OCR A-level Physics Notes (New Spec)

Hello, I completed my a-levels of Biology, Physics, Maths and Further Maths in June 2019 and
achieved 4A*. Here is a compilation of the notes I created and used during my revision for my
OCR A-level Physics exams. I cannot guarantee these notes contain everything in the spec and
are 100% accurate.

I decided not to sell my notes because I think education shouldn’t be discriminative. I remember
how anxious it made me hearing the other students discuss how fantastic their private
tutors/paid for resources, meanwhile myself and others couldn’t afford the same.

If you’d like to say thank you and support the creator:

https://www.buymeacoffee.com/lottie

Thank you and I wish you all the best in your exams! :)

My Advice for OCR A-level physics:

1) Do as many past paper questions as possible
2) Make sure that you’re actively marking your work- write in-depth annotations and notes
detailing what the mark scheme is actually looking for.
3) Consistently revisit topics that you struggled with at the time, to ensure that you don’t
lose the understanding.
4) Don’t be afraid to ask your teachers for help! It’s what they’re there for!
5) Never forget your units in exam questions!
6) Past paper mark schemes can be quite repetitive, so learn the basic framework of what
a ‘wordy’ question wants.
7) It’s usually a mark per point in ‘wordy’ questions, so don’t make 1 point for a 2 mark
question
8) Always check the keyword for the question; explain, describe, state, analyse ​(Kowalski
analysis!)
Particles and Radioactivity
Alpha Particle Scattering Experiment

Plum Pudding model of the atom

● Atoms made up of a large mass of positive matter with a few negatively charged
electrons spread within it

Rutherford’s experiment disproved the Plum Pudding model

Rutherford's alpha scattering experiment:

● Stream of alpha particles from a radioactive source was fired at a thin gold foil (only a
few atoms thick)
● The alpha particles were scattered by the foil and detected on a screen, which produced
a speck of light

Conclusions:
● Most of the alpha particles went straight through the foil
○ So the atom is mostly empty space
● Some alpha particles were deflected through large angles, so the centre of the atom
must have a large positive charge to repel them (the nucleus)
● Some particles were reflected angles larger than 90 degrees, so the nucleus must be
very small and has a high mass
The nucleus

Proton number = number of protons in the nucleus - atomic number, Z

Nucleon number = the number of protons and neutrons - the mass number, A

Isotopes have the same proton number but a different number of neutrons. They will also have
the same charge and the same chemical properties.

The number of neutrons affects the stability of the nucleus, unstable nuclei may be radioactive

Nuclear radius is proportional to the cube root of the nucleon number

● Diameter of an atom is 0.1nm and the diameter of a nucleus is around 1fm

The nucleus of an atom is very small, massive and is therefore very dense
● Nuclear density is higher than atomic density
The strong nuclear force
The strong nuclear force is an attractive force that overcomes the electrostatic repulsive force
between the positive charges of protons
● Has a short range, can only hold nucleons together when they are separated y a few
femtometers
● The strength of the strong nuclear force falls quickly beyond this distance
● The strong nuclear force works equally between all nucleons
● At very small separations, the strong nuclear force must be repulsive otherwise it would
crush the nucleus to a single point

1) Strong nuclear force is repulsive for very small separations (below 0.5fm)
2) After 0.5fm, the force becomes attractive and reaches a maximum, and then falls to zero
3) After around 3fm, it can no longer hold the nucleons together
Fundamental forces:

● Strong nuclear
○ Experienced by nucleons
○ Range around 1fm
● Electromagnetic
○ Experiences by static and moving charged particles
○ Infinite range
● Weak nuclear
○ Responsible for beta decay
○ Range around 10^-18
● Gravitational
○ Experienced by all particles with mass
○ Infinite range

Fundamental Particles:
A fundamental particle is a particle that cannot be divided into smaller parts. Quarks, electrons
and neutrinos are all fundamental particles

Hadrons are particles that are affected by the strong nuclear force
● They aren’t fundamental particles
● Made of quarks
● Protons and neutrons are hadrons
● The proton is the only stable hadron
● Most hadrons will decay into other particles
● Experience gravitational force

Leptons aren’t affected by the strong nuclear force:

● Interact with other particles using the weak nuclear force and gravitational force (and
electromagnetic force is they are charged)
● 2 types; electrons and neutrinos
● Neutrinos have zero mass, zero charge

Antiparticles
● Each particle has a corresponding antiparticle with the opposite charge and same mass

Particle symbol charge antiparticle symbol charge

proton 1 antiproton -1

neutron 0 antineutron 0
 electron -1 positron 1

neutrino 0 antineutrino 0

Quarks make up hadrons, antiparticles of hadrons are made of antiquarks

Quark symbol charge antiquark symbol charge

up +2/3 anti-up -2/3

down -1/3 anti-down +1/3

strange -1/3 anti-strange +1/3

Protons and neutrons are a type of hadron called a baryon, which is made of three quarks,
hadrons made up of a quark and antiquark are called mesons

Proton = uud neutron = udd

The weak nuclear force can change the quark type

● Hadrons Decay into other particles via the weak nuclear force
● In beta-minus decay, a neutron is changed into a proton
○ A down quark turns into an up quark, an electron and an antineutrino
● In beta plus decay, a proton changes into a neutron
○ Up quark changes to a down quark, a positron and a neutrino
● Charge is always conserved

Individual quarks are bound together by the strong nuclear force

Radioactive decay
If a nucleus is unstable, it will break down to become more stable
This could be because:
● Too many neutrons
● Too many nucleons in total (too heavy)
● Too few neutrons (too many protons)
● Too much energy in the nucleus

The nucleus decays by releasing energy and particles until it reaches a stable form

Radioactive decay is spontaneous and random

● Random
○ Cannot predict when a nucleus will decay
○ Each nucleus has the same probability of decaying per unit time
● Spontaneous
○ Not affected by the presence of other nuclei
○ Not affected by external factors like pressure or temperature

Although the decay of an individual nucleus cannot be predicted, with a large number of nuclei,
their behaviour shows a pattern

A cloud chamber can be used to detect the presence of these types of radiation

Types of nuclear radiation:

● Alpha
○ A helium nucleus
○ 2 protons and 2 neutron
○ Highly ionising due to their larger mass
○ Can be stopped by a few cm of air or paper
● Beta
○ Fast moving electrons
○ Charge e
○ A few mm of aluminium or 1m of air can stop it
● Gamma
○ High energy photons of EM radiation
○ No charge
○ Travel at c
○ Can be stopped by a few cm of lead
○ Least ionising

Charged parallel plates can be used to distinguish between the different types of radiation
The nucleus before decay is the parent nucleus, after decay it is called a daughter nucleus.

The half life of an isotope is the average time it takes for the number of radioactive nuclei to
halve

When calculating half life, measure several times and find an average
The activity of a source is the rate at which nuclei decay, and it is much higher than the
observed count rate
● Measured in Bq
● Depends on
○ Half life of isotope
○ The number of undecayed nuclei present

Decay constant is the probability of decay of an individual nucleus per unit time

Determining half life in reality is easy; measure the number of nuclei using a mass spectrometer,
and measure the activity using a geiger-muller tube

The number of undecayed nuclei decreases exponentially with time

By taking logs of the exponential graph, the half life can be determined from -ln2/gradient

Carbon Dating
● Organisms take in carbon when alive
● They stop taking in carbon when they die
● The ratio of carbon-14 to carbon-12 nuclei for the relic sample is determined
● The current ratio of carbon-14 to carbon-12 nuclei is determined
● The age of the relic is found using the exponential equation
● Other elements with a longer half life than carbon can be used to date ancient rocks
● Limitation:
○ The ratio of carbon-14 to carbon-12 is assumed to be constant
○ Count-rate from relic may be comparable to background count
Decay
Alpha Decay
● Helium nucleus released
● Mass number - 4
● Atomic number - 2
Beta Decay
● Beta Minus decay
○ Caused by weak nuclear force
○ Too many neutrons for stability
○ Neutron turns into a proton and an electron, and an anti-electron neutrino is
released
○ QUARKS; udd to uud
● Beta Plus decay
○ Caused by weak nuclear force
○ Too many protons for stability
○ Proton turns into a neutron and a positron, and an electron neutrino is released
○ QUARKS uud to udd

Einstein’s mass-energy equation

2 interpretations
1) Mass is a form of energy
a) Illustrated by pair production where annihilation causes the entire mass of the
particles to be transformed into 2 gamma photons
2) Energy has mass
a) A moving object has kinetic energy, implying it has more mass than its est mass.

Conservation of mass-energy:
● The total amount of mass and energy in a system is conserved

Deuterium is an isotope of hydrogen, with a nucleus consisting of one proton and one neutron
Separating two nucleons requires energy to be put in, so work is done to overcome the strong
nuclear force. Therefore the total mass of the separated nucleons in greater than the mass of
the nucleus. The difference in mass is known as the mass defect, and the energy difference is
the binding energy.

Binding energy:
● The minimum energy required to completely separate a nucleus into its constituent
protons and neutrons

The greater the binding energy [per nucleon, the more tightly bound the nucleons are hence the
more stable the nucleus is.
Iron-56 has the greatest binding energy per nucleon and is the most stable isotope in nature
The energy is released as kinetic energy

After fission and fusion, the products have a higher binding energy per nucleon, so the
change in energy is released and the mass of the products is less, so the difference in
mass is released as energy.

Nuclear Fission
● Uses uranium-235 and uranium-238 (99.3%)
● Uranium-235 absorbs a thermal neutron and becomes a highly unstable nucleus of
Uranium-236, which splits into Barium-141 and Krypton-92
● Three fast neutrons are produced

The total mass of particles after fission is always LESS than before, the difference is mass is
released as energy

A chain reaction could occur where for every generation, 3^n neutrons would be produced
(exponential growth), releasing too much energy.
Inside a fission reactor

● Fuel rods
○ Contain enriched uranium of U238 and U235
● Moderator
○ Slows down fast neutrons produced by fission
■ Fast neutrons have a low chance of being absorbed by Uranium 235
nuclei, as they bounce off the nuclei
■ Thermal neutrons have a greater chance of producing a fission reaction
○ Material must be cheap and relatively available
■ Made of water or carbon
○ Sometimes the moderator is also a coolant
● Control rods
○ Made of a material whose nuclei absorb neutrons
○ Such as boron or cadmium
○ Position of control rods is adjusted to ensure that only one thermal neutron
survives each fission reaction
○ To stop the reaction, rods are pushed fully into the reactor core
Radioactive waste
● High level
○ E.g. used fuel rods
○ Need to be buried deep underground

Explain why the activity of a radioactive material is a major factor when considering the safety
precautions in the disposal of nuclear waste:
● Short half life means a high initial activity
● Precautions will be needed for the initial period of disposal
● A material with a long half life will stay radioactive for a long time, so needs long term
disposal

Nuclear Fusion
● For nuclei to fuse together, they need to be moved close to each other, so that the
short-rate strong nuclear force can attract them into a larger nucleus
● Hence a high temperature and velocity is needed to overcome repulsive electrostatic
forces between nuclei
Thermal Physics
● The triple point of a substance is one specific temperature and pressure where all three
phases of matter exist in thermal equilibrium. For water the triple point is 0.01 degrees
celsius
● When two objects are in thermal equilibrium, there is no net flow of thermal energy
between them.
● Celsius scale is not perfect because its two fixed points (freezing and boiling pt of water)
vary based on atmospheric pressure.
● The absolute temperature scale uses the triple point of water and absolute zero as fixed
points.

Absolute temperature = celsius temperature + 273

It is possible to observe brownian motion using a smoke cell. The random motion of smoke
particles is caused by air molecules colliding with the smoke particles.

A substance is more dense in a solid phase and least dense in a gaseous phase (excluding
water).

