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Equine Neonatal Medicine
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Equine Neonatal Medicine
Pamela A. Wilkins
David M. Wong
Urbana, Illinois
Ames, Iowa
Edited by
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Copyright © 2024 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
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Hardback: 9781119617259
This book is dedicated to my wife, Kristine, and daughters, Olivia, Pip, and Estelle, and their steadfast support of me over the
years as an equine veterinarian; to Pam Wilkins, my emergency and critical care mentor and friend; to all my colleagues at
the Lloyd Veterinary Medical Center (Iowa State University), Marion duPont Scott Equine Medical Center (Virginia Tech),
and New Bolton Center (University of Pennsylvania) – it has been a pleasure to work together through so many foaling
seasons with you; and to all the mares and foals that we have had the honor to provide veterinary care to.
David M. Wong
I would like to dedicate this book to those who came before us, the editors of the original Equine Clinical Neonatology book,
Anne Koterba, Willa Drummond, and Philip Kosch, and to all our patients and dedicated veterinarians caring for them over
the generations since.
Pam A. Wilkins
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vii
Contents
Section IV Advanced Imaging (CT, MRI) of the Neonatal Respiratory System 109
Section VI Oral Lactose Tolerance Test and Oral Glucose Absorption Test 387
Section VIII Diagnostic Tests and Fecal Analysis in the Neonatal Foal with Diarrhea 391
Section IV Hormones Involved in Blood Pressure and Blood Volume Regulation 567
Section I Disorders of the Hypothalamic Pituitary Adrenal Axis and Neurosteroids 582
Section IV Disorders of Hormones Involved in Blood Pressure and Volume Regulation 599
Section II Infectious and Inflammatory – Sarcocystis and Neospora in the Mare and Foal 787
Section III Infectious and Inflammatory – Tetanus in the Neonatal Foal 795
Section V Pathophysiology and Treatment of Central Nervous System Trauma in the Foal 831
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Contents xi
Section VI Traumatic Brain and Spinal Cord Injury in the Foal 858
Section XIII Peripheral Nerve Disorders – Nerve Injury Secondary to Dystocia 927
Chapter 35 Examination, Therapeutics, and Monitoring of the Neonatal Musculoskeletal System 953
Section II Medications for Intra-articular and Musculoskeletal Use in the Neonatal Foal 961
Chapter 36 Congenital and Acquired Musculoskeletal Disorders in the Neonatal Foal 976
Chapter 39 Diagnostics, Therapeutics, and Monitoring of Skin Diseases in the Foal 1026
Chapter 53 Examination, Diagnostics and Therapeutics of the Neonatal Equine Eye 1197
Chapter 63 Nonsteroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs and Analgesics in the Neonatal Foal 1358
Chapter 65 Necropsy Examination and Sample Submission of the Fetus, Fetal Membranes, and Foal 1395
Chapter 66 Special Considerations for the Neonatal Donkey and Mule Foal 1399
Chapter 70 Poor Maternal Behavior, Induction of Lactation, and Foal Grafting 1448
Index 1505
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xiv
List of Contributors
Emma Adam, BVetMed, PhD, MRCVS, DACVS, DACVIM Rebecca Bishop, DVM
Equine Veterinary Research & Outreach Equine Surgery Resident
Gluck Equine Research Center University of Illinois
Lexington, KY Urbana, IL
Cody Alcott, DVM, DACVIM (LAIM, Neurology) Anthony Blikslager, DVM, PhD, DACVS
Owner Professor
Tucson Veterinary Specialists North Carolina State University
Tucson, AZ Raleigh, NC
Monica Aleman, MVZ, PhD, DACVIM (LAIM, Neurology) Charles Brockus, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, DACVP
Professor Owner
University of California CBCP Consulting
Davis, CA Sparks, NV
Scott Austin, DVM, MS, DACVIM Christopher Byron, DVM, MS, DACVS
Clinical Associate Professor Associate Professor
University of Illinois Virginia Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine
Urbana, IL Blacksburg, VA
Theresa Beachler, DVM, PhD, DACT Undine Christmann, DVM, MPH, PhD, MS, DACVIM
Assistant Professor Associate Professor
Iowa State University Lincoln Memorial University
