Renewable Energy and Energy

Storage
Solar energy

Siniša Šadek, Associate professor

Paulina Družijanić, Senior assistant
1 Academic year 2023/2024

https://www.fer.unizg.hr/en/course/reaes
 Content

▪Solar radiation
▪Photovoltaic panel
▪Solar thermal power plants
▪Solar collectors

2
 The Sun

3
 Solar radiation spectrum

4
 Between the Sun and the Earth

5
 Extraterrestrial solar radiation

▪Solar radiation entering Earth’s atmosphere is

called extraterrestrial radiation, it is described by
the energy flux which is directed on a certain
surface perpendicular to the direction of the Sun's
rays
▪Extraterrestrial irradiation changes in a band 1307
W/m2 to 1399 W/m2 because of non circular path
6 of the Earth around the Sun
 Extraterrestrial solar radiation

▪Extraterrestrial irradiation of
the surface perpendicular to
the solar radiation can be
expressed as:

 360n 
G0 n = G0  1 + 0.033cos 
 365 
7
▪where G0 is the solar constant,
and n is the day in a year
 Solar constant

▪ Solar constant G0 is the irradiation flux density incident on a plane

directly facing the Sun and outside the atmosphere at the average
distance from the Sun (1.496×108 km)
▪ G0=1367 W/m2

8
 The impact of the atmosphere on solar
irradiation
• Scattering and absorption of the solar radiation
on particles in the atmosphere attenuate the solar
radiation intensity

• Gbn is irradiation of the beam solar radiation

9 which is directed to a surface perpendicular to
solar radiation and, G0 is the solar constant
• k – attenuation coefficient
• m – air mass ratio (AM)
 The impact of the atmosphere on solar
irradiation
m (Air Mass AM) is the ratio
between the length of the path
of the Sun's rays through the
atmosphere and the length of B C
that path when the Sun is at the
zenith A
BA 1 1
m= = =
CA cosZ sin 
10
ϑZ

ϑZ – zenith angle of the Sun α

α – altitude of the Sun (the angle between the
horizon and the Sun)
 The impact of the atmosphere on solar
irradiation
AM=0 – Solar spectra outside the
atmosphere (extraterrestrial
radiation)

AM=1 – Solar spectra at a sea

level when the Sun is in the zenith
(equator and tropical area)

AM=1.5 – Solar spectra for the

temperate parralels of latitudes
11
(Solar irradiation of 1000 W/m2)

AM=2~3 – Solar spectra for higher

parralels of latitudes
 The impact of the atmosphere on solar
irradiation

12
 The impact of the atmosphere on solar
irradiation
▪Solar irradiation
approximation
depending on an air
mass ratio (AM)

13

z – zenith angle
 The impact of the atmosphere on solar
irradiation
▪The intensity of the solar radiation that reaches
the Earth's surface changes during the day and
year and depends on the position of the surface it
reaches
▪It decreases with a decrease in altitude (longer ray
path) and with an increase in latitude (smaller
angle of incidence of radiation)
14
 Declination of the Sun
δ – the angle between the equatorial plane and the direction of the
Sun, related to seasonal changes
 284 + n 
 = 23.45 sin  360 
 365 
n is the number of a day in a year

δ/23.45

15
21.9. 21.12. 21.3. t
21.3. 21.6.

-1
 Declination of the Sun
▪ The earth’s spin axis is currently tilted 23.45◦ with respect to the ecliptic plane
and that tilt is, of course, what causes our seasons. On March 21 and September
21, a line from the center of the sun to the center of the earth passes through the
equator and everywhere on earth we have 12 hours of daytime and 12 hours of
night, hence the term equinox (equal day and night).
▪ On December 21, the winter solstice in the Northern Hemisphere, the
inclination of the North Pole reaches its highest angle away from the sun
(23.45◦), while on June 21 the opposite occurs.