Internal energy is the sum of the randomly distributed kinetic and potential energies of atoms or
molecules within a substance. The potential energies are caused by the electrostatic
intermolecular forces between molecules

At absolute zero, the internal energy is not zero due to the electrostatic potential energy stored
between molecules.

To increase the internal energy of a body, increase temperature or change ohase (solid to
liquid)

Gas has 0 electrostatic potential energy

Liquid has a small negative electrostatic potential energy (negative because energy must be
supplied to break molecular bonds)
Solid has a large negative value.

Specific heat capacity is the energy required per unit mass to change the temperature by 1K or
1°C. It has units Jkg⁻¹K⁻¹

E = mcΔθ
Determining specific heat capacity

● Liquid in vessel with a submerged electrical heater and thermometer

● Connect an ammeter in series between the heater and the power supply and a voltmeter
in parallel across the heater
● Measure the mass of liquid
● Measure change in temperature
● Measure value of I, V and t
● Energy transferred = IVt
● Therefore IVt = mcΔθ
● Rearrange to find c
● Uncertainty
○ Could be caused by heat losses, can be reduced by insulation the beaker
○ False temperature reading, reduced by stirring

Or more accurately, plot a graph of temperature against time, and the gradient will equal IV/mc,
so c can be found by IV/ (m x gradient)

Method of mixtures
● Known masses of 2 substances of different temperatures are mixed
● Recording the change in temperatures for both allows you so can set two specific heat
capacity equations equal to each other.
The specific latent heat of a substance is the energy required to change the phase per unit
mass while at a constant temperature. Q = Lm

Generally more energy is required to change state from liquid to gas, than solid to liquid. This is
because there’s a larger difference in internal energy between a gas and liquid compared to
between a liquid and solid.

Specific latent heat of fusion;

● The energy needed the change the state of 1kg of the substance from solid to liquid
without changing the temperature.
● internal energy increases but the temperature does not change.
● Q = energy to melt

To find the specific latent heat of fusion, use the same equipment from the specific heat
capacity experiment, measure the mass of ice and ensure the ice is at melting point using the
thermometer.
● E = IVt
● IVt = Lm

Specific latent heat of vaporisation;

● The energy needed to change the state of 1kg of the substance from liquid to gas
without the change of temperature
● Q = energy to boil

To find the latent heat of vaporisation, use an electric heater and a condenser to collect and
measure the mass of liquid that changes phase

Vaporisation and fusion can also occur the other way around.
● 100J of energy is required to melt ice to water
● 100J of energy is released to the surrounding to freeze water to ice (solid phase has less
internal energy than liquid phase).
The total energy required to heat and change phase of a substance can be determined using
both Specific Heat Capacity and Specific Latent Heat.

1) Solid warming - E = mc​(solid)Δ​ θ

2) Solid melting at constant temperature - E = mLf
3) Liquid warming - E = mc​(liquid)​Δθ
4) Boiling liquid at constant temperature E = mLv
Charge and Current
An electrical current is the rate of flow of charge around a circuit

Electrical charge can be positive or negative, and is measured in coulombs. Any particle that
has an electrical charge is a charge carrier.

Net charge on an object

●

Millikan’s ‘oil droplet’ experiment:

1) Analysed the motion of electrically charged oil droplets between two oppositely charged
plates.
2) Oil droplets falling through the air experienced gravitational forces, air resistance and
upthrust
3) Some oil droplets were held stationary, as the downwards gravitational force was
balanced by the upwards attractive electrostatic force.
4) He used this to calculate the value of elementary charge.

In metals, charge carriers are electrons, whereas in liquids charge carriers are ions.

The structure of a metal is described as;

● A regular lattice of positive ions
● Surrounded by free electrons
● Positive ion cannot move, but vibrate around a fixed point

Electrons are attracted to the positive end of the wire.

A larger current can be caused by:
1) Mor electrons moving past a given point each second
2) The same number of electrons moving through the metal faster.

Conventional current moves from the positive terminal to the negative terminal, opposite to the
direction of movement of electrons.

Liquids that carry electrical current are called electrolytes.

An ammeter is used to measure electrical currents. They are placed in series and should have
zero resistance.
Kirchhoff’s first law
Conservation of charge- electrical charge cannot be created or destroyed.

Kirchhoff’s first law states that at any point in an electrical circuit, the sum of the currents into the
point is equal to the sum of the currents out of that point.

Mean Drift Velocity

The number of free charge carriers per unit volume is the number density of a material.

Conductors have a high number density, and insulators have a low number density

The narrower the cross sectional area of a wire, the greater the mean drift velocity is.
Energy, Power and Resistance

Potential difference is the energy transferred from electrical energy to other forms per unit
charge. It is the work done by the charge carriers per unit charge,

A voltmeter is used to measure voltage, it is placed in parallel and should have infinite
resistance.

Electromotive force is the work done on charge carriers per unit charge
The Electron Gun

Electrons are released from the surface of a metal by thermionic emission.

The electrons are then accelerated by a high potential difference.
As the electrons accelerate towards the anode, they gain kinetic energy.

Resistance

Resistance is the voltage per unit current.

●
Ohm’s Law: for a metallic conductor at a constant temperature, the current in the wire is directly
proportional to the potential difference across its ends.

As temperature increases, resistance increases since positive ions inside the metal have more
kinetic energy, so vibrate more. This increases the frequency of collisions between charge
carriers and ions.

IV characteristics

Fixed Resistor
Filament Lamp
Chapter 18: Gravitational Fields

A ​gravitational field​ is a region of space in which an object with mass experiences a force;
objects with mass create a gravitational field around them.

F orce
g = M ass

● Gravitational field strength has units NKg-1, which is the same as ms-2
● Gravitational force is always attractive

Gravitational Field Lines

● A radial field is formed around a point mass
● If the field is uniform, field lines will be parallel and equidistant
● Close to the surface of the earth, the gravitational field is uniform

Newton’s law of Gravitation

The force between two point masses is directly proportional to the product of the masses and
inversely proportional to the square of their separation.

GM m
F = − r2

G is the gravitational constant. The minus sign shows that the gravitational force is an attractive
force
GM
g = − r2
Chapter 18: Gravitational Fields

Kepler’s Laws

Kepler’s First Law

1) The orbit of a planet is an ellipse with the sun at one of the two loci
Kepler’s Second Law:
1) A line segment joining a planet and the sun sweeps out equal areas during equal
intervals of time
Kepler’s Third Law
1) The square of the orbital period, T, of a planet is directly proportional to the cube of its
average distance, r, from the sun.

Prove that T 2 = r3 × ( ):
4π 2
GM
Chapter 18: Gravitational Fields

Satellites

v =
√ GM
r
The speed is independent of the mass of the stellite, and constant because they are launched
above the atmosphere, there’s no air resistance.
The only force acting on a satellite is gravitational attraction from the Earth

Types of orbits:
1) Polar Orbit
a) Circles the poles
b) Shows a complete view of the earth over a given period
c) Used for mapping
2) Low earth orbits
a) Close to earth
b) Take a short time to orbit the earth by Kepler’s 3rd Law
3) Geostationary orbits
a) Placed in a specific orbit that remains above the same point of the earth while the
earth rotates
b) The satellite must:
i) Be in orbit above the equator
ii) Rorate in the same direction as the earth’s rotation
iii) Have an orbital period of 24 hours

Uses of Satellites:
1) Communication
a) TV, satellite radio
2) Military uses
a) Reconnaissance
3) Scientific research
a) Study space, pollution
4) Weather
Chapter 18: Gravitational Fields

Gravitational Potential

● Gravitational potential at a point is the work done per unit mass in bringing the object
from infinity to the point
● gravitational potential is zero at infinity
● Has unit JKg-1
● Scalar quantity

All masses attract each other- and external energy is done to move objects apart. All values of
gravitational potential are negative.

−GM
Vg = r

Gravitational Potential Energy

The work done to move the mass from infinity to a point in a gravitational field

ΔE = mΔV g

Escape Velocity:
1 2 GM m
2 mv = r
Chapter 18: Gravitational Fields
Ideal Gases
1 Mole = the amount of substance that contains as many atoms are there are in 12g of
carbon-12.

Number of particles (N) = Number of moles (n) x Avogadro’s constant

Molar mass is the mass of one mole of a substance.

The kinetic theory of matter is a model used to describe the behaviour of atoms in an ideal gas.

Assumptions made in the kinetic model for an ideal gas:

1) The gas contains a very large number of molecules moving in random directions with
random speeds
2) The molecules occupy a negligible volume compared with the volume of the gas
3) The collisions of atoms with each other and the container walls are perfectly elastic
4) The time of collisions between atoms is negligible compared to the time between
collisions
5) Electrostatic forces between atoms are negligible except during collisions.

When an atom collides with a container wall elastically, the total change in momentum is -2mu

Boyle's Law
The pressure and volume of a gas are inversely proportional at a fixed temperature and mass.

Experiment for investigating Boyle’s Law:

1) Reduce the pressure of a pressurised gas
2) Inside a volume scale to read the volume
3) Change pressure using a pressure gauge measuring in Pa
Charles's Law
The pressure of an ideal gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature if the volume
and mass remain constant.

This can be used to find a value for absolute zero:

1) Increase the temperature of a water bath containing a flask of gas connected to a
pressure gauge
2) Record the pressure as the temperature increases.
3) Plot a graph of pressure (y axis) and temperature (x axis)
4) Absolute zero is where pressure = 0, the x intercept.

Combining Gas Laws

and

Root mean square speed

Since particles in a gas move randomly, the average velocity would be 0ms⁻¹.

1) All velocities squared

2) Mean of all squared velocities found
3) Rooted

The range of speeds of the particles in a gas at a given temperature is known as the
Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution.
The hotter the gas, the greater the range of speeds
The Boltzmann Constant

● Is used to relate mean kinetic energy of the atoms in a gas to the gas temperature.
● Boltzmann constant, k, Is equal to the gas constant R divided by Avogadro’s constant
and has units JK⁻¹

The Boltzmann constant can be substituted into the ideal gas equation,

pV = nRT gives pV = nkNₐT

The number of particles in a gas is N, which is equal to n x Nₐ

Therefore pV = NkT

Further, combining the rms equation with pV = NkT, we can derive​ (1/2)mc​2​ = (3/2)kT

● kinetic energy and absolute temperature are proportional to each other

Particles with different masses at the same temperature will have the same average KE,
but different rms speed. Since helium atoms have a small mass, they have higher rms
speeds so they can escape the earth’s atmosphere.

There is no electrical potential energy in an ideal gas- all internal energy is kinetic
energy.
X-rays
● EM waves
● Harmful to living cells and can kill them
○ Hence used in cancer treatment
● X-rays are produced when fast moving electrons are decelerated by interaction with
atoms of a metal
○ The kinetic energy of the electrons is transformed into x-ray photons
● An x-ray machine contains an x-ray tube which produces x ray photons, which pass
through the patient to the detection plate
● Digital detection plates has replaced photographic plates because images can be stored
and shared on computers

The X-ray Tube

● Evacuated tube
○ So that electrons can pass through the tube without interacting with gas atoms
● An external power supply creates a high potential difference
● The cathode is a heater which produces electrons by thermionic emission
● Electrons are accelerated towards the anode, which is made from a target metal, such as
tungsten which has a high melting point
● X-ray photons are produced when electrons are accelerated by hitting the anode.
● The remainder of energy is transformed into thermal energy in the anode
● Oil Is often circulated to cool the anode,or the anode is rotated spread the heat over a
larger surface areas
● X-ray tube lined with lead to shield the radiographer from many x rays

Maximum Energy of x-ray photon = maximum kinetic energy of the electron

Attenuation
X-ray photons interact with the atoms of the material they pass through
Photons can be scattered or absorbed by the atoms, which reduces the intensity of the x-rays.

Attenuation Is used to describe the decrease in intensity of EM radiation as it passes through soft
matter.