Ames, IA Harrogate, TN
Daniela Bedenice, Dr. med. vet., DACVIM, DACVECC Sarah Colmer, VMD, DACVIM
Associate Professor Neurology Fellow
Tufts University University of Pennsylvania
Medford, ME Kennett Square, PA
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List of Contributors xv
Jennifer Davis, DVM, PhD, DACVIM, DACVCP Darien Feary, BVSc, MS, DACVIM, DACVECC
Associate Professor Associate Veterinarian
Virginia Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine Randwick Equine Centre
Blacksburg, VA Horsley Park, NSW, Australia
Emma Deane, DVM, DACVECC M. Julia B. Felippe, MedVet, MS, PhD, DACVIM
Associate Veterinarian Professor
Loomis Basin Equine Medical Center Cornell University
Penryn, CA Ithaca, NY
Julie Dechant, DVM, MS, DACVS, DACVECC Gustavo Ferlini Agne, MV, MS, DACVIM
Professor Lecturer
University of California University of Adelaide
Davis, CA Roseworthy, SA
Katarzyna A. Dembek, DVM, PhD, DACVIM Langdon Fielding, DVM, MBA, DACVECC, DACVSMR
Assistant Professor Owner
North Carolina State University Loomis Basin Equine Medical Center
Raleigh, NC Penryn, CA
Kira Epstein, DVM, DACVS, DACVECC Paula Galera, DVM, MSc, PhD
Professor Associate Professor
University of Georgia College of Veterinary Medicine
Athens, GA University of Brasilia, Brazil
Krista Estell, DVM, DACVIM Alexandra Gillen, MA, MS, VetMB, DACVS, DECVS,
Clinical Associate Professor FHEA, MRCVS
Marion duPont Scott Equine Medical Center Senior Lecturer
Virginia Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine University of Liverpool
Leesburg, VA Wirral, UK
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xvi List of Contributors
Gabriele Landolt, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVIM Bonny Millar, VT, REVN, RVN
Professor Equine Veterinary Nurse
Colorado State University Consultant and VNJ Equine Editor
Fort Collins, CO Gwynedd, UK
Kara M. Lascola, DVM, MS, DACVIM James Moore, DVM, PhD, DACVS
Associate Professor Professor
Auburn University University of Georgia
Auburn, AL Athens, GA
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List of Contributors xvii
Cristobal Navas de Solis, LV, MS, PHD, DACVIM Diane Rhodes, DVM, DACVIM
Assistant Professor Associate Veterinarian
University of Pennsylvania Loomis Basin Equine Medical Center
Kennett Square, PA Penryn, CA
Roxanne M. Rodriguez Galarza, DVM, MS, DACVO Danielle Strahl-Heldreth, DVM, MSEd, MSVMS, DACVAA
Associate Veterinarian Clinical Assistant Professor
Animal Eye Care Associates University of Illinois
Cary, North Carolina Urbana, IL
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xviii List of Contributors
Ben Sykes, BSc BVMS MSc MBA DipACVIM PhD FHEA Edwina Wilkes, BVSc, MPHarm, FANZCVS, DVStud
Veterinary Curriculum Development Lecturer in Equine Medicine
Southern Cross University Charles Sturt University
Lismore, NSW, Australia New South Wales, Australia
Ramiro E. Toribio, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVIM Jarred Williams, DVM, PhD, DACVS, DACVECC
Professor Associate Professor
The Ohio State University University of Georgia
Columbus, OH Athens, GA
Gaby van Galen, DVM, MSc, DES, PhD, DECEIM, DECVECC Sharon Witonsky, DVM, PhD, DACVIM
Senior Clinician Associate Professor
Goulburn Valley Equine Hospital Virginia Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine
Congupna, Victoria, Australia Blacksburg, VA
Ashlee Watts, DVM, PhD, DACVS David Wong, DVM, MS, DACVIM, DACVECC
Associate Professor Professor
Texas A&M University Iowa State University
College Station, TX Ames, IA
1 81 ± 10 35 ± 7 50 ± 8
7 104 ± 21 40 ± 14 61 ± 15
14 100 ± 16 41 ± 7 61 ± 6
21 107 ± 28 48 ± 17 68 ± 16
30 114 ± 21 54 ± 13 74 ± 11
60 103 ± 12 53 ± 20 70 ± 6
90 111 ± 15 57 ± 19 75 ± 16
References
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fetal and transitional circulation. Semin. Fetal Neonatal Association of Placebo, indomethacin, ibuprofen, and
Med. 20 (4): 210–216. acetaminophen with closure of hemodynamically
2 Palmer, J. (n.d.). Perinatology. New Bolton Center, significant patent ductus arteriosus in preterm infants: a
University of Pennsylvania http://nicuvet.com/nicuvet/ systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA 319:
Learn/Perinatology%20Handout.pdf. 1221–1238.