16
 Latitude, azimuth and hour angle of the
Sun

Hour angle of the Sun  - the angle through which the Earth has rotated since solar
noon. Time expressed in terms of an angle (1 h = 15°, 0° for the highest postion of the
17 Sun, negative values before noon, and positive in the afternoon (eg. 10 h equals hour
angle of  = -30°)
Azimuth of the Sun  or γ - the angle on the plane of the horizon (tangential plane to
the Earth's surface), the angle between the direction towards the south and the
direction of the projection of the Sun's rays onto the horizon (0° for the Sun at its
highest position) 0° - south, 180° - north, 0 - 180° west, 0 - -180° east
 The azimuth and altitude of the Sun

18
 Correlation between solar parameters

sin  = sin  sin  + cos  cos  cos 

n

α – altitude of the Sun = 90° - ϑZ ϑZ

ϑz – zenith angle
φ – latitude
α
δ – declinatio of the Sun angle
19 ω – hour angle of the Sun
Ω ili γ – azimuth of the Sun

cos  sin 
sin  =
cos 
 Correlation between solar parameters

sin  = sin  sin  + cos  cos  cos 

n

α – altitude of the Sun = 90° - ϑZ ϑZ

ϑz – zenith angle
φ – latitude
α
δ – declinatio of the Sun angle
20 ω – hour angle of the Sun
Ω ili γ – azimuth of the Sun
Eg. Zagreb (φ = 45.82) at 13 h on a day
cos  sin  of sommer solstice (δ = 23.45°)
sin  = α = 64.55°
cos  Ω = 33.54°
 Component of radiation

▪ Direct beam radiation Gb

▪ Diffuse radiation Gd
▪ Reflected radiation Gr

21
 The power and energy of the solar
radiation
Irradiation – the power density G [W/m2]
Insolation – the energy density H [Ws/m2]
Total irradiation:

G = Gb + Gd + Gr
The total irradiation is consists of the
direct beam, difused and reflected
22 component
 Tilted panel

Total irradiation:

H  = H b + H d + H r
▪ The total irradiation on a tilted plane, with the angle between
the plane surface and the horizontal  , consists of three
components:
▪ Direct beam component (b)
▪ Diffuse component (d)
23 ▪ Reflected component (r)
▪ Reflection from all non-atmospheric objects (eg. From
the ground, from the snow in winter)
▪ For a horizontal plane, there is no reflected component
 Tilted panel
Panel: the best fixed slope for the entire year g= o, for
summer lj= o – 15 o and winter z= o +15 o
-Altitude of the Sun is the highest in summer and lowest
in winter
-Increse of irradiation on a surface
- ≈ 45°

24
 Irradiation of a horizontal panel, tilted
panel and moving panel
Position change
-In one axis 25% to 30% more energy (Seasonal – north – south)
-In two axis 30% do 40% more energy (daily – east – west)
- the locations with higher insolation benefit more

Wm-2
Moving collector
kolektor Fixed slope tilted
1000 collector

slanted
25
500
Position change
- doubled installation costs
- more difficult maintenance
Horizontal collector
- higher mass
dawn Time in a day twilight
 Calculation of irradiation of a tilted
panel
▪ Slope β
▪ Azimuth γ = 0 – south, γ =
180 – north, γ = 0 - 180
west, γ = 0 - -180 east; 0 for
β=0
▪ Angle of incidence θ (the
angle between the beam
and the normal on the
panel surface)
▪ Zenith angle θz (the angle
26 between the beam and the
normal to the horizontal
plane)
▪ Altitude of the Sun α=90 -
θz
▪ Solar azimuth angle γs
 Direct beam component of irradiation
of a tilted panel

cos  = cos  Z cos  + sin  Z sin  cos ( S −  )

Gb = Gb cos 

27
 Diffuse component of irradiation of a
tilted panel

1 + cos 
Gd  = Gd
2

28
 Reflected component of irradiation of a
tilted panel

Gh = Gb cos  Z + Gd
Gr =  Gh

Gh – irradiation of a
horizontal plane
ρ – the reflection factor of
29
the surface (ground, …)

1 − cos 
Gr = Gr
2
 Total irradiation of a tilted panel
Gb = Gb cos 
1 + cos 
Gd  = Gd
2
1 − cos 
Gr = Gr
2

30
1 + cos  1 − cos 
Gtot = Gb + Gd  + Gr = Gb cos  + Gd + Gr
2 2
 Example 1
Determine the optimal slope of a PV module, directed towards the
south, in Zagreb, solar noon on the 1th of March. The latitude is
45.82°.