Attenuation mechanisms:
1) Simple scatter
a) 1-20 keV
b) X-ray photon interacts with an electron in the atom, but has less energy than the
energy required to remove the electron
c) The x-ray photon bounces off without any change to its energy
2) Photoelectric effect
a) Energy less than 100 keV
b) X-ray photon is absorbed by one electron in the atom
c) The electron uses this energy to escape from the atom
d) This mechanism used mostly for hospital x-ray imaging
3) Compton scattering
a) 0.5-5 MeV
b) The x-ray photon interacts with an electron inside the atom
c) The electron is ejected from the atom but the x-ray photon does not disappear
d) It scatters with reduced energy
e) Both energy and momentum are conserved
4) Pair production
a) Energy equal to or greater than 1.02MeV
b) X-ray photon interacts with the nucleus of the atom
c) It disappears and all the EM energy of the photon is used to create an electron
and a positron

For a given substance and energy of photons, the intensity falls exponentially with thickness of a
substance.

The higher the value of attenuation coefficient, the better the absorber of x rays the material is
Soft tissues have low absorption coefficients
● A contrast medium is used to improve visibility of their interval structures
● Iodine and barium compounds often used
○ Elements with a large atomic number
○ The attenuation coefficient is proportional to the cube of the atomic number
○ Iodine used as a contrast medium in liquids (e.g. To view blood flow)
○ Barium sulfate is used toimage digestive systems

X-rays are also used for medical therapy as well as imaging. Linear accelerators are used to
create high energy X-ray photons to kill cancerous cells by compton scattering and pair
production.

CAT scans
● Computerised axial tomography
● Records a large number of X-ray images from different angles and assembles them into a
3D image using a computer

Describe how a CT scan image is produced

● X-ray source and the detector move around the body
● X-rays pass through the same section of the body, but from different directions and
angles
● Produces a thin slice image through the body
● More x-rays are absorbed by dense material with a high atomic number
● A contrast medium can be used
● It is better at differentiating other organs than a simple x-ray
● The patient is moved a small distance and the process is repeated
● A computer analyses the data and forms a 3D image

Describe how the components of a CAT scanner are used to produce a three-dimensional
image of a patient.
● X-ray tube rotates around (the patient) / X-ray beam passes through the patient at
different angles
● A thin X-ray beam is used
● Image(s) of slice(s) / (cross) section(s) through the patient are taken X-ray tube moves /
spirals along (the patient)
● The signals / information / pulses / data (from the detectors) are used by the computer
(and its software) to produce a 3D image

Full body CT scans are not offered for the regular checking of healthy patients because patients
are exposed to ionising radiation which could cause cancer/damage cells CT scans are also
expensive and time consuming
Advantages and Disadvantages
● X-rays are quicker and cheaper
● CAT scans create 3D images
○ Can assess shape, size and position of disorders
● Can distinguish between soft tissues with similar attenuation coefficients
● CAT scans expose the patient to much more radiation than from an X Ray
● Patients must remain still during the scanning process, since movement blurs the image
The Gamma Camera
● Uses radioactive isotopes injected into the patient
● detected using a gamma camera

● Gamma-emitting sources are used

○ gamma photons are the least ionising and can penetrate through the patient to be
detected externally
● Radioactive isotopes chosen usually have a short half life
○ to ensure high activity from the source, so only a small amount is required to form
the image
○ the patient is not subjected to a high dosage of radiation that continues long after
the procedure
● The isotopes are produce using an onsite particle accelerator

To ensure that the radioactive isotope goes to the target organ the isotope is combined with
elements that will target the desired tissues, to make a medical tracer

How does a Gamma Camera work

● A gamma camera detects the gamma photons emitted from the medical tracer
● Gamma photons travel towards a collimator, (long thin tubes made of lead), or any
photons arriving at an angle are absorbed by the lead, so only those travelling along the
axis of the tubes enter the scintillator.
● The scintillator is made of sodium iodide, a single gamma photon striking the scintillator
produces thousands of photons of visible light
● Not all the gamma photons produce light photons,since there’s a low chance of the
gamma particle interacting with the scintillator

● The photons of visible light travel through the light guide into photomultiplier tubes
● Photomultiplier tubes are arranged in a hexagonal pattern, a single photon of light is
converted into a voltage, and the photomultiplier tubes are all connected to a computer,
which can process the electrical signals and produce an image of the concentrations of
the medical tracer within the patient’s body.

● A gamma camera produces an image that shows the function and processes of the body
rather than its anatomy (unlike an X Ray)
A photomultiplier tube works by:
● A single photon of visible light hits a photocathode, producing a photoelectron
● The electron is accelerated to an electrode. And the impact of the electron with the
electrode produces 4 secondary electrons , which are then accelerated towards another
electrode
● The number of electrons increases exponentially, and produce a voltage.

Name and describe the function of the main components of a gamma camera.
● Collimator / lead tubes
● gamma (ray photons) travel along the axis of lead tubes (AW)
● Scintillator / Sodium Iodide (crystal) and ....... gamma ray / gamma photon produces
(many) photons of (visible) light
● Photomultiplier (tubes) / photocathode and dynodes and ...... (electrical) pulse / signal /
electrons produced by photon(s) of visible light
● Computer and ....... signals / pulses /electrons (from photomultiplier tubes) are used to
generate an image
● QWC: Quality of image improved by narrower / thinner / longer collimators OR longer
scanning time
PET scans
● Positron Emission Tomography
● Uses medical tracers
○ Made using a particle accelerator
● A PET scan produces slices through the body
○ Produces a 3D image
○ But uses GAMMA radiation instead of x-rays

● Patient lies on table surrounded by a ring of gamma detectors

● Each detector is made of a photomultiplier tube and a sodium iodide scintillator
● Patient injected with medical tracer
● Positrons from decaying isotopic nuclei annihilate with electrons inside the patient by pair
production and release 2 gamma photons travelling in opposite directions
○ Momentum is conserved
● The PET scanner detects the gamma radiation and by comparing the difference in arrival
time, measured by opposite detectors, a computer can determine the point of annihilation

Explain the basic principles of PET scanning, including how the image is formed.
● The brain / body is surrounded by a ring of (gamma) detectors /gamma camera(s).
● The positrons (from the F-18 nuclei) annihilate electrons.
● The annihilation of a positron and an electron produces two (identical gamma) photons
travelling in opposite directions.
● The delay time between these two photons / gamma rays is used to determine the
location of the annihilation / F-18 / tracer.
● Computer connected to detectors / gamma camera and an image is formed by the
computer (using the electrical signals from the detectors).
Advantages and Disadvantages
● Non-invasive technique
● Very expensive
○ facilities required to make tracers
Ultrasound
● Ultrasound is sound waves with a frequency above 20kHz, beyond the range of human
hearing
● Ultrasound used in medical imaging is 1-15MHz
● Can be reflected, refracted or diffracted
● Wavelength is so small that ultrasound can be used to identify small features

The Piezoelectric effect:

● Crystals (e.g. quartz) produce an emf when compressed or distorted, or become distorted
when an emf is applied
● Reversible process
● “The application of a p.d. across a crystal causes an expansion/contraction”
Ultrasound inducer:
● High frequency alternating potential difference is applied across opposite faces of the
crystal
● This compresses and expands the crystal
● If the frequency equals the natural frequency of the crystal, it causes it to resonate and
emit pulses of ultrasound

● A transducer is also used to detect ultrasound

● Any ultrasound incident on the transducer, will cause it to vibrate and hence produce an
alternating emf, which can be detected

A-scans
● Simplest type of ultrasound scan
● Records a straight line through patient
● Single inducer
● Can determine thickness of bone, or distance between lens and retina
● Each pulse of ultrasound will be partially reflected and partly transmitted at the boundary
between any two tissues
● The reflected pulse will be received by the transducer, and will have less energy than the
original pulse
● The pulsed voltage is displayed on an oscilloscope or computer, as voltage against time

B-scans
● 2D image
● Transducer is moved over the skin
● The output of the transducer is connected to a high speed computer, which produces a
row of dots on a digital screen, where eat dot corresponds to a boundary between two
tissues
● The brightness of the dot is proportional to the intensity of the reflected ultrasound
Advantages:
● Non ionising, so is harmless
● Non invasive
● Quick

Describe and explain the principles of a B-scan.

● Ultrasound reflected at boundary (between materials)
● B-scan takes place in different directions.
● The intensity of the reflected ultrasound depends on the acoustic impedances of the
materials (and this is greater when the difference between the acoustic impedances is
greater).
Acoustic Impedance
● When a beam of ultrasound is incident at a boundary between two substances, a
proportion of its intensity will be reflected and the remainder refracted
● The fraction of the ultrasound intensity reflected depends on the “acoustic impedance” of
both media

● Acoustic impedance = “the speed of ultrasound in the material x density of the material”
○
○ Unit kgm-2s-1

● Greater reflection at bone-muscle than blood-muscle

Coupling Gel
● When an ultrasound transducer is placed on the skin, air pockets will form, which would
result in a huge amount of reflection (due to air-skin boundary)
● Coupling gel with an acoustic impedance similar to skin (acoustic matching) is smeared
on the skin and transducer, filling the air gaps, so that minimum ultrasound is reflected.

Doppler Imaging
● The frequency of ultrasound changes when it is reflected off a moving object
● Used to evaluate blood flow in blood vessels and organs, and can be used to reveal
blood clot, narrowing of blood vessels
● Prope is held at an angle to the blood vessel

Describe how high-frequency ultrasound can be used to determine the speed of blood
through the arteries of a patient.
● Ultrasound transducer / device / probe emits and detects ultrasound
● The transducer / device / probe is placed at an angle (to the artery)
● Ultrasound is reflected by the blood / cells
● change in frequency / wavelength (of the reflected ultrasound) is related to speed of
blood
Module 3: Forces and motion

Forces
● Define a vector quantity
○ A quantity that has (both) magnitude / size and direction
● Define the newton
○ (Force is 1 N ) when a 1 kg mass has an acceleration of 1 m s-2
● Define acceleration
○ acceleration = rate of change of velocity
● Define work done by a force
○ work (done) = force distance moved in the direction of force
● Define density
○ density = mass/volume or ‘density is mass per (unit) volume’
● Define velocity.
○ velocity = rate of change of displacement

Moments
● Define torque of a couple
○ torque of a couple = one of forces × perpendicular distance (between forces)
● Define a couple
○ A pair of equal and opposite forces (with their lines of action separated by a
distance)
● Define moment of a force.
○ moment = force perpendicular distance from pivot / axis / point
● State the principle of moments
○ (When an object is in equilibrium the) sum of clockwise moments (about a point)
= sum of anticlockwise moments (about the same point)

Stopping Distances
● Define stopping distance of a car
○ stopping distance = thinking distance + braking distance
● Define thinking distance.
○ The distance travelled (by the car) from when the driver sees a problem and the
brakes are applied
● Define braking distance.
○ The distance travelled by the car after the brakes are applied until the car stops
Energy
● State the principle of conservation of energy.
○ Energy cannot be created or destroyed; it can only be transferred/transformed
into other forms or The (total) energy of a system remains constant
● Define centre of gravity
○ A point where the (entire) weight of the object (appears to) act
● Define power.
○ power = work (done)/time or power = energy/time or power = rate of work done
● Define the Watt
○ (1 watt is equal to) 1 joule (of energy transferred) per second
● Explain what is meant by gravitational potential energy
○ GPE linked to ‘position’ / height (in a gravitational field)

Materials
● State Hooke’s law.
○ The extension (applied) force (on spring) (as long as the elastic limit is not
exceeded)
● Define the Young modulus of a material and state the condition when it applies
○ Young modulus = stress/strain As long as the elastic limit is not exceeded / in the
linear region of stress against strain graph / Hooke’s law is obeyed
● Define ultimate tensile strength of a material.
○ Maximum stress material can withstand (before fracture)
● Explain what is meant by plastic deformation.
○ Material is permanently deformed / longer when stress / force is removed
● Define the force constant of a spring
○ force/extension or force per (unit) extension

Momentum
● State Newton’s first law
○ A body will remain at rest or continue to move with constant velocity unless
acted upon by a force
● State Newton’s second law
○ Force is proportional to the rate of change of momentum
● State Newton’s third law
○ When one body exerts a force on another the other body exerts an equal (in
magnitude) and opposite (in direction) force on the first body
● State the principle of conservation of linear momentum
○ Total momentum is constant/conserved For a closed system/provided no
external forces
● Explain what is meant by an inelastic collision.
○ Some loss of kinetic energy during the collision
● State what is meant by a perfectly elastic collision
 ○ Collision in which kinetic energy is conserved
● Define linear momentum.
○ (linear momentum =) mass x velocity
● Define the impulse of a force
○ Force x time for which the force acts / duration of collision
Module 4: Electrons, waves and photons

Waves basics

● Explain what is meant by a progressive wave.