3 Silver, M. (1984). Some aspects of equine placental 13 Navas De Solis, C. and Wesselowski, S. (2020). Equine
exchange and foetal physiology. Equine Vet. J. 16: congenital heart disease and respiratory disease
227–233. interactions. Equine Vet. Educ. 9: 460–464.
4 Barnes, R.J. (1997). Perinatal carbohydrate metabolism 14 Paradis, M.R. (ed.) (2006). Cardiac disorders. In: Equine
and the blood flow of the fetal liver. Equine Vet. J. Suppl. Neonatal Medicine, 247–258. W.B. Saunders.
24: 26–31. 15 Marr, C.M. (2015). The equine neonatal cardiovascular
5 Fowden, A.L., Giussani, D.A., and Forhead, A.J. (2020). system in health and disease. Vet. Clin. North Am. Equine
Physiological development of the equine fetus during late Pract. 31: 545–565.
gestation. Equine Vet. J. 52: 165–173. 16 Yamamoto, K., Yasuda, J., and Too, K. (1991).
6 Sidhu, P.S. and Lui, F. (2020). Embryology, Ductus Venosus. Electrocardiographic findings during parturition and
In: StatPearls. Treasure Island, FL: StatPearls Publishing blood gas tensions immediately after birth in
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK547759/https:// thoroughbred foals. Jpn. J. Vet. Res. 39: 143–157.
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK547759. 17 Rossdale, P.D. (1993). Clinical view of disturbances in
7 Huff, T., Chaudhry, R., and Mahajan, K. (2020). Anatomy, equine foetal maturation. Equine Vet. J. Suppl. 14: 3–7.
thorax, heart ductus arteriosus. In: StatPearls. Treasure 18 Lombard, C.W., Evans, M., Martin, L. et al. (1984). Blood
Island, FL: StatPearls Publishing https://www.ncbi.nlm. pressure, electrocardiogram and echocardiogram
nih.gov/books/NBK470160. measurements in the growing pony foal. Equine Vet.
8 Scansen, B.A. (2019). Equine congenital heart disease. J. 16: 342–347.
Vet. Clin. North Am. Equine Pract. 35: 103–117. 19 Ohmura, H. and Jones, J.H. (2017). Changes in heart rate
9 Saadi, A., Dalir-Naghadeh, B., Hashemi Asl, S.M. et al. and heart rate variability as a function of age in
(2020). Right to left patent ductus arteriosus, acute Thoroughbred horses. J. Equine Sci. 28: 99–103.
bronchointerstitial pneumonia, pulmonary hypertension 20 Wong, D.M. and Wilkins, P.A. (2015). Defining the
and cor pulmonale in a foal. Equine Vet. Educ. 9: 152–158. systemic inflammatory response syndrome in equine
10 Knottenbelt, D.C. et al. (ed.) (2004). Perinatal review. In: neonates. Vet. Clin. Equine 31: 463–481.
Equine Neonatal Medicine and Surgery E-Book: Medicine 21 Yamamoto, K., Yasuda, J., and Too, K. (1992). Arrhythmias
and Surgery, 1–28. Elsevier Health Sciences. in newborn thoroughbred foals. Equine Vet. J. 24: 169–173.
11 Bardanzellu, F., Neroni, P., Dessì, A. et al. (2017). 22 Giguère, S., Knowles, H.A. Jr., Valverde, A. et al. (2005).
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117. Ad Att. vii. 3.