31
 Example 1

ϑZ

90° α

β
32

ϑZ – zenith angle = 90 – α = β
α – altitude of the Sun (the angle between the horizon and the beam
 Example 1

sin  = sin  sin  + cos  cos  cos 

φ –latitude
δ – angle of declination of the Sun
ω – hour angle of the Sun (1h = 15°, negative in the morning and positive in
the afternoon)
δ/23.45

33
21.9. 21.12. 21.3. t
21.3. 21.6.

-1
 Example 1

 284 + n 
 = 23.45 sin  360  = −8.3
 365 
(1.ofožujak
𝑛 n1th March) = 31=+31
28+
+ 128 + 1 = 60
= 60

φ = 45.82
δ = – 8.3
ω = 0 (solar noon)

34 sin  = sin  sin  + cos  cos  cos 

sin  = sin 45.82sin ( −8.3) + cos 45.82 cos ( −8.3) cos 0

 = 35.88 →  = 90 −  = 54.12
 Example 2

Determine the azimuth angle of the Sun at 15 h in Zagreb on a

summer solstice day. The latitude of Zagreb is 45.82°.

35
 Example 2
φ = 45.82°
δ = 23.45°
ω = 3∙15=45°
sin  = sin  sin  + cos  cos  cos 
sin  = sin 45.82sin 23.45 + cos 45.82 cos 23.45cos 45
 = 47.52
cos  sin  cos 23.45sin 45
sin  = = = 0.961
36 cos  cos 47.52

 ( ili  ) = 73.86
 Example 3

The direct beam of solar irradiation in 700 W/m2, and

diffuse component is 200 W/m2. The zenith angle of
the Sun is 37°, and the azimuth angle of the Sun is
45°. Azimuth angle of the panel is 10°, and the slope is
25°. Reflection factor of the surface of the ground is
0.1. Determine the total solar irradiation of a panel.

37
 Calculation of irradiation of a tilted
panel
▪ Slope β
▪ Azimuth γ = 0 – south, γ =
180 – north, γ = -180 west,
γ = 180 east; 0 for β=0
▪ Angle of incidence θ (the
angle between the beam
and the normal on the
panel surface)
▪ Zenith angle θz (the angle
38 between the beam and the
normal to the horizontal
plane)
▪ Altitude of the Sun α=90 -
θz
▪ Solar azimuth angle γs
 Example 3

cos  = cos  Z cos  + sin  Z sin  cos ( S −  )

cos  = cos 37 cos 25 + sin 37sin 25cos ( 45 − 10 ) = 0.932 →  = 21

Gh = Gb cos  Z + Gd = 700  cos 37 + 200 = 759.3 W / m 2

Gr =  Gh = 0.1  759.3 = 75.93 W / m 2

1 + cos  1 − cos 
39 Gtot = Gb cos  + Gd + Gr
2 2
1 + cos 25 1 − cos 25
Gtot = 700  cos 21 + 200  + 75.93  = 846.59 W / m 2
2 2
 Example 4

▪Direct component of solar irradiation is 700 W/m2,

and diffuse component is 100 W/m2. Zenith angle
of the Sun is -10°. The reflection factor od the
ground is 0.1. The normals of the side surfaces of
the building coincide with the cardinal direction.
Calculate solar radiation on all surfaces of the
building.
40
 Example 4
▪ 𝛽 = 90°
▪ 𝐺𝑟 = 𝜌 𝐺ℎ = 𝜌(𝐺𝑏 cos 𝜃𝑍 + 𝐺𝑑 ) = 63,62 𝑊/𝑚2
▪ S: 𝛾 = 0
▪ cos 𝜃 = cos(𝜃𝑍 ) cos 𝛽 + sin(𝜃𝑍 ) sin 𝛽 cos(𝛾𝑆 − 𝛾)
▪ cos 𝜃 = 0,633
▪ 𝜃 = 50°44′
1+cos(𝛽) 1−cos(𝛽)
▪ 𝐺𝑠 = 𝐺𝑏 cos 𝜃 + 𝐺𝑑 + 𝐺𝑟 = 524,91 W/m2
2 2