○ is a transfer of energy as a result of oscillations (of the source/medium/particles
through which energy is travelling)
● Define wavelength
○ distance between (neighbouring) identical points/points with same phase (on the
wave)
● Define frequency
○ number of waves passing a point /cycles/vibrations (at a point) per unit
time/second
● Define wave speed
○ distance travelled by the wave (energy) per unit time/second
● Define phase difference
○ between two points on the same wave/waves of the same frequency, how far
through the cycle one point is compared to the other
● Describe diffraction
○ paths spread out after passing through a gap or around an obstacle

Interference

● Explain what is meant by infra-red radiation

○ infra red is part of the e-m spectrum it has a longer λ than the visible region/light
● Define interference
○ when (two) waves meet/combine/interact/superpose, etc. (at a point) there is a
change in overall intensity/displacement
● Define coherence
○ constant phase difference between waves
● State the principle of superposition of waves.
○ when two(or more) waves meet/cross/interact (at a point) the (resultant)
displacement is the (vector) sum of the (individual) displacements
● State what is meant by a plane polarised wave
○ oscillations (of particles/e-m fields along the wave) are in one direction only,
perpendicular to the direction of energy transfer
Quantum
● Define the electronvolt
○ an eV is the energy acquired by an electron accelerated/moves through a p.d. Of
1V
○ 1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 J
● Explain what is meant by the de Broglie wavelength of an electron.
○ Electrons are observed to behave as waves/show wavelike properties where the
electron wavelength depends on its speed/momentum
● Define a photon
○ a quantum of EM energy/radiation
● State what is meant by the photoelectric effect
○ emission of electron(s) from a metal (surface) when photon(s)/ light/uv/em
radiation are incident (on surface)
● Define the work function φ of the metal.
○ φ is the minimum energy required to release an electron from the metal/surface

Spectra
● Define a continuous spectrum
○ all wavelengths/frequencies are present
● Explain what is meant by a line spectrum
○ light emitted from excited atoms produces a line spectrum a series of bright lines
against a dark background
● Explain what is meant by an absorption line spectrum
○ a series of dark lines against a continuous spectrum

Circuits

● what is meant by the term mean drift velocity of the electrons in the wire.
○ the average displacement/distance travelled of the electrons along the wire per
second
● Define the resistivity ρ of a metal wire
○ ρ = RA/l with terms defined
● State Kirchhoff’s first law and the physical quantity conserved.
○ (sum of/total) current into a junction equals the (sum of/total) current out
conservation of charge
● State Kirchhoff’s second law and the physical quantity conserved
○ (sum of) e.m.f.s = (sum /total of) p.d.s/sum of voltages in/around a (closed) loop
(in a circuit) energy is conserved
● Define the term e.m.f
 ○ energy transferred from source/changed from some form to electrical energy; per
unit charge (to drive charge round a complete circuit)
● Explain the meaning of the term internal resistance
○ energy is transferred into thermal energy /lost as heat in (driving charge through)
the battery.
● Define resistance
○ resistance = p.d./current
● Define the kilowatt-hour (kWh)
○ (a unit of) energy equal to 3.6 MJ or 1 kW for 1 h/AW
● Define the term intensity
○ intensity is the (incident) energy per unit area per second
● Define the term potential difference
○ energy transfer per unit charge from electrical to other forms
● Define terminal potential difference
○ energy transferred across the terminals from the supply per unit charge
Module 5: Newtonian world and astrophysics

Thermal Physics + Ideal Gases

● State Boyle’s law
○ pressure is inversely proportional to volume for a fixed mass of gas at constant
temperature
● Define the internal energy of a system
○ Total / sum of randomly (distributed) kinetic energy and potential energy of
molecules/atoms
● Explain the term thermal equilibrium
○ no net heat flow between objects
● Define specific heat capacity
○ Energy required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a substance by unit
temperature rise

Circular Motion

Oscillations
● Explain what is meant by simple harmonic motion.
○ acceleration is (directly) proportional to displacement and is directed in the
opposite direction to the displacement, towards the equilibrium position

Gravitational Fields
● State Kepler’s third law
○ The cube of the planets distance (from the Sun) divided by the square of the
(orbital) period is the same (for all planets)
● State, in words, Newton’s law of gravitation
○ Force is proportional to the product of the masses and inversely proportional to
the square of their separation
● Define gravitational field strength
○ Force per unit mass (at a point in a gravitational field)
● State what is meant by the term geostationary orbit.
○ Spaceship is (always vertically) above the same point on (the surface of the
Earth/ planet)

Stars + Cosmology
● State Hubble’s Law
○ The speed of recession of a galaxy is proportional to its distance (from Earth /
observer)
● State the cosmological principle
○ The universe is homogeneous. and isotropic (on a large scale).
● Explain what is meant by Doppler effect.
○ Change in the frequency / wavelength because of source / ‘observer’ moving
● Explain what is meant by a white dwarf when describing the evolution of a star
○ A core / ‘star’ left behind after a red giant (has shed its outer layers)
● Explain what is meant by intensity.
○ power per (unit) area
● Define the parsec
○ Distance from a base length of 1 AU that subtends an angle of 1 (arc) second
Module 6: Particles and medical physics

Capacitance
● Define the farad.
○ coulomb per volt
● Define capacitance
○ capacitance = charge per (unit) p.d.
● Define the time constant of a capacitor-resistor discharge circuit
○ The time taken for the p.d / current / charge to decrease to 1/e of its (initial)
value.

Electric fields
● Define electric field strength
○ electric field strength = force per unit (positive) charge
● Explain what is meant by an electric field.
○ A region in which a charged particle experiences a force / acceleration

Magnetic Fields
● Define magnetic flux.
○ magnetic flux = (magnetic) flux density (cross-sectional) area Idea of (magnetic)
field normal to the plane of the area
● State Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction
○ Induced / e.m.f is proportional / to the rate of change of (magnetic) flux
● Define magnetic flux linkage
○ magnetic flux linkage = magnetic) flux × (number of) turns

Particle Physics
● Explain the term binding energy of a nucleus.
○ (Minimum) energy to separate (all) nucleons / protons and neutrons (of a
nucleus)

Radioactivity
● Define the decay constant.
○ The probability of decay of a nucleus per unit time

Nuclear Physics
● Explain what is meant by activity
○ Rate of decay / disintegration of nuclei or Number of (photons) emitted per unit
time
● Describe what is meant by an induced fission reaction of a uranium-235 nucleus.
○ Mention of slow / thermal neutron(s) The nucleus splits up into two nuclei /
smaller nuclei / daughter nuclei / smaller fragments (and neutrons)
Medical Imaging
● Describe the piezoelectric effect
○ The application of a p.d. across a material / crystal causes an expansion /
contraction / vibration
● Explain what is meant by the Compton effect.
○ (X-ray) photon interacts with an (orbital) electron The (scattered) photon has a
longer wavelength / lower frequency / lower energy AND The electron is ejected
(from the atom at high speed)
● Explain what is meant by the relaxation time of protons
○ The (mean) time taken by the nuclei / protons to return to low / original / initial
energy state.
● Define the acoustic impedance of a materia
○ (acoustic impedance =) speed (of ultrasound in the material) × density (of
material)
Module 3: Forces and motion

Define linear momentum

● Mass x velocity

Explain why linear momentum is a vector quantity:

● Both magnitude and direction
● Velocity is a vector quantity
● And product of a scalar x vector is a vector

Explain what is meant by a perfectly elastic collision:

● Collision in which kinetic energy is conserved

Explain in terms of the behavior of molecules how a gas exerts a pressure o the walls of its
container:
● Many molecules collide with the walls A change in momentum occurs when
molecule(s) collide with (and rebound from) the walls of container Force is rate of
change of momentum The force exerted by the molecule(s) on wall is equal to force
exerted by the wall on the molecule(s) (by Newton’s third law) pressure (on wall) =
(total) force (on wall) / area (of wall)

Explain in terms of the behaviour of molecules why the pressure of a gas in a container of
constant volume increases when the temperature increases:
● Molecules move faster/have greater kinetic energy (at higher temperature) There is an
increased rate of collision / more collisions occur per second / collisions occur more
often Each collision involves a greater change in momentum

The escape velocity from the Earth is 11 kms-1. Explain why helium atoms with a lower rms od
2.5kms-1 still escape from the atmosphere:
● Helium atoms have a range of speeds / kinetic energies
● Hence some atoms have a velocity greater than 11 km s-1 / escape velocity

State newton’s second law of motion

● Rate of change of momentum (of a body) is proportional / equal to the (net) force (acting
on it)
● and takes place in the direction of that force.

Explain using newton’s third law, the relationship between the impulse experienced by object A
and object B during an impact
● Force on B (due to A) is equal and opposite to force on A (due to B) time (of contact) / t
is same for both AND Impulse = Ft impulse on A is equal and opposite to impulse on B

Define acceleration
 ● Rate of change of velocity

State two factors that affect the acceleration of an object

● Mass of the object
● Net force applied to the object

Describe how the magnitude of the drag force for an object is affected by its speed
● Drag is directly proportional to speed squared
● The faster the object, the higher the drag

A skydiver opens their parachute, and eventually reaches a new lower terminal velocity,
describe and explain how the magnitude of the deceleration of the skydiver changes as her
velocity reduces:
● When the parachute opens, drag increases above weight
● As speed decreases. Drag decreases
● Decelleration decreases
● Decelleration equals zero at the terminal velocity

State the principle of moments:

● The sum of the anticlockwise and clockwise moments about a fixed pivot equals zero

Explain how a graph shows that the material obeys hooke’s law:
● Straight line through the origin

Module 4: Electrons, waves and photons

Define resistivity of a material

● The product of resistance and area divided by length of the material

State Ohm’s Law and explain how a graph shows a component objeys it
● p.d./voltage must be proportional to current
● as long as temperature and/or (other) physical conditions remain constant
● line is straight and through the origin
Explain the shape of a current against time graph of a thermistor

● thermistor heats up/temperature increases

● resistance (of thermistor/circuit) decreases (so current rises)
● temperature/resistance becomes constant (after 2 s) because thermal equilibrium
reached

Define the term e.m.f

● energy transferred from source/changed from some form to electrical energy; per unit
charge (to drive charge round a complete circuit)

Explain what is meant by a progressive wave

● is a transfer of energy as a result of oscillations (of the source/medium/particles through
which energy is travelling)

Describe how a transverse wave differs from a longitudinal wave

● displacement/oscillation (of particles) is normal/perpendicular to direction of energy
transfer
● transverse wave displacement/oscillation (of particles) is parallel to direction of energy
transfer in longitudinal wave