118. Horace, Sat. II. 3, 239.
119. Ad Att. xi. 25.
120. Ad fam. iv. 5.
121. Ad Att. iv. 6.
122. Ad Att. x. 8.
123. Plin. Hist. nat. xiv. 22.
124. Ad fam. xvi. 21.
125. Brut. ad Cic. ii. 3.
126. De offic. ii. 7.
127. Ad Att. i. 12.
128. Ad fam. xiii. 77.
129. Ad fam. xvi. 22.
130. A. Gell. vii. 3.
131. Ad fam. xvi. 10.
132. Ibid. xvi. 21.
133. Ad fam. xvi. 18.
134. Ad fam. xvi. 3, 4.
135. A. Gell. xiii. 20.
136. Plin. Epist. viii. 16.
137. Virgil, however, always faithful to ancient traditions, places, in Tartarus,
the patron who had deceived his client beside the son who had struck his father.
138. De petit. cons. 9.
139. Ad fam. xiii. 19.
140. Ad Quint. i. 1.
141. Ad fam. xiii. 22.
142. Ibid. vii. 31.
143. Ad Att. vi. 1.
144. I have endeavoured to prove this with more detail in a memoir published
by the Revue archéologique, entitled, Atticus, éditeur de Cicéron.
145. Ad Att. iv. 4, 8.
146. Ad Att. i. 13.
147. Ibid. i. 19.
148. De Leg. i. 7. He is still faithful to this part of an amateur in philosophy,
when he says further on (i. 21), that Antiochus had made him take a few steps in
the Academy, deduxit in Academiam perpauculis passibus. He never penetrated
further.
149. T. Pomp. Att. 13. All the preceding details are taken from the life of
Atticus by Cornelius Nepos.
150. Ad Att. vi. 1.
151. Ad Att. iv. 9.
152. Ibid. vi. 1.
153. Ad Att. vii. 8: soles conglutinare amicitias.
154. It is the saying of Tacitus: pessimum veri affectus venenum sua cuique
utilitas.
155. Ad Att. xiii. 33.
156. It must be remarked, however, that the last letter that we have from
Cicero to Atticus (xvi. 16) contains a proof of the very active steps that Cicero took
to save a part of the fortune of Atticus which was endangered after the death of
Caesar.
157. Ad Att. iv. 8.
158. Ad Att. ii. 1.
159. Ad Att. i. 14.
160. Ibid. xvi. 3.
161. Ibid. xii. 3.
162. Ad Att. xii. 51.
163. Ibid. i. 18.
164. Ibid. xii. 14.
165. Cui potest esse vita vitalis, ut ait Ennius, qui non in amici mutua
benevolentia conquiescat? (Cicero, De Amicit. 6.)
166. T. Liv. xxi. 63: Quaestus omnibus patribus indecorus visus
167. Scipio says so in the Republic (i. 22): Quum mihi sit unum opus hoc a
parentibus majoribusque meis relictum, atque administrate rei publicae, etc.
168. Corn. Nep. Attic. 7: Usus es aetatis vacatione.
169. Nep. Attic. 6.
170. Ad Att. xiv. 10.
171. Ibid. viii. 2.
172. Ibid. x. 15.
173. Ad Att. x. 16.
174. Ad Att. i. 17. See also de Offic. i. 21, and especially i. 26. This last passage
evidently contains an allusion to Atticus.
175. Epist. Brut. i. 17.
176. De Rep. i. 2.
177. Epist. Brut. i. 17.
178. Attic. 10.
179. De Orat. 34.
180. In the time of the Gracchi, the Censor Metellus thus expressed himself in
a speech in which he vigorously attacked bachelors: “Citizens, if we could live
without wives we should all dispense with that encumbrance (omnes ea molestia
careremus); but, as nature has willed it to be as impossible to do without them as it
is disagreeable to live with them, let us sacrifice the charms of so short a life to the
interests of the republic, which must always endure.” This way of encouraging men
to marry seemed apparently very efficacious, since, at the time when men married
less than ever, Augustus thought he ought to have the speech of old Metellus read
to the people.
181. Liv. xxxiv. 3.
182. Pro Muraen. 12.
183. Schol. Bob. p. Sext. ed. Or. p. 304.
184. Schwab. Quaest. Catull. p. 77.
185. All these details, and those that follow, are taken from the Pro Caelio of
Cicero.