41 ▪ E: 𝛾 = −90 °
▪ cos 𝜃 = cos(𝜃𝑍 ) cos 𝛽 + sin(𝜃𝑍 ) sin 𝛽 cos(𝛾𝑆 − 𝛾)
▪ cos 𝜃 = 0,1116
▪ 𝜃 = 83°35′
1+cos(𝛽) 1−cos(𝛽)
▪ 𝐺𝐸 = 𝐺𝑏 cos 𝜃 + 𝐺𝑑 + 𝐺𝑟 = 159,93 W/m2
2 2
 Example 4
▪ W: 𝛾 = 90 °
▪ cos 𝜃 = cos(𝜃𝑍 ) cos 𝛽 + sin(𝜃𝑍 ) sin 𝛽 cos(𝛾𝑆 − 𝛾)
▪ cos 𝜃 = −0,116
▪ 𝜃 = 96°25′ No direct beam!
1+cos(𝛽) 1−cos(𝛽)
▪ 𝐺𝑊 = 𝐺𝑑 + 𝐺𝑟 = 81,81 W/m2
2 2

▪ N: 𝛾 = 180 °
▪ cos 𝜃 = cos(𝜃𝑍 ) cos 𝛽 + sin(𝜃𝑍 ) sin 𝛽 cos(𝛾𝑆 − 𝛾)
42
▪ cos 𝜃 = −0,633
▪ 𝜃 = 129°16′ No direct beam!
1+cos(𝛽) 1−cos(𝛽)
▪ 𝐺𝑁 = 𝐺𝑑 + 𝐺𝑟 = 81,81 W/m2
2 2
 Total irradiation of a tilted panel

43
 Photovoltaic cell

▪ Introduction

▪ p-n junction

▪ Photovoltaic cell
▪ Working principle
▪ Substitue scheme
▪ I-U characteristics

44 ▪ Irradiation and temperature dependence

▪ Efficiency
▪ Construction and linking

▪ Fotovoltaic power plant

▪ Converters, inverters, maximum power point tracking

 Introduction

▪The photovoltaic effect is responsible for the

electricity generation in a photovoltaic cell by
direct conversion from solar radiation
▪ A silicon (or other semiconductor) crystal absorbs
photons of light, releasing electrons from the
electron shell
▪ Free electrons are electricity
45 ▪To release an electron, the energy of the photon
hν must be higher than the binding energy of the
electron, the order of magnitude ~1 eV = 1.6∙10-19
J
▪
 Atom

▪Nucleus and electron shell

▪Proton, neutrons, and
electrons
▪Atom is neutral
▪Electrons have discrete
energies
46 ▪Large number of atoms in
a crystalline structure –
energy bands
 Material

▪Crystalline – regular arrangement of atoms

▪ Monocrystalline – in its entire volume
▪ Polycrystalline – made of a large number of
monocrystals

▪Amorphous – irregular arrangement of atoms

47
 Conductor, semiconductor, insulator

48
EG < 2.5 eV EG > 5 eV
(band gap energy)
 2D view of a crystal structure of a
semiconductor

49

• Intrinsic semiconductor – there are no impurity atoms

• A) – there is no breaking of the (covalent) bond in the crystalline
semiconductor
• B) – breaking the bond and creating an electron-hole pair
 Electron – hole pair

▪ In the case of intrinsic silicon, if the temperature is T>0

K, some of the valence electrons have enough energy to
break the valence bond and jump into the conduction
band.
▪ A hole remains in the place where it was. That place can
easily be filled by an adjacent valence electron, and
then a hole is created in its place.
▪ Then we can say that in addition to the movement of
50 electrons in the conduction band, we also have the
movement of holes in the valence band, only in the
opposite direction.
 Electron – hole pair

▪In semiconductors, both electrons and holes

are charge carriers because electrons are
negatively charged, and holes are positively
charged (in the same amount as electrons).
▪Therefore, both electrons and holes contribute
to the electric current.
▪ The concentration of electrons in the
51 conduction band is denoted by n, and the hole
in the valence band by p.
 Electron – hole pair

▪ The emission of electrons from atoms is called carrier

generation, and the filling of holes with free electrons is
called recombination.
▪ In pure silicon, the number of free electrons in the
conduction band is equal to the number of holes in the
valence band n=p. Once again, pure silicon is called
intrinsic, and the concentration of charge carriers is
52 called the intrinsic concentration ni.
▪ At room temperature the instrinsic concentration is
small compared to the number of atoms so specific
conductivity is small.
▪
 Electron – hole pair