Explain what is meant by the diffraction of a wave

● wavefronts/paths spread out after passing through a gap or around an obstacle

Explain in terms on path difference why the intensity of sound heard varies as a person moves
along a line in front of two loudspeakers connected to a signal generator:
● waves superpose/interfere at points along PQ (constructively and destructively)
● path difference from sources of nλ for maximum/loud sound/intensity
● path difference of (2n + 1)λ/2 for minimum/quiet sound/intensity

If the connections to one of the loudspeakers is reversed, describe what the person hears:
● intensity of sound (at maxima) unchanged
● positions of maxima and minima reversed
State 2 features of a stationary wave:
● energy is trapped in pockets
● there are nodes/positions of zero amplitude/motion
● there are positions where there is max amplitude
● adjacent points have different amplitudes
● all points between nodes in phase

Explain how a stationary wave is formed on a string:

● incident wave is reflected (at the fixed end of the string)
● the reflected wave (or it) interferes/superposes with the incident wave (to produce the
stationary wave)

Points which have the same distance from a node will have the same amplitude
● All points on the wave oscillate at the same frequency
● All points in alternating segments oscillate in phase

Explain why X-rays are easily diffracted by layers of atoms but radio waves are not:
● wavelength of X-rays is close to atomic spacing/AW or wavelength of radio waves many/
million times the atomic separation maximum/significant diffraction occurs when
radiation wavelength ~ spacing (between diffracting planes) within material

A receiving aerial is rotated 180 degrees, explain what will be observed on the ammeter:
● Maximum when aerial is parallel
● Zero when at 90 degrees
● Max again at 180 degrees

State kirchhoff's first law and the physical quantity conserved:

● The sum of the currents into a point must equal the sum of the currents leaving the point
● Conservation of charge
State kirchhoff's second law and the physical quantity conserved:
● The sum of the voltages equals the sum of the emfs in a closed loop
● Conservation of energy
Describe and explain the photoelectric effect:
Served to behave as waves where the electron wavelength depends on its momentum
Describe what is meant by a photon:
● A quantum of electromagnetic energy
Describe what is a continuous spectrum:
● All the wavelengths are present

Explain what will happen to photons of a specific energy (equal to a transition_ if the photons
passed through a cloud of atomic hydrogen:
● Some photons will be absorbed by hydrogen
● Hydrogen atoms become excited
● Hydrogen atoms emit photons of energy equal to the transition.
Module 5: Newtonian world and astrophysics

Explain why geostationary satellites orbit above the equator:

● So they can stay above the same position on the earth

Suggest the main advantage of using this type of satellite for TV companies:
● aerial/dish can be fixed to a point in one specific direction and does not need to be
changed

State Kepler’s 3rd law:

● The time period of the orbit squared os directly proportional to the average radius cubed
for all planets

State the term used for the energy required to change a solid into a liquid:
● Latent heat of fusion

Define the internal energy of a system

● Total / sum of randomly (distributed) kinetic energy and potential energy of
molecules/atoms

Explain why there's a change in internal energy when a mass of water at 100 degrees becomes
an equal mass of water vapour at 100 degrees
● Potential energy of the molecules increases Kinetic energy of molecules is the same for
water and steam (since the temperature is the same)

Suggest two reasons why the actual increase in temperature of the air in a greenhouse is likely
to be much lower than calculated:
● Heat lost to structure of greenhouse / contents
● Heat lost through glass / from the greenhouse / surroundings
● Average rate of loss of heat reduces (as temperature falls)

State Newton’s Law of gravitation:

● Force is proportional to the product of the masses and inversely proportional to the
square of their separation

Describe the energy changes when the masses move from the lowest point of the oscillation to
the highest point
● Spring has kinetic energy, gravitational potential energy and elastic (potential) energy
● KE: zero (at lowest point), increasing to max at equilibrium point, decreasing to zero (at
highest point)
● GPE: increases (as masses rise from lowest to highest point)
● strain / elastic energy: decreases (as masses rise from lowest to highest point)
Describe the motion of atoms in a solid at a temperature well below its melting point:
● vibrate (about their ‘fixed’ positions)

Describe the effect of a small increase in temperature on the motion of atoms in solid
● greater amplitude / greater frequency (of vibration)

Describe the effect on the internal energy and temperature of a solid when it melts:
● Internal energy increases
● Temperature remains constant

Define electromotive force:

● Energy transferred to electrical energy per unit charge

Define magnetic flux

● The product of magnetic flux density and the perpendicular cross sectional area it acts
on
Explain how an emf is induced in the secondary coil of a transformer:
● A changing (magnetic) flux is produced (in the primary coil / in the iron core) The iron
core links this (magnetic) flux /(magnetic) flux density to the secondary coils The
changing (magnetic) flux / (magnetic) flux density through secondary induces e.m.f. (in
secondary coils)

How could you modify a transformer to increase the maximum emf induced in the secondary
col:
● More coils / turns on secondary Less coils / turns on primary Laminate the core

State 3 assumptions of the kinetic model of ideal gases:

● particles move with rapid, random motion
● elastic collisions
● negligible (or zero) volume of atoms (compared with volume of container)
● no intermolecular forces (except during collisions)
● collision time negligible (compared to time between collision)

Use the kinetic theory of gases to explain how a gas exerts a pressure:
● molecules make collisions with walls/surface
● (hence) exerts a force on the wall (or each collision has a change of momentum)
● Pressure = force/area

State two features of geostationary orbits:

● Equatorial orbit
● Period is 24h
State two conditions concerning the acceleration of an oscillating object that must apply for
simple harmonic motion
● Acceleration is (directly) proportional to the displacement from the equilibrium position
● Acceleration is always directed towards the equilibrium position

Name and explain useful applications of resonance:

● Cooking: microwaves cause water molecules to resonate
● Woodwind: reed causes air column to resonate
● Brass: lips cause air column to resonate
● MRI: radio waves (in a magnetic field) cause nuclei/proton to resonate
● Radios: radio waves cause electrons/current to resonate
● Person on swing: intermittent pushes cause swing to resonate

Name and explain problems caused by resonance:

● Bridges: wind/walkers causes bridge to resonate
● Vehicles: engine vibrations cause panels/mirrors to resonate
● Earthquakes: ground vibrating causes buildings to resonate
State two conclusions that can be made about air molecules from observing brownian motion in
a smoke cell:
● air molecules are moving in different directions/randomly with different speeds
● mass/size of air molecules is smaller than smoke particles

Explain the term thermal equilibrium:

● no net heat flow between objects

Name a modification that can be used to reduce the rise in temperature of a brake disc:
● Use a material with a higher specific heat capacity

State Newton’s first law of motion:

● An object will remain at rest or at a constant velocity unless acted on by a net force

A jet plane moves in a vertical circle, at a particular point the pilot experiences weightlessness.
State and explain at what point in the circe this weightnessless may occur:
● At the top of the vertical circle
● The centripetal force is provided by the weight

Describe simple harmonic motion:

● Motion where the acceleration is directly proportional to the displacement and
acceleration is always towards the equilibrium

Describe gravitational field strength:

● Force per unit mass (at a point in a gravitational field)

State and explain two reasons why more energy than expected is required to heat water in a
Kettle:
● Some heat/energy used to heat kettle
● Some heat/energy lost to surroundings/air/environment.
● Some heat/energy used to boil water before kettle switches off

Suggest why the pressure exerted by air on each face of a container is the same
● large number of particles that are moving randomly means that at any instant the
number of collisions on each face will be the same

State the effect a net force has on the motion of an object

● Causes the object to accelerate in the direction of the force

Define impulse of a force:

● the product of force and the time it acts on an object for.

Suggest why the mass f a tennis racket will be slightly different to what is calculated in a
momentum question:
● The person holding the racket will also change momentum

An object will lose contact with a moving plate when:

● At the highest point of oscillations
● When acceleration is greater than g

When does resonance occur:

● When the driving frequency of oscillation s equals the natural frequency of the objet

Define specific heat capacity;

● The energy required per unit mass to raise the temperature of a object by one unit
temperature

Describe the difference between latent heat of fusion and latent heat of vaporisation
● *latent heat of fusion is the energy required to change a solid to a liquid, whereas latent
heat of vaporisation is the energy required to convert a liquid to a gas

State a conclusion about the movement of gas molecules provided by brownian motion:
● Move haphazardly

Explain why when two like charges approach, the larger nucleus has a velocity but the smaller
mass does not:
● There there’s repulsion between the like positive charges
● By the conservation momentum, if the smaller mass mostops stationary, the larger mass
must have a velocity

State newton’s second law:

 ● Rate of change of momentum (of an object) is proportional to the resultant force acting
upon it

Suggest why it takes longer to heat a metal using a laser than expected:
● Thermal energy transferred to other parts of the object
● Some photons aren’t absorbed by the metal

State what is meant by the internal energy of a gas:

● The sum of random kinetic and potential energies of all molecules in the gas

Explain why the internal energy of a gas differs from a liquid:

● If the gas is at a higher temperature, it must have a higher kinetic energy
● The potential energy of a gas is higher than the potential energy of a liquid

Module 6: Particles and medical physics

Describe and explain in terms of the movement of electrons how the potential difference across
a discharging capacitor changes:
● Charge on plate decreases
● Electrons move anticlockwise from the negative plate to the positive plate, through the
resistor
● The potential difference decreases exponentially
● Equation

Describe the evidence for the hot big bang model of the universe:
● Galaxies moving apart
● Shown by red shift of light
● Must have began at a point
● Cosmic microwave background radiation

Explain why the magnitude of magnetic flux through a coil varies as it rotates in a field:
● Component of cross sectional area to the magnetic flux density changes as the cool
rotates and magnetic flux is the product of flux density and cross sectional area
● Maximum flux when the area is perpendicular to the field

State faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction:

● The rate of change of magnetic flux density is directly proportional to the induced
emf

State and explain the effect on the magnitude of the maximum induced emf across the ends
of a coil when it’s rotated with twice the frequency:
● Maximum emf will be twice the original value
● The rate of change of magnetic flux has doubled
Explain why the activity of a radioactive material is a major factor when considering the
safety precautions in the disposal of nuclear waste:
● Short half life means a high initial activity
● Precautions will be needed for the initial period of disposal
● A material with a long half life will stay radioactive for a long time, so needs long term
disposal

Explain how a fission reaction is able to produce energy:

● Mass of the products is lower, and by e = mc^2, energy is released equivalent to the
mass defect

Two protons fuse together, explain how they are able to remain together
● A strong attractive nuclear force holds them together

Explain why a proton must have a very large velocity for fusion to occur:
● As the ptoon travels towards the stationary proton, it experiences a repulsive force
that slows it down
State and describe one way in which X-ray photons interact with matter:
● the photoelectric effect where an (orbital) electron is ejected from atom
● Compton scattering where X-ray scattered by the interaction with (orbital) electron
● Pair production where X-ray photon interacts with the nucleus / atom and an electron
and positron are produced

Explain how contrast media are used to improve the quality of the x ray image:
● Different soft body tissue produce little difference in contrast/attenuation
● (Contrast media with) high atomic number / Z used / iodine or barium (used to give
greater contrast)
● liquids injected or swallowed into soft tissue areas

Describe how the alpha particle scattering experiment provided evidence for the existence,
charge and size of the nucleus
● Most of the alpha particles went straight through (some deviated through small
angles)
○ Hence most of the atom is empty space
● Some / a very small number of alpha particles were scattered / repelled through
large angles / angles more than 90
○ This showed the existence of (a tiny) positive nucleus
○ The size of the nucleus is about 10-14 m
Describe the nature and range of the three forces acting on the protons and neutrons in the
nucleus:
● Gravitational (force)
○ This force is attractive AND is long-ranged / obeys ‘1/r2 relationship’
● Strong (nuclear force/interaction)
○ This force is attractive (at larger distances) or repulsive at short distances
AND is short-ranged / ~ 10-14 m
● Electrostatic / electrical (force) / coulomb (force)
○ This force is repulsive between protons / zero between neutrons / zero
between protons and neutrons AND is long-ranged / obeys ‘1/r2 relationship’

