To compare the political systems of Turkey, Iran, Malaysia, India, and China in detail, we will

examine their governance structures, political institutions, and key characteristics.

Turkey
Political System: Presidential Republic
1. **Constitution**: Turkey operates under a constitution that has been amended several times,
with the most recent significant amendments in 2017, transitioning from a parliamentary to a
presidential system.
2. **Executive**: The President is both the head of state and government, with significant
executive powers. The current system allows the President to appoint vice presidents, ministers,
and senior bureaucrats.
3. **Legislature**: The Grand National Assembly of Turkey (TBMM) is a unicameral
legislature with 600 members elected every five years through a proportional representation
system.
4. **Judiciary**: The judiciary is theoretically independent, but there have been concerns about
its actual independence and the influence of the executive on judicial appointments and
decisions.
5. **Political Parties**: The political landscape is dominated by the Justice and Development
Party (AKP), with significant opposition from the Republican People's Party (CHP), Peoples'
Democratic Party (HDP), and others.

Iran
**Political System**: Islamic Republic
1. **Constitution**: The 1979 constitution establishes Iran as an Islamic Republic, blending
theocracy with elements of democracy.
2. **Executive**: The Supreme Leader holds significant power over all branches of
government, including the military and media. The President, elected every four years, handles
day-to-day administration but is subordinate to the Supreme Leader.
3. **Legislature**: The Islamic Consultative Assembly (Majles) is a unicameral legislature with
290 members elected every four years. All candidates and legislation must be approved by the
Guardian Council.
4. **Judiciary**: The judiciary is headed by the Chief Justice, appointed by the Supreme
Leader. The legal system incorporates Islamic Sharia law.
5. **Political Parties**: Political parties exist but operate within the limits set by theocratic
principles. Reformist and conservative factions are the main political blocs.

Malaysia

**Political System**: Federal Parliamentary Constitutional Monarchy

1. **Constitution**: Malaysia's constitution defines it as a federal parliamentary democracy

with a constitutional monarchy.
2. **Executive**: The King (Yang di-Pertuan Agong) is the ceremonial head of state, elected
every five years from among the nine hereditary Malay rulers. The Prime Minister is the head of
government, appointed by the King from the elected members of the House of Representatives.
3. **Legislature**: The Parliament consists of two houses: the Dewan Rakyat (House of
Representatives) with 222 members elected every five years, and the Dewan Negara (Senate)
with 70 members, some of whom are appointed.
4. **Judiciary**: The judiciary is independent, with the Federal Court as the highest court.
Judges are appointed by the King on the advice of the Prime Minister.
5. **Political Parties**: The political scene is characterized by coalitions, with the United
Malays National Organisation (UMNO) and its allies historically dominating, though recent
years have seen significant shifts with coalitions like Pakatan Harapan.

India
**Political System**: Federal Parliamentary Republic
1. **Constitution**: India has the longest written constitution, establishing a federal structure
with a strong central government.
2. **Executive**: The President is the ceremonial head of state, while the Prime Minister is the
head of government. The Prime Minister is appointed by the President from the majority party in
the Lok Sabha (House of the People).
3. **Legislature**: The bicameral Parliament consists of the Lok Sabha (543 elected members)
and the Rajya Sabha (Council of States, with 245 members, some elected by state legislatures
and some appointed).
4. **Judiciary**: The judiciary is independent, with the Supreme Court as the apex court.
Judges are appointed by the President on the recommendation of a collegium of senior judges.
5. **Political Parties**: India has a multi-party system with the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP)
and the Indian National Congress (INC) being the two major parties. Numerous regional parties
also play significant roles.

China

**Political System**: One-Party Socialist Republic

1. **Constitution**: The constitution of the People's Republic of China establishes it as a

socialist state under the leadership of the Communist Party of China (CPC).
2. **Executive**: The President is the head of state, and the Premier is the head of government.
Both are members of the CPC, with the General Secretary of the CPC often holding the
presidency. The State Council, led by the Premier, is the chief administrative authority.
3. **Legislature**: The National People's Congress (NPC) is the unicameral legislative body
with about 3,000 members. It is largely ceremonial, with the CPC making major decisions.
4. **Judiciary**: The judiciary is not independent, with the Supreme People's Court being the
highest judicial authority. Judges are appointed by the NPC, and the legal system is influenced
by the CPC.
5. **Political Parties**: The CPC is the only ruling party, although there are eight other minor
parties that participate in the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC),
acting in advisory roles but under the leadership of the CPC.

Comparative Analysis
1. **Concentration of Power**:
- **China and Iran**: Both have highly centralized systems with significant power
concentrated in a single party (CPC) or individual (Supreme Leader).
- **Turkey and Malaysia**: Both have a strong executive branch, but Turkey's recent shift to
a presidential system has centralized power more significantly compared to Malaysia's
constitutional monarchy.
 - **India**: Power is more distributed due to the federal structure, with significant autonomy
granted to states.

2. **Role of Religion**:
- **Iran**: Religion plays a central role in governance, with theocracy deeply integrated into
the political system.
- **Malaysia**: Islam is the official religion, but the political system is secular in its
operations, with significant influence from Malay nationalism.
- **Turkey**: Traditionally secular, but recent years have seen an increased influence of
Islamic values in politics.
- **China and India**: Both have secular states, but religion plays different roles in society;
China maintains strict control over religious practices, while India accommodates a wide range
of religions under its secular framework.

3. **Electoral Systems**:
- **India and Malaysia**: Both have democratic elections with multiple parties competing
for power.
- **Turkey**: Democratic but with concerns over the fairness of elections and media freedom.
- **Iran**: Elections occur, but candidates are heavily vetted by the Guardian Council,
limiting true democratic choice.
- **China**: No competitive elections for the central leadership; the CPC maintains control
over all political appointments.

4. **Judicial Independence**:
- **India and Malaysia**: Relatively high levels of judicial independence, though not
without challenges.
- **Turkey**: The judiciary's independence has been increasingly questioned in recent years.
- **Iran and China**: Judiciary is subordinate to the ruling party or religious authorities.

These comparisons illustrate the diversity and complexity of political systems across these
countries, each shaped by unique historical, cultural, and social factors.