▪With the increasing temperature, electrons have

higher thermal energy, and they can break
valence bond easily and move to the conduction
band. That means that the instrinsic
concentration increases and specific
conductivity increases.
53 ▪Specific conductivity can be increased either if
we dope silicon or if we expose silicon to
electromagnetic radiation. In the latter the
photovoltaic effect is responsible for free
electrons generation.
 2D view of a crystalline structure of a
semiconductor Doping with pentavalent
phosphorus atoms P-15 or
trivalent boron atoms B-5
P – 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3

B – 1s2 2s2 2p1

A semiconductor doped
with phosphorus becomes
an n-type semiconductor

A boron-doped
54 semiconductor becomes a
p-type semiconductor
• The concentration of electrons and holes can be changed by the doping
process - impurity atoms replace semiconductor atoms in the crystal lattice
- extrinsic semiconductor
 Doping

▪ Doping means addition of impurity atoms

▪ Usually doping means addition of atoms that have one

valence electron more or one less then the material
used.

▪ For example, impurity atoms added to silicon are either

55 Phosphorus which has five valence electrons or Boron
which has three valence electrons.
 Doping with Phosphorus

▪In case of Phosphorus, 4 of 5 valence electrons

are paired with valence electrons of Silicon and
the fifth electron is weakly bounded to the atom.
Energy necessary for this electron to become
free is small so at room temperature the fifth
electron is free.
▪Emmiting one electron Phosporus has become
56 a positive ion and since it gave an electron it is
called a donor. Doping silicon with donors
atoms means that there are more free electrons
than the holes so it is usually called an n-type.
 Doping with Boron

▪By adding three valence Boron, the three

valence electrons will pair with three valence
electrons of Silicon and the fourth valence
electron of Silicon will remain without its pair.
▪ So, at that place there will be a hole. A hole can
be filled by other electron of an adjacent Silicon
atom, so Boron will become a negative ion.
57 ▪ Since it has received one electron, Boron is
called an acceptor. Dopping Silicon with
acceptor atoms means higher concentration of
holes. That type of Silicon is then called a p-
type.
 The Fermi-Dirac distribution
Cumulative distribution function
58
The Fermi energy is
the highest
possible energy of
a free electron at
absolute zero
temperature
E – particle energy
EF – The Fermi
energy (the energy
level to which this
energy corresponds
is the Fermi level)
k – the Boltzmann
constant
k = 1.38·10-23 J/K
T – temperature
The Fermi level is
the energy level for
which there is a
50% probability that
it is filled (for T>0 K)
- ~0.5 eV
 Fermi level

▪ At a 0K temperature Fermi energy is the highest energy

an electron can have.
▪ That means that all states lower than the Fermi energy
are occupied and all higher states are empty.
▪ At a temperature greater than 0 K, some electrons can
have energy greater than the Fermi energy and so some
lower states are free and higher states are occupied.
▪ If the temperature we would get more electrons with
59
energy higher than the Fermi energy.
 Valence and conduction band of
semiconductor

n – type semicondutor

p – type semiconductor
60 EC – conduction band energy For illustration:
EV – valence band energy kT = 0.0258 eV at 300 K
Eg – band gap energy (binding energy of an electron) NC = 3.22·1019 cm-3 at 300 K for crystalline
NC – effective concentration of allowed states (electron silicon
density) in conduction band (cm-3) NV = 1.83·1019 cm-3 at 300 K for crystalline
ND – donor atom density (cm-3) silicon
NV – effective concentration of allowed states (hole (ND, NA = 1015 – 1017 cm-3)
density) in valence band (cm-3) (metals – free electrons 1022 cm-3)
NA – acceptor atom density (cm-3) (intrinsic Si – free elektrons 1010 cm-3)
 Valence and conduction band of
semiconductor
▪For semicondutors the Fermi energy is in the
band gap.
▪ If the silicon is intrinsic, then the Fermi energy is
right in the middle of the band gap.
▪ N-type semiconductors have the Fermi energy
in the upper part of the band gap.
61
▪P-type semicondutors have the Fermi energy in
the lower part of the band gap.
 Generation and recombination
processes
▪ If we expose a semiconductor to
EM radiation, photon energy is
absorbed.
▪ If this incident photon energy is
greater than the electron binding
energy (band gap energy), the
electron is ejected outside the
crystalline lattice (generation).
▪ In the reverse direction, we have
62 the recombination of electrons
and holes with the emission of
binding energy.
If the energy of the incident radiation is greater than the binding energy,
the excess energy only heats the crystal (losses!); if it is lower, we also
heat the crystal, and there is no generation of electron-hole pairs
 Instrinsic semiconductor