State one reason for using non-invasive techniques in medical diagnosis:

● Less risk of infection
Describe the use of medical tracers to diagnose the condition of organs:
● Tracer is injected into the body / placed inside the body / circulates the body
● Tracer is absorbed by organ / shows blockage
● Beta detector / gamma camera (is used to detect radiation from the body)

Describe the principles of positron emission tomography (PET)

● A positron / beta-plus emitting tracer / source is used
● The positron annihilates with an electron (inside the patient)
● This produces two gamma photons
● The photons travels in opposite directions
● The patient is surrounded by a ring of gamma detectors
● The arrival times of the photons / delay time indicates location (of tumour inside the
body)
● A 3-D image is created (by the computer connected to the detectors)

Describe the principles of ultrasound scanning

● A (piezoelectric) crystal / transducer is used to send pulse(s) of ultrasound (into the
patient)
● Wave / ultrasound / pulse / signal is reflected (at the boundary of tissue)
● The (intensity of the) reflected signal depends on the acoustic impedances (at the
boundary)
● The (time of) delay is used to determine the depth / thickness

Explain the difference between an ultrasound Ascan and B Scan

● A-scan is one directional / B-scan involves different directions or angles
● B-scan consists of many A-scans
● B-scan produces 2-D or 3-D image
Describe the process of induced nuclear fission:
● A neutron is absorbed by a (massive / uranium) nucleus
● The nucleus splits into two (smaller/daughter) nuclei and (one or more) neutrons

Explain how nuclear fission can provide energy:

● In a fission reaction there is a decreases in the mass (According to E = mc2) mass is
converted into energy
● The (total) binding energy of the products is greater than the binding energy of the
original nucleus
● The difference in the binding energies is released as energy

Suggest a suitable material that can be used as a moderator in a fission reactor and
explain its role:
● Moderator: water / graphite / carbon
● It slows down the (fast-moving) neutrons / reduces the (kinetic) energy of neutrons
● Slow-moving neutrons have greater chance of causing fission (than fast-moving
neutrons)

In a space occupied by both uniform electric and magnetic fields, describe what happens if
the electric field strength is unchanged but the magnetic flux density is increased, to the
path of the electrons
● The force on the electrons due to the magnetic field increases above the force due to
the electric field
● This causes the electrons to drift downwards.

Define magnetic flux:

● The product of magnetic flux density and the perpendicular area that it acts on
State 2 quantities conserved in beta decay:
● Number of nucleons
● Lepton number
● Momentum
● Mass-energy

Describe what happens in beta-plus decay using the quark model:

● Up quark becomes a down quark
● A positron and a neutrino are released

Explain what is meant by radioactivity is random:

● It cannot be predicted when a radioactive nucleus will decay

State 2 main properties of X-ray photons:

● Travel at c in a vacuum
 ● No charge
● Highly ionising

Name an element used as a contrast material in x ray imaging. Explain why contrast
materials are used in the diagnosis of stomach problems:
● Barium / iodine
● (Contrast medium absorbs X-rays because it) has large attenuation coefficient / has
large absorption coefficient / has large Z values
● Ideal for imaging the outline (of soft tissues)

Explain what is meant by activity:

● The rate of radioactive nuclei decaying in a sample

Name and describe the function of the main components of a gamma camera:
● Collimator
○ gamma photons travel along the axis of lead tubes
● Scintillator
○ gamma photon produces many photons of visible light
● Photomultiplier tubes
○ electrons produced by photon(s) of visible light
● Computer
electrons (from photomultiplier tubes) are used to generate an image
● Quality of image improved by narrower / thinner / longer collimators OR longer
scanning time

State 2 main properties of ultrasound:

● Longitudinal wave
● Frequency above 20kHz

Describe how the piezoelectric effect is used in an ultrasound transducer and receiver:
● Emission:
○ Piezoelectric crystal connected to an alternating e.m.f / p.d / current making it
vibrate and resonate (and hence emits ultrasound)
● Reception:
○ Ultrasound makes the piezoelectric crystal vibrate and resonate and this
produces (alternating) e.m.f. / p.d / current

Explain why a gel is used between the ultrasound transducer and the patient’s skin during a
scan:
● Without the gel, the ultrasound would be reflected (at the skin /air interface)
● Gel and skin has similar acoustic impedance / Z (values)
Explain a method of using ultrasound to determine the speed of blood in an artery in the
arm:
● Transducer placed at an angle to the artery
● Ultrasound pulses are reflected by moving blood cells
● The frequency / wavelength (of ultrasound) is changed
● Change in frequency is related to the speed (of blood) or change in wavelength is
related to the speed

State 2 properties of a black hole:

● Very dense / infinite density / very small / singularity
● Very strong gravitational field therefore light cannot escape from it

State what is meant by the big bang. Describe how it explains the origin of the microwave
background radiation:
● Creation of the universe from which space/time evolved
● At the start the universe was hot / infinitely dense
● Expansion of the universe led to cooling
● The current temperature of universe is 2.7 K
● The wavelength of the gamma radiation stretched to microwaves by the expansion.
● Cosmological principle is supported because CMBR is isotropic

Suggest how the microwave background radiation may evolve in the future:
● Further expansion will lead to cooling
● The wavelength of the EM radiation gets longer and microwaves become radio
waves
In a uniform magnetic field, if the speed of the electron doubles, but the period stays the
same, explain why:
● BQ = mv/r, where the time period equals v/r, therefore T is a constant, as BQ/m is
constant

What properties should a uniform electric field have?

● Field lines run north to south
● Field lines met a conductor’s surface at 90 degrees
● Field lines should be equal distances apart

State faraday’s law of EM induction:

● The rate of change of magnetic flux linkage is directly proportional to the emf
induced

Explain how an emf is induced across the ends of the secondary coil:
● Alternating magnetic flux in the primary coil
● Flux in iron core
 ● Secondary coil is linked by an alternating flux

State a property of a hadron:

● Made of quarks
● Experience the strong nuclear force

State einstein’s mass-energy equation and define all the terms:

● E = mc^2
● Change in energy = change in mass x speed of light

Energy is released in both fission and fusion reactions

Describe two differences between fission and fusion reactions:

● Fission involves splitting nuclei, fusion involves fusing niceli
● Fission reactions require neutrons where fusion reacts require high temperatures
and pressures

Explain why high temperatures and pressures within stellar cores are necessary for fusion
● There is repulsion between nuclei
● At high temperature, nuclei have a higher kinetic energy
● Therefore a greater chance of fusion
● At high temperatures nuclei get close enough to experience the strong nuclear force

Describe what is meant by an induced fission reaction:

*thermal neutrons used to split a nucleus into 2 smaller daughter nuclei

Explain what is meant by the piezoelectric effect:

● The application of a voltage through crystals causes them to change shape and
produce a voltage

Define acoustic impedance of a material

● The product of density and speed of sound in that material

Suggest one main difference between a pulse of ultrasound frequency in air and in the
patient:
● It will have a higher velocity in the patient

Describe the evolution of the universe from the separation of the four fundamental forces to
the formation of atoms:
● Expansion and cooling
● Creation of matter
● More matter than antimatter
● Quarks and leptons
● Quarks combine to form hadrons
● Imbalance of neutrons and protons
● Protons and neutrons form nuclei
Describe how you would demonstrate that a sound wave of wavelength 0.1m emitted from a
loudspeaker can be diffracted:
● use a slit/hole/ barrier width of gap/position beyond barrier comparable to wavelength
microphone/observer’s ear suitably placed sound detected/heard outside ‘geometrical
shadow’ region (showing diffraction)
A student wishes to investiaget wether the period of oscilliation of a simple pendulum is
constant for all angles of swing. Describe jow the student should caryr out the investigation
including, details of how measurements are made, how the reults would e used to form a
conclusoom amd the major difficultly likely to ne emcoimtered amd jow tjs might be overcome:
● angle measured with protractor stated or shown on the diagram stop-watch/ms
timer/data-logger to measure time stated or shown on the diagram Conclusion: compare
periods for different angles stated/implied OR plot period against angle major difficulty:
angle of swing decreases during the timing of the swing solution: e.g. measure time for
¼, ½ or 1 swing accurately (using electronic timer/datalogger) OR use data logger with
motion sensor to record many swings and analyse how the period changes over time OR
video the motion with onscreen timer and analyse
Define electromotive force
● Energy transferred to electrical energy per unit charge
Define magnetic flux
Product of magnetic flux density and the perpendicular cross sectional area it acts on

Explain how an emf is induced in the secondary coil of a transformer:

● Changing magnetic flux produced in primary coil
● The iron core links this to the secondary coil
● The changing magnetic flux through the secondary coil induces an emf

State how you could change the transformed to increase the maximum emf induced:
● Increase the number of coils

The charge stored by 2 capacitors in SERIES in a circuit is the same

Describe how the alpha particle scattering experiment provided evidence for the existence,
charge and size of nucleus:
● Most of the alpha particles went straight through (some deviated through small angles)
● Hence most of the atom is empty space
● Some / a very small number of alpha particles were scattered / repelled through large
angles / angles more than 90
● This showed the existence of (a tiny) positive nucleus
● The size of the nucleus is about 10-14 m

Describe the nature and range of 3 forces acting on the protons and neutrons in the nucleus:
● Gravitational (force)
○ This force is attractive AND is long-ranged
● Strong (nuclear force/interaction)
○ This force is attractive (at larger distances) or repulsive at short distances AND is
short-ranged
● Electrostatic
○ This force is repulsive between protons / zero between neutrons / zero between
protons and neutrons AND is long-ranged

Assumption made in determining density of the nucleus:

● Nucleons are packed together with no empty space

Describe the use of medical tracers to diagnose the condition of organs:

● Tracer is injected into the body
● Tracer is absorbed by organ / shows blockage
● Beta detector / gamma camera (is used to detect radiation from the body)
Describe the principles of PET scanning
● A positron emitting tracer / source is used
● The positron annihilates with an electron (inside the patient)
● This produces two gamma photons
● The photons travels in opposite directions
● The patient is surrounded by a ring of gamma detectors
● The arrival times of the photons / delay time indicates location (of tumour inside the
body)
● A 3-D image is created (by the computer connected to the detectors)

Describe the principles of ultrasound scanning:

● A (piezoelectric) crystal / transducer is used to send pulse(s) of ultrasound (into the
patient)
● Wave / ultrasound / pulse / signal is reflected (at the boundary of tissue)
● The (intensity of the) reflected signal depends on the acoustic impedances (at the
boundary)
● The (time of) delay is used to determine the depth / thickness

Explain the difference between an Ascan and B scan

● A-scan is one directional / B-scan involves different directions or angles / B-scan
consists of many A-scans / B-scan produces 2-D or 3-D image

Describe the process of induced nuclear fission

● A neutron is absorbed by a (massive / uranium) nucleus The nucleus splits into two
(smaller/daughter) nuclei and (one or more) neutrons

Explain how nuclear fission can provide energy

● In a fission reaction there is a decreases in the mass (According to E = mc2) mass is
converted into energy Or The (total) binding energy of the products / smaller nuclei is
greater than the binding energy of the original nucleus The difference in the binding
energies is released as energy

Suggest a suitable material which can be used as a moderator in a fission reactor

● water / graphite / carbon It slows down the (fast-moving) neutrons / reduces the (kinetic)
energy of neutrons Slow-moving neutrons have greater chance of causing fission (than
fast-moving neutrons)

Describe and explain in terms of movement of electrons how the potential difference across a
capacitor changes as it discharges
● Electrons / they move in an anticlockwise direction Charge on plates decreases /
electrons neutralise positive charge p.d. decreases exponentially
Heavier ions are accelerated by a potential difference in a velocity selector:
● The velocity produced by the pd is less
● Force from magnetic field is reduced, but electric field stays the same
● So beam deflects

