day as the
cut-off point. The overall mean for the districts was 1040 Kcal/AE/day; which is 51.5% below the
2100 Kcal/AE/day. There is a difference in the incidences of food insecurity within the different
districts. Therefore, as presented results to five districts are 90%, 83.33%, 73.33%, 63.33% and
53.33% of the sample households in Yalo, Hadelela, Dalol, Gewane and Afambo, respectively, was
food insecure.
Based on the final result of Sileshi et al. (2019), about 45.6% of the sample households had stable
food security levels. These households were food secure and had low probabilities of being food
insecure in the near future (less VFI). On the other hand, about 24% of the total households were
categorized as food insecure for an extended period of time and were considered as suffering from
chronic food insecurity.
Based on Mulugeta et al. (2018), large proportion of the study participants was food insecure. In the
current study, having larger number of family size, owning a large size farmland and earning a better
income from off-farm income have increased the chance of being food secured household.
Meanwhile, better education of the household head, earning a better income from own farm,
sufficient crop production over the year, dietary diversity and ox ownership have a negative
influence on the state of household food insecurity.
The findings of the study revealed that 63.12 percent of the households are food secure whereas
36.88 percent are food insecure. Analysis of the marginal effects indicated that a farmer’s access to
fertilizer, extension services, veterinary services, and credit will increase household food security in
the study area by 84, 46, 36 and 141 percent, respectively (Wali, H. and Janekarnkij, P., 2013).
Concluding the findings of different researchers with different variables, here is the summary of
what have been done in various places and various times.
22
5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1. Conclusions
Understanding the causes and determinants of Ethiopia’s food security would help policy makers to
design and implement more effective policies and programs for the poor and thereby helps to pave
way to improve food security. Food insecurity is the most critical problem facing a large number of
both settled and pastoral households in Ethiopia. Temporary food insecurity occurs for a limited time
because of unforeseen and unpredictable circumstances. Seasonal food insecurity occurs when there
is a regular pattern in the periodicity of inadequate access to food.
Food insecurity: is a situation that exists when people lack secure access to sufficient amounts of
safe and nutritious food required for normal growth and development and an active and healthy life.
Food insecurity is not static but based on its duration, its severity, and the local socioeconomic and
environmental conditions.
Research finding in different parts of Ethiopia revealed that more than half percent (>50%)
susceptible to food insecurity. As obvious Ethiopia is largely characterized by semi-pastoral and
pastoral areas and the remaining are agrarians. The collective result showed that family size, income
of the household (on-farm or off-farm), household head age, education of household head, large
farm size, credit access, irrigation access, access to veterinary service, livestock ownership (specially
cows and goats), access to extension service, adoption soil and water conservation practices, access
to improved seed, and mothers’ time constraints are the predominant determinants of the many
researchers on the subject area. The food security dimensions have an erratic behavior temporally,
by having this in mind focusing in research findings is vital. The last impacts of COVID-19 (corona
Virus Disease -19) pandemic, internal conflicts, drought in an inland and externalities like external
world wars and political pressures are also deems emphasis while we are talking about food security
issues. Because, they are directly or indirectly impose their pressures in all of food security
dimensions availability, access, utilization, affordability and stability of the people in study areas and
Ethiopia in general.
23
5.2. Recommendations
The seminar report based on different results recommends the utilization of verified research
findings which have the capability to boost food security status in Ethiopia with respective districts
may not be ignored or undermined. The reviewed and synthesized food security determinants deem
better attention by policy makers and implementers. In this way the country more or less able to
meet the subsistence food need of its people in these particular districts and thereby will create an
opportunity in maximizing food security status of the nation in general. Initiate policies, and
strategies of the country according to the findings with respect to different scenarios in the different
district and regions of the country to target the above mentioned determinants.
To make considerable improvement on food insecurity situation in Ethiopia the following measures
and actions should be taken by household heads, government of Ethiopia, national and international
organizations.
 The households and productive aged members of the household should participate in
different income generating activities and diversify their livelihood strategies that help them
to escape from wider state of food insecurity and undernourishments.
 The government of Ethiopia should have to invest more on pro poor development programs
such as PSNP and improve social accountability to increase the ability of citizens to provide
feedback on the services they receive.
 The international NGOs, local organizations, private sector and government should continue
to work together on strengthening the livelihoods, rural market structures and providing the
climate resilience services that improve the ability of poor households to cope with shocks
when it occurred.
 Government should Raise awareness of the pressures of increasing population growth and
consumption patterns on sustainable ecosystem functioning.
 In order to ensure stability in food supply, government should boost domestic food
production, efficient food-marketing system at all levels, and promoting good post-harvest
technologies are necessary.
 Agricultural growth is one of the key means by which government can reduce its incidence
of food insecurity. More specifically within the agricultural sector, growth in food crops and
livestock should be given priority because of their superior capacity to contribute to ensure
food security.
24
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Calves, A. (2009). Empowerment: The History of Key Concept in Contemporary Development