▪ In an intrinsic semiconductor the

concentration of free electrons and holes is
equal n=p so when multiplied it is intrinsic
concentration squared. That is also called the E
thermodynamic balance law.
ni2 = pi2 = n0 p0 EC
n

EFi

▪ The width of the band gap is:

EV
p
63
𝐸𝐺 = 𝐸𝐶 − 𝐸𝑉

▪ And Fermi energy is in the middle of the band

𝐸 +𝐸
gap: 𝐸𝐹𝑖 = 𝐶 𝑉
2
 P-type semiconductor

64
 N-type semiconductor

65
 p-n junction and diffusion process

Diffusion is a process of particles moving in a direction of their lower

concentration
It is described by the Fick’s first law:
J = −D = −Dgrad
J – diffusion flux vector
D – diffusion constant
ф – particles concentration

67
If we consider only one dimension:


J = −D
x
 p-n junction and diffusion process

a) Before b) after formation of p-n junction

68
 p-n junction and diffusion process

▪ So before we had n-type and p-type of silicon.

▪ N-type meant free electrons in conduction band, and p-
type meant holes in the valence band.
▪ When we connect these two, we get p-n junction
▪ So now at the n-side we have more electrons and on p-
side we have more holes.
▪ Due to different concentrations, we have diffuse
69 currents, meaning that electrons start to move to the p-
side and holes to the n-side.
▪ Electrons that are coming to the p-side recombine with
holes, a holes coming to the n-side recombine with
electrons.
 ▪As a result of recombination process, we get
depletion region or space charge region.
▪ Space charge are now positive donor ions and
negative acceptor ions. Those are impurity ions.
▪ Positive ions are closer to the n-side and
negative ions are closer to the p-side.
▪Between them there is an electric field in the
space charge region.
▪Electric field causes drift currents which try to
70
push back electrons to the n-side and holes to
the p-side.
▪The balance is achieved when drift currents
equal diffuse currents.
 Charge carrier concentration, energy
and p-n junction potential
φp, φn – potential of p, n side
-qφ – potential energy

p n
EC
EFn
qφn
EFi
71 qφp
EFp
EV

After coupling, the Fermi level must remain constant in order to

maintain TD equilibrium.
 Charge carrier concentration, energy
and p-n junction potential

Potential
barrier

Potential
energy
72

φP is
negative!
 Charge carrier concentration, energy
and p-n junction potential
Contact potential
potencijal:
kT N A N D
UK = ln
q ni2
Intrinsic concentration:
ni2 = n0 p0

73 Eg.: ND = 1017 cm-3 The intrinsic carrier concentration is the number

NA = 1014 cm-3 of electrons in the conduction band or the
number of holes in the valence band in intrinsic
ni = 1.45∙1010 cm-3 material. This number of carriers depends on
T=300 K the band gap of the material and on the
→ UK = 0.63 V (decreases temperature of the material.
with the temperature
increase.)
 Charge, electric field, p-n junction potential
dE d
 = E = −
dx dx
q q
Emax = − N D xn = − N A x p
 
ρ – çharge density [C/m3]
q – elementary charge – 1.6·10-19 C
xn – the width of a charge band in n-type
material
75 xp – the width of a charge band in p-type
material
φ – electrostatic potential [V]
E – electric field [V/m]
ε = εrε0 – permittivity of semiconductors =
relative permittivity × vacuum permittivity
(8.854·10-12 C/Vm)
 p-n junction with voltage

Forward biased p-n junction

p n
EC - + Potential barrier
q(φn - φp - U) = q(UK - U)

76

qφp EF EFn − EFp

qφn qU U=
q
EFi
EV
 p-n junction with voltage
Reverse biased p-n junction

p n
EC - +
Potential barrier
q(φn - φp + UR) = q(UK + UR)