Two protons fuse together, explain how the protons are able to remain together:
● attractive strong (nuclear force)
State and describe one way in which x ray photons interact with matter:
● the photoelectric effect where an (orbital) electron is ejected from atom / atom is ionised
● Compton scattering where X-ray scattered by the interaction with (orbital) electron
● Pair production where X-ray photon interacts with the nucleus / atom and an electron
and positron are produced

Explain how contrast media are used to improve the quality of x ray image:
● Different soft body tissue produce little difference in contrast/attenuation (Contrast media
with) high atomic number / Z used / iodine or barium (used to give greater contrast)
liquids injected or swallowed into soft tissue areas / or examples of such

Fusion reactions between hydrogen nuclei occur inside stars, explain why very high
temperatures and pressures are necessary for fusion:
● There is repulsion between nuclei
● At high tmeprerayre nuclei have a high KE
● Greater chance of fusion
● At high temp, nuclei get close enough to experience the strong nuclear attractive force
Describe what is meant by induced nuclear fission:
● Thermal neutron usd to split a nucleus into 2 smaller nuclei

Explain what is meant by the piezoelectric effect:

● Application of a voltage through crystals causes them to change shape and the force
applied produces a voltage

Suggest one difference between ultrasound in air and in patient:

● Travels faster in patient

Describe the structure of a fission reactor:

● Fuel rod: Contain the uranium (nuclei) / fissile material Control rods: Absorb (some of
the) neutrons Controlled chain reaction: The control rods are inserted into the reactor so
as to allow (on average) one neutron from previous reaction to cause subsequent fission
(AW) Moderator: Slows down the (fast-moving) neutrons / lowers the KE of (fast moving)
neutrons / makes the (fast moving) neutrons into thermal neutrons Slow moving
neutrons have a greater chance of causing fission / of being absorbed (by U-235) /
sustaining chain reaction
Quantities conserved in a fission reaction
 ● Fharge
● Nucleon number
● Momentum
● Mass-energy
Energy is released from fission as kinetic energy
Describe how x rays are produced in an X Ray tube:
● (Fast-moving) electrons hit a metal / an anode The kinetic energy of the electrons is
transferred into X Rays / photons / EM waves
Describe a CAT scan and explain an advantage:
● X-ray beam passes through the patient at different angles / X-ray tube rotates around
the patient A thin fan-shaped beam is used (AW) Images of ‘slices’ through the patient
(in one plane are produced with the help of computer software) X-ray tube / detectors
are moved along (the patient for the next slice through the patient) Advantage: 3D image
/ better contrast between different (soft) tissues
Why might the estimated speed of an electron be larger than the actual speed?
● Mass of electron is greater than the rest mass
Describe carbon-dating and explain one of its major limitations:
● 1. Plants / living things take in carbon(-dioxide) or plants / living things stop taking in
carbon after death 2. The ratio of carbon-14 to carbon-12 (nuclei) for the relic sample is
determined 3. The current ratio of carbon-14 to carbon-12 nuclei is determined 4. The
age of the relic is found using ‘ Limitation: The ratio of carbon-14 to carbon-12 is
assumed to be constant / count(-rate) from relic may be comparable to background
count(-rate)
Explain the term binding energy of a nucleus:
● Minimum energy required to separate all nucleons of a nucleus

Explain what is meant by a medical tracer and give an example;

● Radioactive substance that is ingested / injected (into patient) Technetium(-99m) /
Iodine(-131) / fluorine(-18)
Describe the function of the components of a gamma camera:
● Collimator – gamma (ray photons) travel along the axis of lead tubes or allows parallel
gamma (ray photons travel to the scintillator) Having thin / long / narrow (lead) tubes
makes the image sharper / less blurred (QWC mark) Scintillator – gamma ray photon
produces many/thousands of photons of (visible) light Photomultiplier - An electrical
pulse is / electrons are produced from the light (photons) Computer – Signals (from
photomultiplier tubes) are used to produce an image

Describe how ultrasound can be used to determine the speed of blood in an artery:
● Ultrasound is reflected by (moving) blood (cells) The frequency / wavelength (of
ultrasound) is changed (AW) The change of frequency is related to speed of blood /
change of wavelength is related to speed of blood / ‘frequency speed of blood’
Radioactivity is a random process because it cannot be predicted when a nucleus will decay
Name an element used as a contrast material in x ray imaging, explain why contrast materials
are used in the diagnosis of stomach problems:
● Barium / iodine (Contrast medium absorbs X-rays because it) has large attenuation
coefficient / has large absorption coefficient / has large Z values Ideal for imaging the
outline (of soft tissues)
Explain what is meant by activity:
● The rate of radioactive nuclei decaying in a sample
State 2 main properties of ultrasound:
● Longitudinal wave
● Frequency above 20khz

Explain why a gel is used between the transducer and the patient’s skin during a scan::
● Without the gel, the ultrasound would be reflected (at the skin /air interface) or The gel
allows (maximum) transmission of ultrasound (into the body) Gel and skin has similar
acoustic impedance / Z (values) or There is a large difference between the Z (values) of
air and skin
Explain whether 2 waves are coherent:
● Constant phase difference and are continuous

Define the electronvolt:

● Energy acquired by an electron accelerated through a pd of 1 Volt
Explain what is meant by the debroglie wavelength of an electron:
● Electrons are observed to behave like waves, where the electron wavelength depends
on its momentum
Potential difference = work done per unit charge from electrical to other forms
Phase difference = how far through the cycle one pint is compared to another

Describe what is meant by mean drift velocity of electrons:

● he average displacement/distance travelled of the electrons along the wire per second;
(over time/on average) they move slowly in one direction through the metal/Cu lattice
(when there is a p.d. across the wire); (because) they collide constantly/in a short
distance with the lattice
Explain what energy levels are and how they can be used to explain the emission of photons
from atoms:
● energy levels explanation: electrons have discrete energies in atom/AW each photon
produced by electron moving between levels photon energy equal to energy difference
between levels electron loses energy/making transition in correct direction
State the principle of superposition of waves
● When two or more waves meet at a point in space the resultant displacement is equal to
the vector sum of the individual displacements of waves meeting at a point

State the effect on the fringes observed from a double slit experiment if red light is used instead
of blue light:
● Red light has longer wavelength and separation between fringes increases
● Since x is proportional to the wavelength, and D and a are constants

Explain why electrons are emitted from a zinc plate when a weak intensity UV light is used, but
not visible light:
● One-to-one interaction between photons and electrons
● Energy of photon is independent of intensity
● energy of uv photons > work function of zinc

Define electrical potential at a point in space

● The work done per unit positive charge in bringing a charge from infinity to that point

Describe the nature of the strong nuclear force:

● Acts between hadrons
● Short range force
● Repulsive below 0.5fm attractive upto 3fm

Explain why high temperatures are required for fusion reactions to take place in stars
● The protons / nuclei repel each other (At high temperature) particles have more KE and
hence can get close (enough to fuse)

Describe how a PET scan is used to locate an area of increased activity within the patient:
● The patient is surrounded by gamma detectors
● The positrons from the F-18 annihilate electrons inside the patient
● Each annihilation produces two gamma photons travelling in opposite directions
● The arrival times are used to locate position of increased activity

Suggest the impact that PET scanners not being in all hospitals may have on the treatment and
diagnosis of patients in the country:
● Some patients may not get the treatment because of where they live
● longer waiting lists

In an x ray tube, the wavelength of x rays photons emitted is independent of the cathode
material

Explain how the stationary wave is formed on the stretched spring:

● Waves are reflected at the pulley end.
 ● This produces nodes and antinodes on the string.

State what is meant by the photoelectric effect:

● The emission of electrons from the surface of a metal when electromagnetic waves (of
frequency greater than the threshold frequency) are incident on the metal.

Discuss how the particle nature of radiation was used to validate the photon model:
● The wave model cannot explain why there is a threshold frequency for metals.
● The photon model proposed one-to-one interaction between photons and electrons and
this successfully explained why threshold frequency exists.
● Energy of photon (hf) must be greater than or equal to work function of metal.
● The kinetic energy of emitted electrons was independent of the incident intensity.

Describe and explain how capacitor plates acquire opposite charges:

● Electrons in the circuit move in a clockwise direction and electrons are deposited on
plate B.
● (An equal number of) electrons are removed from plate A giving it a positive charge (of
equal magnitude).

Describe the similarities and differences between a gravitational field of a point mass and
electric field of a point charge:
● Similarity
○ The field strength or force 1/separation^2 or both produce a radial field.
● Differences
○ Gravitational field is linked to mass and electric field is linked to charge.
○ Gravitational field is always attractive whereas electric field can be either
attractive or repulsive.

PET scanners are expensive, discuss the ethical issues this raises in the treatment of patients:
● Doctors have to make difficult decisions about who can and cannot have a PET scan.
Some patients will miss out on PET scans because of their location / not all patients will
have access to the scans.

Briefly describe the function of the collimator, scintillator and photomultiplier tubes in a gamma
camera
● Collimator
○ Only gamma photons travelling along the axis of the lead tubes are detected
● Scintillator
○ A gamma photon produces many photons of visible light
● Photomultiplier tubes
○ An electrical pulse is produced from each photon of visible light entering a
photomultiplier tube
Discuss whether a long or short collimator tube would be more suitable in a gamma camera:
● The long and thin tubes would be suitable because gamma photons over smaller spread
of angles
● This would produce a clearer and sharper image of the patient

If they give you the number of charge carriers, you need to divide by the volume to calculate the
number density

Describe how you can demonstrate in the laboratory that the reflected light is plane polarised
● Use a polaroid / polarising filter
● Rotation will change intensity

State 2 wave phenomena that can be observed

● Reflection Diffraction Interference / superposition

Explain why the output signal from the receiver fluctuates between minimum and maximum
values as a receiver moves between two points between two coherent microwave emitters:
● Interference / superposition (of microwaves along PQ)
● Maximum (signal) / constructive (interference) when waves are in phase
● Minimum (signal) / destructive (interference) when waves are in antiphase

Identify the two types of errors and suggest how they can be reduced:
● Random
● Systematic
● Take (many) repeat readings and average

Explain the photoelectric effect using a gold leaf electroscope in terms of photons:
● Energy of visible light photon < work function (of zinc)
● Energy of UV photon > work function (of zinc)
● Collapse of leaf linked to removal of electrons
● One-to-one interaction of photon and (surface) electron
● Photon energy is independent of intensity / Intensity linked to rate of photons (incident
on the zinc plate)

Describe the observations of the alpha particle scattering experiment:

● Most of the (alpha) particles went through without (much) deflection, hence the atom is
mostly empty / space / vacuum
● Some of the (alpha) particles were scattered (through large angles / greater than 90),
hence there must be a nucleus (at the centre of the atom).
● The nucleus is very small compared with the atom
● Positive charge at the centre / nucleus is positive
● Most of the mass (of the atom) is at centre / dense nucleus
Describe and explain an experiment that can be carried out to confirm the beta minus radiation
emitted from the lead nuclei:
● Aluminium (sheet placed between source and detector) The count (rate) reduces

Explain why a high speed proton is necessary to trigger the nuclear reaction shown
● Proton is repelled (by nucleus) (High-speed) proton can get close to (oxygen) nucleus

Name a medical imaging technique that uses fluorine 18 and state one benefit of this technique
● Used in PET (scans)
● Used to diagnose function of organ / brain / body Detection of cancer / tumour
● Non-invasive / no surgery / no infection 3D (image)

Describe how the components of a CAT scanner can produce high quality images of the internal
structures of a patient
● X-ray (tube) moves around the patient
● A thin (fan-shaped X-ray) beam is used
● (Images / scans of) cross-sections through the patient are taken
● three-dimensional image is produced
● (Soft) tissues can be identified
OCR AS Physics Required Practicals
Measuring the acceleration due to gravity:

1) Measure h from the bottom of the ball bearing to the trapdoor

2) Flick the switch to start the timer and disconnect the electromagnet, so the ball bearing
falls
3) The timer stops when the ball bearing reaches the trap door
4) Use the time measured by the timer, and the distance fallen to find a value of g
5) Using s = ut + ½ at²
6) Error in measurement of h

Investigate how the distance a trolley rolls affects its speed:

1) Measure length of trolley

2) Create a start line on ramp to ensure the same starting position
3) Measure the angle of the ramp
4) Place trolley on ramp and let go
5) The data logger will record the time taken for the trolley to pass through the lightgates
6) Calculate the velocity by dividing time/length of trolley
7) Repeat for different starting positions.