186. Macr. Sat. ii. 10.
187. Ovid, Trist. ii. 427.
188. Apul. de Mag. 10. A learned German, M. Schwab, in a book that he has
just published on Catullus (Quaest. Catull. 1862), seems to me to have put the
truth of this assertion of Apuleius beyond doubt.
189. Catull. Carm. 26.
190. Catull. Carm. 86.
191. Cat. Carm. 5.
192. Cat. Carm. 12.
193. Cat. Carm. 70.
194. Ibid. 85.
195. Probably with some woman that Caelius loved. Cicero, in replying to this
letter, tells him that the rumour of his exploits has reached Mount Taurus. Many
suppose he means amorous exploits.
196. Ad fam. viii. 7.
197. Quint. Inst. or, iv. 2.
198. De Ira. iii. 8.
199. Ad fam. ii. 8.
200. Ad fam. viii. 6.
201. Ibid. viii. 4.
202. Ibid. viii. 5. The sense of this phrase is altered in Orelli.
203. Ibid. viii. 14.
204. Ad fam. viii. 13.
205. Ibid. viii. 14.
206. Ad fam. ii. 8.
207. See the excellent memoir of M. Th. Mommsen, entitled Die Rechtsfrage
zwischen Caesar und dem Senat. Breslau, 1857.
208. Ad fam. viii. 14.
209. We see at the end of the eighth book De Bello Gallico, that Caesar had
eight legions in Gaul, one in Cisalpine Gaul, and two that he gave to Pompey. At
the first threat of war he ordered those that were in Gaul to approach the frontier.
After the capture of Corfinium he had three of his old legions with him.
210. Ad Att. vii. 4.
211. Ad Att. vii. 8.
212. Ibid. viii. 12.
213. Ad fam. viii. 15.
214. Ad Att. viii. 11.
215. Ibid. ix. 6.
216. Ad Att. ix. 12.
217. Ad Att. ix. 10.
218. Ad fam. ii. 16.
219. Ibid. vi. 6.
220. Ad fam. viii. 17.
221. De amic. 15.
222. It would be wrong to pass over the name of Matius in silence. A very fine
letter of his on the death of Caesar remains (Ad fam. xi. 28). He was a true friend
of Caesar; but it is to be remarked that he was not one of those whom he made
praetors and consuls, and whose debts he had often paid. Matius never filled any
important political office, and his name would not have come down to us if it had
not been for Cicero’s correspondence.
223. De bell. civ. iii. 53.
224. Ibid. iii. 91.
225. De amic. 15.
226. Ad Att. ix. 19.
227. Ibid. ix. 18.
228. Suet. Caes. 54.
229. Ad Att. x. 4.
230. Ad fam. viii. 15.
231. Pro Flacco, 38.
232. Ad fam. viii. 17.
233. A very curious detail preserved by Quintilian, shows us that Caelius
retained his levity of character and bantering humour in the midst of these grave
affairs in which he staked his life. After his curule chair had been broken he had
another made entirely of leather thongs, and took it to the consul. All the
spectators burst out laughing. The story ran that Servilius had had a strapping in
his youth.
234. Inst. orat. x. 1.
235. Pro Marcello, 9.
236. In Pis. 22.
237. Pro Dom. 28.
238. Ad Quint. ii. 1.
239. Ibid. ii. 3.
240. Pro Sext. 35.
241. Ad pop. pro red. 7.
242. Ad Att. iv. 3. Ego diaeta curari incipio, chirurgiae taedet.
243. Ad Att. iv. 2.
244. Ad Att. iv. 5.
245. Ad Att. iv. 5.
246. Ibid. iv. 6.
247. Ad fam. i. 9.
248. Ad fam. i. 9.
249. In Pis. 32.
250. Ad Quint. ii. 12.
251. Ibid. ii. 15.
252. This at least was the opinion of all the historians of antiquity. We read in
a fragment of a letter from Cicero to Q. Axius quoted by Suetonius (Caes. 9):
Caesar in consulatu confirmavit regnum de quo aedilis cogitaret.