77 qφp
qUR EFn − EFp
EV U=
EF q
qφn
EFi
 p-n junction with voltage

78
 Photoelectric effect

▪ The solar cell functions based on the photovoltaic effect

▪ Absorption of solar radiation (photons) leads to the creation
of electron-hole pairs
▪ A photon transfers energy to an electron, and if this energy is
greater than the electron's binding energy (band gap energy),
the electron will be ejected from the electron shell.
▪ If the absorption occurred within or near the depleted
region, the built-in electric field will transfer the newly
80
formed electron to the n-side and the hole to the p-side
▪ Otherwise, recombination of electrons and holes will occur
▪ Accumulation of electrons, or holes at the ends of the solar
cell creates a potential difference and turns the cell into a
source of electricity
 Photoelectric cell working principle

▪We expose the solar cell (p-n junction) to solar

radiation.
▪The N-side is up and the p-side is down.
▪ Between them there is a depleted area, that is, an
area of space charge.
▪If the photons have sufficient energy to cause
81
ionization, then the built-in electric field will shift
the electrons to the n-side and holes to the p-side.
▪ A potential difference is created, which represents
a source of electrical energy.
 Photoelectric cell working principle

▪If we connect a load to the source, the electrons

will flow towards the p side through the load.
▪The flow of electrons through the external circuit
represents a current that we call photocurrent.
▪ The p-side is positive and the n-side is negative.
▪ The direction of current is generally opposite to
82
the direction of electron movement.
 Photoelectric cell working principle

▪If the photon has much higher energy than the

ionization energy, an electron-hole pair will be
created, and the rest of the energy will be
absorbed in the solar cell in the form of heat.
▪If the photon has an energy lower than the
ionization energy, the creation of a pair of
electron-hole will not occur, and the energy of the
83 photon will be absorbed in the solar article in the
form of heat.
 PV cell

87
 The current-voltage charactersitic

▪When we have a p-n junction

as a load (diode), the current
enters on the p-side and exits
on the n-side.
▪The current-voltage
characteristic is in the first
quadrant.
88 ▪If the p-n junction is a source
of electricity, the current exits
on the p-side and enters on
the n-side.
 The current-voltage charactersitic

▪Because the direction of the

current is opposite to the
direction of the diode current,
the current-voltage
characteristic drops by the
amount IL which represents the
photocurrent and is in the
89 fourth quadrant.
▪ In order not to display the
current-voltage characteristic
in the fourth quadrant, we
map it to the first quadrant.
 The current-voltage charactersitic

▪The diode current is described by the Shockley

equation, and the solar cell current is the
photocurrent minus the diode current.
▪Isc is the short-circuit current.
▪Voltage Voc is the open circuit voltage.

90
 qV 
I = I 0  e − 1
kT

 
 qV 
I = I L − I 0  e − 1
kT

 
 The current – voltage characteristic of
the PV cell

91 - In the 4th quadrant

 qV 
-Diode current I = I 0  e − 1
kT

   qV 
I = I 0  e − 1 − I L
kT

 
 qV 
-PV cell current I = I L − I 0  e − 1
kT

 
 Replacement scheme of the PV cell

A solar cell is a
current source
because it directly
produces free
electrons, and the
flow of electrons
represents current.

92
• In the replacement scheme, the current source represents the
photocurrent
• the diode current represents the movement of the majority charge
across the potential barrier in the p-n junction.
• If the potential barrier is smaller, more electrons will pass through the
depleted region, and less through the outer circuit, so there is less
current in the outer circuit.
 Replacement scheme of the PV cell

93
Series resistance – losses during current flow through the semiconductor,
at the boundary between the semiconductor and the metal contact, and
at the metal contact itself
Parallel resistance (Shunt) – defects during the production of the PV
article, the flow of electrons along the outer edge of the article
 Replacement scheme of the PV cell

I = I L − I D − I SH

VTOT = V + I RS

 qV 
I D = I 0  e − 1
kT

 
94  qVkTTOT  VTOT
I = I L − I0  e − 1 −
  RSH

 q(V + I RS )  V + I RS
I = I L − I 0  e kT − 1 −
  RSH
 
 Short circuit current and open circuit
voltage
 q(V + I RS )  V + I RS
I = I L − I 0  e kT − 1 −
  RSH
 

Assuming RS → 0 and RSH → ∞, we obtain:

- for short circuit current:  q(VOCkT+00)  VOC + 0  0
I = I L − I0  e − 1 − =0
 
95 I SC = I L   
q(VOC + 00 )
IL
e kT
−1 =
- for open circuit voltage: I0
kT  I L 
VOC = ln  + 1
q  I0 
 The influence of the reverse saturation
current on the current-voltage
characteristic
kT  I L 
▪ The smaller the reverse VOC = ln  + 1
q  I0 
saturation current, the
higher the voltage. This can
be deduced from the no-
load voltage formula
because the reverse
saturation current is in the
denominator. A higher
saturation current shifts
96
the current-voltage
characteristic to the left.
 The influence of series resistance
kT  I L 
▪For higher series VOC = ln  + 1
q  I0 
resistance, the current-
voltage characteristic
shifts to the left. This
means that for the same
current the voltage is
lower because we have a
voltage drop on the
97 series resistance.
 The influence of parallel resistance

▪The lower the parallel V =

kT  I L 
ln  + 1
OC
resistance, the more q  I0 
current passes through
the parallel resistance, so
the current of the
photovoltaic element is
lower. A smaller
resistance moves the
98 current-voltage short-
circuit down.
 Influence of series and parallel
resistance
Series resistance introduces a
shift to the left on the I-U
characteristic – for the same
current, the voltage is lower

99 Parallel resistance
introduces a downward
shift in the I-U characteristic
– for the same voltage, the
current is lower
 Influence of irradiation and
temperature on the I-U characteristic

10
0
 The power of PV cell (P = V·I)
(A)
PMAX
P1

I/V curve
Ipmax
Current(I)

IxV=P

P2

(V)
10 Voltage(V)
Vpmax
1
 I-U characteristics, maximum power
and efficiency of the PV cell
▪ The internal resistances of the PV cell determine the I-U characteristic with the
point of maximum power. For the maximum power Pm , the current is Im and
the voltage is Vm . The ratio of the maximum power and the product of ISC and
the voltage VOC is called the filling factor F.
Pm I V
F= = m m
ISC VOC ISC VOC
Efficiency of solar cell:
• Efficiency is generally the ratio of
useful output energy (or power)
and input energy (or power)
• Here, the output power is
10
electrical power, and the input
2 power is solar radiation:

Pel
=
Psun

Pel max Im  Vm F  ISC VOC

max = = =
Psun GA GA
 I-U characteristics, maximum power
and efficiency of the PV cell
kT  qVmax 
Vmax = VOC − ln  1 + 
q  kT 

 qVkTmax 
I max = I L − I0  e − 1
 
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3
 Example 5
Photovoltaic cell of the area 270 cm2, has Eficiency is determined from the ratio of
electric power and solar irradiation power:
open circuit voltage of 0.6 V and short
circuit current of 8 A when irradiation Im Vm
=
is 1000 W/m2. GA

The maximum power of a photovoltaic

𝑉𝑚
𝐼𝑚 ⋅ 𝑉𝑚 ⋅ 𝑉𝑚 7 ⋅ 0.56
cell is obtained when loaded with 𝜂= = 𝑅 = = 0.145
𝐺⋅𝐴 𝐺⋅𝐴 1000 ⋅ 270 ⋅ 10−4

0,08  and voltage of 0.56 V.

10 Fill factor shows how close is a real PV cell to
What is the efficiency of the PV cell and the ideal PV cell, it is the ratio of the product
4
of maximum current and voltge and the
filling factor? product of short circuit current and open
circuit voltage

Pm I V 7  0.56
, F = ? F= = m m = = 0.817
ISC  VOC ISC  VOC 8  0.6
 Exercise 6

▪ Consider a replacement scheme of a photovoltaic cell. The photocurrent is

3.3 A. The voltage at the connectors of the cell is 0.55 V, and the current
at the output of the cell is 3 A. The series resistance is 0.02 Ω. The
temperature is 300 K, and the reverse saturation current is 10-11 A.
Calculate the current through the parallel resistance, and the parallel
resistance. (The Boltzmann constant is 1.38∙10-23 J/K, and the unit charge
is 1.6∙10-19 C).

10
5
 Consider a replacement scheme of a photovoltaic cell. The photocurrent is 3.3 A.
The voltage at the connectors of the cell is 0.55 V, and the current at the output
of the cell is 3 A. The series resistance is 0.02 Ω. The temperature is 300 K, and
the reverse saturation current is 10-11 A. Calculate the current through the
parallel resistance, and the parallel resistance. (The Boltzmann constant is
1.38∙10-23 J/K, and the unit charge is 1.6∙10-19 C).

10
6