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FAO. 2012. Guidelines for measuring household and individual dietary diversity. Food and
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26

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A Seminar Paper on: Determinants of Food Security in Ethiopia By Chari Boru, May, 2024

1.1. Background of Food Security in Ethiopia.........................................................................1

1.2. Statement of the Problem...................................................................................................3

1.3. Objectives of Seminar Paper..............................................................................................4

1.3.1. General Objectives of the Seminar.........................................................................4

1.3.2. Specific Objectives of the Seminar.........................................................................4

1.4. Significance of the Seminar paper.....................................................................................5

2. REVIEW ON DETERMINANTS OF FOOD SECURITY IN ETHIOPIA.........................6

2.1. Food Security and Food Insecurity Understandings and Definitions................................6

2.1.1. Concepts and Definitions of Food Security............................................................6

2.1.2. Concepts and Definitions of Food Insecurity.........................................................7

2.2. Conceptual Framework of Food Security Dimensions......................................................9

2.3. Factors That Cause Food Insecurity................................................................................10

2.3.1. Population Growth................................................................................................10

2.3.2. Natural Factors......................................................................................................11

2.3.3. Economic Factors..................................................................................................12

2.3.4. Socio-Cultural Factors..........................................................................................12

2.3.5. Institutional Factors..............................................................................................13

2.4. Indicators of Food Insecurity...........................................................................................13

2.5. Challenges in Achieving Food Security in Ethiopia........................................................15

2.6. Coping Mechanism of Food Insecurity............................................................................16

2.7. Policy Options to Minimize Food Insecurity...................................................................17

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS...............................................................................................19

4.1. Food security Status in Ethiopia......................................................................................19

4.2. Findings and Discussions of Determinants of Food Security in Ethiopia.......................19

5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS.....................................................................23

ABBREVATIONS AND SYNONYMS

CSA Central Statistical Agency

DPPC Disaster Prevention and Preparedness Commissions

EEA Ethiopian Economic Association

FAD Food Availability Decline

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization

FSIN Federation of Sovereign Indigenous Nations

GDP Growth Domestic Products

MDER Minimum Dietary Energy Requirement

MoA Ministry of Agriculture

PSNP Productive Safety Net Program

RRC Relief and Rehabilitation Commissions

SDG Sustainable Development Goal

UNICEF United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund

USAID United States Agency for International Development

USD United States Dollar

WFP World Food Program

WFS World Food Summit

WHO World Health Organization

Keywords: Food security, food security dimension, determinants of food security.

1.1. Background of Food Security in Ethiopia

1.2. Statement of the Problem

1.3. Objectives of Seminar Paper

1.3.1. General Objectives of the Seminar

 To review the determinants of food security Ethiopia

1.3.2. Specific Objectives of the Seminar

 To review on causes food insecurity in Ethiopia

1.4. Significance of the Seminar paper

2. REVIEW ON DETERMINANTS OF FOOD SECURITY IN ETHIOPIA

2.1. Food Security and Food Insecurity Understandings and Definitions

2.1.1. Concepts and Definitions of Food Security

2.1.2. Concepts and Definitions of Food Insecurity