Experiment to find the centre of mass:

1) Hang object freely from a point
2) Hang a plumbline from the clamp stand and draw a line vertically down on the object
when the plumbline acts
3) Hang the object by a different point
4) Repeat
5) Where the two lines cross is the centre of mass
OCR AS Physics Required Practicals
Determining terminal velocity:

1) Put elastic bands around the tube containing a viscous liquid at fixed distances
2) Drop a ball bearing into the tube
3) Record the time that it reaches each band
4) Repeat this several times (can remove ball bearing using a magnet)
5) Calculate the time taken for the ball to fall between consecutive bands
6) Find velocity by distance/time
7) Average velocity should increase at first, then stay constant at terminal velocity

Investigating Extension of Hooke’s law:

1) Measure the original length of the object using a ruler
2) Add weights to the bottom
3) Measure the new length of the object
4) Calculate extension by new length - original length
5) Plot a graph of force against extension
6) Where the line of best fit is straight, it obeys Hooke’s law and the gradient is the force
constant

Calculate Young’s Modulus:

1) Use a thin and long wire (which extends more, reducing uncertainty)
2) Calculate cross-sectional area using a micrometer at 3 different points and working out
an average, then calculating πd² / 4
3) Clamp the wire to the bench so you can hang weights off the end of it
4) Place a marker on the wire
5) Measure the distance of the marker from the fixed end
6) Add weights to the wire, and measure how far the marker moves with each added
weight.
7) Calculate stress and strain
8) Draw a graph of stress against strain and find the gradient of the linear section = YM
OCR AS Physics Required Practicals
The area under a stress-strain graph equals the elastic potential eneergy stored per unit volume

Calculate the Resistivity of a wire:

1) Calculate cross sectional area of the wire using a micrometer at 3 different points and
working out an average, then calculating πd² / 4
2) Clamp the test wire to a ruler
3) Attach the flying lead at a set distance along the test wire
4) Record the length of the test wire, and record the ammeter and voltmeter readings
5) Use readings to calculate the resistance of the wire, V =IR
6) Repeat for different lengths
7) Plot a graph of resistance against length, the gradient will equal resistivity / area, so
multiply the gradient by the area to get the resistivity
Resistivity depends on temperature, so try and keep the temperature of the wire constant by
only having small currents

Testing IV characteristics:

1) Use a variable resistor to vary the voltage in the circuit

2) Record the voltage and current
3) Plot a graph of I against V
OCR AS Physics Required Practicals
Investigating Internal Resistance and Emf:

1) Vary the current in the circuit by changing the value of the load resistance using the
variable resistor
2) Measure the voltage for each value of the current
3) Plot a graph of V against I
4) Rearrange ε = V + Ir to V = -Ir + ε
5) The gradient is -r and emf is the y intercept

Investigating LDRs:

1) Measure the temperature of water using a thermometer

2) Record the voltage across the resistor
3) Heat the beaker gently using a bunsen burner
4) Record the temperature and voltage at set times
5) Plot a graph of voltage against temperature

Investigating polarisation of light using two polarising filters:

1) If you put them both in the same orientation, all the light gets polarised in the same plane
2) As you rotate the second filter, the intensity of light that passes through the filter
decreases
3) Until at 90 degrees to each other, no light passes through the filter
4) Used in polaroid sunglasses to block out partially polarised light, reducing glare
OCR AS Physics Required Practicals
Investigating polarisation of microwaves:

1) Place a metal grille between the microwave transmitter and receiver.

2) The intensity of the microwave receiver reading will be when the grille is placed vertically
orientated (in the same plane as the already vertically polarised microwaves)
3) As the grill is rotated, the intensity of the reading decreases

Demonstrating diffraction:

1) Shining a laser through a very narrow slit onto a screen

2) Produces a diffraction pattern, dark and bright fringes
3) The narrower the slit, the wider the diffraction pattern

Observing Interference with Sound Waves:

1) Connect two speakers to the same amplifier (so they are coherent and in phase) and
place them in line with each other
2) Move a microphone along a line in front of them
3) There will be points of maximum volume where the path difference is a whole number of
𝝺
4) and points of minimum volume where the path difference is ½(𝝺 +1)

(this can also be done in the same way for microwaves)

OCR AS Physics Required Practicals
Demonstrating Standing waves using microwaves:

1) Reflected off a metal plate

2) The reflected and emitted waves interfere, creating stationary waves
3) Move a microwave receiver along a line between the metal plate and the emitter
4) Points of maximum (antinodes) and minimum (nodes) signals
5) The 𝝺 will equal 2 x the distance between 2 adjacent nodes

Use Stationary Waves to measure the speed of sound:

1) Create a closed-ended pipe buy placing it into a measuring cylinder of water

2) Record the frequency of the tuning fork (it will be given)
3) Tap the tuning fork and hold it above the tube
4) The sound waves will travel down the tube and be reflected off the water forming a node
5) Adjust the water level until the sound resonates
6) This is ¼ of the wavelength of the stationary sound wave
7) We can work out v using v = f𝝺

Experiment to measure planck’s constant

1) Connect an LED of known wavelength to an electrical circuit

2) Adjust the variable resistor until the LED lights up
3) By observing through a small tube
4) Record the voltage that the LED first lights up at
5) Repeat with different wavelength LEDs
6) Plot a graph of threshold voltage against 1/𝝺
7) Gives a graph with gradient hc/e, rearrange to find h
OCR AS Physics Required Practicals
Demonstrating the photoelectric effect using a gold-leaf electroscope:

1) The electroscope is negatively charged, causing the gold leaf to be repelled

2) The zinc plate has ultraviolet radiation shone on it
3) Electrons are released from the surface of the metal
4) Causing it to lose the negative charge
5) Gold leaf is no longer repelled and falls down
Thermal Physics

Observing brownian motion

● Confirmed that substances were made of particles
● The observations can be explained in terms of collisions between pollen grains and
water molecules
○ Collisions were elastic and resulted in a transfer of momentum from the water
molecules to the pollen grains, causing them to move haphazardly

● Particles of smoke are visible under a microscope using a smoke cell

● Their random motion is caused by air molecules striking the smoke particles
● Mean kinetic energy of smoke particles equals the mean kinetic energy of the air
molecules

Determining specific heat capacity

● Using an electric heater, measure the temperature of the material at set times for an
interval
● The energy supplied to the heater can be calculated using P= IV and E =Pt
● Then plot a graph of temperature against time
○ Specific heat capacity can be determined by the power/ mass x gradient

Another method of determining specific heat capacity is the “method of mixtures”

● Mix two known masses of substances at different temperatures
● Equate E = mcΔ​θ, where the energy transferred between the two substances is
equal
Determining the specific latent heat of fusion

● Ensure the ice is at melting point using a thermometer

● Measure the potential difference across the heater, the current in the heater and
the timer for the heater being used to calculate the energy transferred using
E=IVt
● Measure the mass of ice used, so that the specific latent heat of fusion can be
determined using L = IVt/m

Determining the specific latent heat of vaporisation:

● Use a condenser to collect the mass of liquid that has changed phase
● The specific latent heat of vaporisation can be determined using L = IVt/m
Ideal Gases
Investigating Boyle’s Law

● Decrease the pressure of a pressurised gas and read the volume off a volume scale
● The gas must be kept in a sealed tube to ensure the number of moles is constant
● Plot a graph of p against 1/v ad it should form a straight line through the origin

Estimating Absolute Zero

● Increase the temperature of a cylinder of gas connected to a pressure gauge
● Plot a graph of pressure against temperature and extrapolate backwards to find where
the graph crosses the x axis, which will be where the pressure equals zero, and the
temperature is absolute zero

Circulator Motion
Investigating circular motion:
● Set up a glass tube with a string pulled through it with a rubber bung attached at
one end and a mass attached to the other end
● Measure the mass of the bung and the mass of the weights
● The mass of the weights provides tension in the string with provides the
centripetal force.
● Make a reference mark on the string and measure the distance from the mark to
the centre of the bung
● Spin the bung in a horizontal circle with the mark at the top of the glass tube to
keep a constant radius
● Measure the time taken for the bung to make one complete circle and calculate the
angular velocity by 2𝛑/T
● Verify the equation by plugging the numbers into F = m(2𝛑/T)^2 r

Oscillations
Determining the frequency and period of objects moving with simple harmonic motion
●
Gravitational Fields
Stars and Cosmology
Paper 1
AS

1) Techniques and procedures used to investigate the motion and collisions of objects. Apparatus
may include trolleys, air-track gliders, ticker timers, light gates, data-loggers and video techniques

2) Techniques and procedures used to determine the acceleration of free fall in the laboratory using
trapdoor and electromagnet arrangement or light gates and timer.

3) Techniques and procedures used to determine terminal velocity in fluids, e.g. ball-bearing in a
viscous liquid or cones in air.

4) Techniques and procedures used to investigate force–extension characteristics for arrangements

which may include springs, rubber bands, polythene strips.

5) Techniques and procedures used to determine the Young’s modulus for a metal.

A2

1) Techniques and procedures used for an electrical method to determine the specific heat capacity
of a metal block and a liquid

2) Techniques and procedures used for an electrical method to determine the specific latent heat of
a solid and a liquid.

3) Techniques and procedures used to investigate PV = constant (Boyle’s law) and P / T = constant.

4) Techniques and procedures used to investigate circular motion using a whirling bung.

5) Techniques and procedures used to determine the period/frequency of simple harmonic

oscillations

Paper 2
AS
1) Techniques and procedures used to investigate the electrical characteristics for a range of ohmic
and non-ohmic components.
2) Techniques and procedures used to determine the resistivity of a metal.
3) Techniques and procedures used to determine the internal resistance of a chemical cell or other
source of e.m.f.
4) Techniques and procedures used to investigate potential divider circuits which may include a
sensor such as a thermistor or an LDR.
5) Techniques and procedures used to use an oscilloscope to determine frequency.
6) Techniques and procedures used to demonstrate wave effects using a ripple tank.
7) Techniques and procedures used to observe polarising effects using microwaves and light.
8) Techniques and procedures used to investigate refraction and total internal reflection of light using
ray boxes, including transparent rectangular and semi-circular blocks.
9) Techniques and procedures used for superposition experiments using sound, light and
microwaves.
10) Techniques and procedures used to determine the wavelength of light using a double-slit and a
diffraction grating.
11) Techniques and procedures used to determine the speed of sound in air by formation of
stationary waves in a resonance tube.
A2
1) Techniques and procedures used to investigate capacitors in both series and parallel
combinations using ammeters and voltmeters.
2) Techniques and procedures to investigate the charge and the discharge of a capacitor using both
meters and data-loggers.
3) Techniques and procedures used to determine the uniform magnetic flux density between the
poles of a magnet using a current-carrying wire and digital balance.
4) Techniques and procedures used to investigate magnetic flux using search coils.
5) Techniques and procedures used to investigate transformers.
6) Techniques and procedures used to investigate the absorption of α- particles, β-particles and
γ-rays by appropriate materials.
7) Techniques and procedures used to determine the half-life of an isotope such as protactinium