253. Ad Quint. ii. 13.
254. Or only forty-two, if we place his birth in 654. See, on this point, an
interesting note in the Life of Caesar, by Napoleon III., Bk. II. ch. i.
255. Ad fam. vii. 5.
256. Ad fam. vii. 5.
257. Ad Quint. ii. 15.
258. Ad fam. vii. 6: nisi te extrusissemus.
259. Ad fam. vii. 17.
260. Ibid. vii. 13.
261. Ad fam. vii. 18.
262. Ibid. vii. 10.
263. De orat. ii. 3.
264. Ad Quint. i. 2.
265. Caes. 47.
266. Ad fam. vii. 7.
267. Suet. Caes. 67.
268. Suet. Caes. 46, 48.
269. Ad Quint. iii. 1.
270. Ad Quint. iii. 9.
271. Ad Quint. ii. 15.
272. Ibid. ii. 16.
273. Cic. Brut. 72, and Pliny, Hist. nat. vii. 30.
274. Caesar wrote to Cicero twice from Britain. The first letter took twenty-six
days to reach Rome, and the second twenty-eight. This was quick travelling for that
time, and we see that Caesar must have organized his mail-service well.
Furthermore, we know his stay in Britain was very short.
275. Ad Quint. iii. 1.
276. De prov Cons. 13, 14.
277. M. Mommsen completely settles this in his Roman History.
278. De Arusp. resp. 25.
279. Ad Att. vii. 7.
280. Ad Att. xi. 20. I read cognitionem instead of notionem, which does not
seem to me to have any sense.
281. Ad fam. ix. 1.
282. Ad Att. xvi. 31.
283. Ad fam. ix. 5.
284. Ad Att. ix. 20.
285. Ad Att. x. 4.
286. Bell. Afric. 88.
287. Ad Att. ix. 7.
288. The general amnesty that Suetonius speaks of did not take place till much
later.
289. Ad fam. vii. 7.
290. It is unnecessary to say that I believe in the authenticity of this speech: it
has been disputed for reasons that seem to me futile. Further on I shall reply to
those drawn from the character of the speech, by showing that it is less base and
servile than has been asserted.
291. Pro Marc. 4.
292. Ad fam. iv. 4.
293. Pro Marc. 7.
294. Ibid. 8.
295. Philipp. iii. 11.
296. Ad fam. xv. 5.
297. Pro Muraen. 31.
298. Pro Muraen. 35.
299. Pro Mur. 36.
300. Ad Att. ii. 1.
301. Ad Att. xii. 4.
302. Ann. iv. 34.
303. Ad Att. xiii. 46.
304. Caes. Bell. civ. i. 4.
305. Philipp. ii. 32.
306. It is not easy to say what Caesar’s projects were, as his work was
interrupted by his death. Some insist that he only desired a sort of dictatorship for
life; the greater number suppose that he thought of permanently establishing
monarchical rule. The question is too grave to be entered upon incidentally, and
settled in a few words. I will simply say that perhaps he only thought at first of the
dictatorship; but in proportion as he became more powerful, the idea of founding a
monarchy seemed to take more consistency in his mind. Yet it may be inferred
from a passage in Plutarch (Brut. 7), that he was not decided on the question of an
hereditary succession when he died.
307. Ad fam. xii. 17.
308. Brut. 51.
309. Pro Rabir. 7.
310. Pro Rosc. Am. 12.
311. Ad fam. iv. 5.
312. Ibid. xiii. 68.
313. Ibid. xii. 18.
314. Ibid. vi. 9.
315. Pro Marc. 10.
316. Ad Att. xii. 45.
317. Pro Dejot. 12.
318. “All the honest men,” said Cicero (Phil. ii. 12), “in so far as they could,
have killed Caesar. Some wanted the means, others the resolution, several the
opportunity; no one wanted the will.”
319. Ann. i. 3.
320. The authenticity of these letters has been often called in question since
the last century, and has been debated in Germany quite recently with much
warmth, and a distinguished critic, F. Hermann of Göttingen, has published some
remarkable essays, to which it seems to me difficult to reply, in order to prove that
they are really letters of Brutus and Cicero. I have summed up his principal
arguments in Recherches sur la manière dont furent recueillies les lettres de
Cicéron, ch. v.
321. Ad Att. vi. 1.
322. Ad fam. iii. 11.
323. Ad Att. vi. 1.
324. Orat. 10.
325. Ad Att. xiv. 1.—A very curious statue of Brutus is to be seen at the
Campana Museum. The artist has not tried to idealize his model, and seems to
have aimed at nothing but a vulgar exactness; but we can very well recognize in it
the real Brutus. We can trace in that low forehead and the heavy bones of the face a
narrow mind and an obstinate will. The face has a feverish and sickly look; it is at
once young and old, as is the case with those who have never really been young.
Above all we perceive in it a strange sadness, that of a man overwhelmed by the
weight of a great and fateful destiny. In the fine bust of Brutus preserved in the
Museum of the Capitol, the face is fuller and handsomer. The sweetness and
sadness remain; the sickly look has disappeared. The features exactly resemble
those on the famous medal struck during Brutus’ last years, and which bears on the
reverse a Phrygian cap between two daggers, with the threatening legend, Idus
Martiae. Michael Angelo commenced a bust of Brutus, of which the admirable
rough model may be seen at the Uffizi in Florence. It was not a fancy study, and we
see that he had made use of ancient portraits while idealizing them.
326. Ad Att. xv. 1, B.
327. Ad Att. xii. 21.
328. Liv. xlv. 18.
329. Cic. Ad Quint. i. 1.
330. Ad Att. vi. 1.
331. Ad Quint. i. 1.
332. Ad Att. vi. 1.
333. Ibid. v. 21.
334. Ad Att. xi. 4.
335. Ad fam. xv. 15.
336. Ad fam. iv. 9.
337. Cic. Brut. 96.
338. Tusc. ii. 2.
339. See on this question the very interesting work of M. Martha, Les
Moralistes sous l’Empire Romain.
340. Ad Att. xv. 2.
341. Quint. x. 1.
342. Sen. Cons. ad Helv. 9.
343. Epist. Brut. i. 16.
344. App. De bell. civ. iv. 133.
345. Plut. Brut. 12.
346. Those who employed these manœuvres well knew that they were taking
Brutus on his weak side. His descent from him who expelled the kings was much
contested. The more it was regarded as doubtful the more anxious he was to prove
it. To say to him: “No, you are not Brutus,” was to put on him the necessity or the
temptation of proving his origin by his actions.
347. Ad fam. xv. 18.
348. De Offic. ii. 7.
349. De Divin. ii. 2.
350. Brut. 97.
351. Epis. Brut. i. 17.
352. Ibid. x. 16.
353. Ibid. i. 17.
354. Quint. ix. 3.
355. It must, however, be noticed that there are several of Cassius’ letters in
Cicero’s correspondence, and that some of them are witty and very lively. There are
even puns in them.—(Ad fam. xv. 19.)
356. De Bell. civ. ii. 113. Plutarch relates the same thing, and almost in the
same words.
357. Ad Att. xv. 4.
358. De Bell. civ. ii. 120.
359. Ad Att. xiv. 10, and xv. 11.
360. De Bell. civ. iii. 42.
361. Ad Att. xv. 11.
362. Ad fam. xi. 3.
363. Philipp. x. 4.
364. Ad fam. x. 1.
365. Ad fam. xi. 7.
366. Ibid. x. 16.
367. Ad Brut. ii. 7.
368. Ad fam. xi. 23.
369. Philipp. xiii. 19.
370. Philipp. xi. 8.
371. Ad fam. xii. 2.
372. Ad Att. xiv. 20.
373. Ad Brut. i. 10.
374. Epist. Brut. i. 17.
375. Ad fam. ix. 16.
376. Ad Att. xvi. 11.
377. Ibid. xiv. 12.
378. Ad fam. xii. 25: Quem ructantem et nauseantem conjeci in Caesaris
Octaviani plagas.
379. Orelli, Fragm. Cic. p. 465.
380. Suet. Aug. 101.
381. Exploration archéologique de la Galatie, etc., par MM. Perrot, Guillaume
et Delbet. Paris, 1863. Didot. As the Galatians spoke Greek and understood Latin
ill, the official text was put in the place of honour, in the temple itself, and the
translation was placed outside where every one might read it, in order to bring the
narrative of Augustus within their reach. But the exterior of the temple has not
been any more respected than the interior. The Turks have fixed their houses
against the walls, carelessly driving their beams into the marble, and using the
solid masonry as a support for their brick and mud party-walls. All the skill of M.
Perrot and his companion M. Guillaume was required to penetrate into these
inhospitable houses. When they had entered they met with still greater difficulties.
It was necessary to demolish the walls, take away the beams and support the roofs
in order to reach the ancient wall. This was but little. The wall was hammered and
cracked, blackened by dirt and smoke. How could the inscription that covered it be
deciphered? It was necessary to remain for weeks in dark and foul rooms, or on the
straw of a loft, working by candlelight, throwing the light in every direction on the
surface of the marble, and thus gradually winning each letter by extraordinary
efforts of courage and perseverance. This painful labour was rewarded by complete
success. Of nineteen columns of Greek text, the English traveller Hamilton had
copied five completely and fragments of another; M. Perrot brings back twelve
entirely new ones. One only, the ninth, could not be read; it was behind a thick
party-wall that it was found impossible to pull down. These twelve columns,
although they have suffered much from the ravages of time, fill up in great part the
lacunae of the Latin text. They make us acquainted with entire paragraphs of which
no traces remain in the original; and even in passages where the Latin was better
preserved they rectify at almost every step mistakes that had been made in the
interpretation of the text. M. Egger, in his Examen des historiens d’Auguste, p. 412
et seq., has carefully and critically studied the inscription of Ancyra. M. Mommsen,
with the help of M. Perrot’s copy, is preparing a learned work on this inscription,
after which, no doubt, nothing will remain to be done. (M. Mommsen’s work, that
was announced in the first edition of this book, has since appeared under the title:
Res gestae divi Augusti ex monumentis Ancurano et Apolloniensi.)
382. Dio, lii. 14–40. See what M. Egger says of Dio in his Examen des hist.
d’Aug. ch. viii.
383. The figure cannot be read either in the Latin or Greek.
384. The figure cannot be read. The great number of gladiators who fought,
and no doubt perished in these bloody fêtes will be noticed. Seneca, to show how
far men can become indifferent to death, relates that, under Tiberius, a gladiator
complained of the rarity of these grand massacres; and alluding to the time of
Augustus said: “That was a good time! Quam bella aetas periit!”
385. There is some probability, according to a passage of Suetonius (Aug. 52),
that what the Greek text of the inscription calls absolute authority αὐτεξουσιὸς
ἀρχὴ was the dictatorship.
386. I have only summed up here a very curious chapter of Dio Cassius (Hist.
Rom. liii. 17). We see there clearly how the Roman constitution, in which the
separation of powers was a guarantee for liberty, became, by the sole fact of their
concentration, a formidable engine of despotism.
387. The Ancyra inscription gives most precise information on the subject of
this increase. In 725 Augustus took the census for the first time after an
interruption of forty-one years: 4,063,000 citizens were counted in this return.
Twenty-one years later, in 746, the numbers returned amounted to 4,233,000. In
767, the year of Augustus’ death, there were 4,937,000. If, to the figures that
Augustus gives, we add the number of women and children who were not
comprised in the Roman census, we shall see that in the last twenty years of his
reign the increase had reached an average of very nearly 16 per cent. This is exactly
the figure to which the increase of population in France rose, after the Revolution,
from 1800 to 1825; that is, like political circumstances produced like results. It
might be thought, indeed, that this increase of population under Augustus was due
to the introduction of foreigners into the city. But we know, from Suetonius, that
Augustus, contrary to the example and principles of Caesar, was very chary of the
title of Roman citizen.
388. Suet. Aug. 31.
389. De Clem. 9; Divus Augustus mitis fuit princeps. It is true that elsewhere
he calls his clemency a wearied-out cruelty.
390. Suet. Aug. 84.
391. See especially Velleius Pat. ii. 66.
392. Sen. Suas. 6.
TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES
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variations in spelling.
2. Retained archaic, non-standard, and uncertain spellings
as printed.
3. Re-indexed footnotes using numbers and collected
together at the end of the last chapter.
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