Structure 1.

1
1.1 Introduction to
particulate nature of matter

Physical and chemical properties depend on the ways in which different atoms combine.
Learning Objectives
Structure 1.1.1 – Atomic Theory

The atomic theory states that all

matter is composed of atoms.
These atoms cannot be created or
destroyed, but are rearranged
during chemical reactions.
Physical and chemical properties
of matter depend on the bonding
and arrangement of these atoms.
Structure 1.1.1 - Atoms & Elements and Symbols

Elements are the simplest substances. There are about 100

different elements. Each element is made up of just one particular
type of atom, which is different to the atoms in any other element.
Structure 1.1.1 - Atoms & Elements and Symbols
All elements have a symbol – one or two letters derived from the
element names.
Try to find the names of the elements based on their symbols:
Symbol Element Symbol Element
Na Mg
Li S
W Fe
Ag Ca
H Zr
Sn V
Cs Te
H O
N He
Structure 1.1.1 – Molecules, Compounds, Formulae
A molecule is a group of two or more atoms held together by chemical
bonds. A compound is a substance which is formed by two or more different
types of elements which are united chemically in a fixed proportion.

Not all molecules

are compounds,
but all compounds
are molecules.

When different elements react to form compounds we use the symbols to

represent the composition of the compound. We call this a formula. It shows
the proportion of elements held together by chemical bonds
Write down the formulae of 5 compounds (molecules composed of different elements):
Structure 1.1.1 – Molecules, Compounds, Formulae
1. Two elements represented by • and ° can form a compound. Which
diagram shows molecules of the compound?

2. In the diagrams, each circle represents an atom. Differently sized circles

are different atoms. Which diagram represents a compound?
Structure 1.1.1 – Molecules, Compounds, Formulae
Atom, Compound, Element, Molecule or Mixture?
Structure 1.1.1 – Molecules, Compounds, Formulae
When atoms combine to form molecules or compounds, their

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properties are completely different from their component elements.

Sodium (Na)
Chlorine (Cl)
is a metal
is a green-
and highly
colored, very
reactive as
toxic gas.
an element.

Together, NaCl forms a white, crystalline and edible salt.

Structure 1.1.1 – Balancing Equations

The law of
mass
conservation
As atoms are neither created nor destroyed during a
chemical reaction, the total number of atoms of each
element must be the same on both sides of the equation.

This is known as balancing the equation, and uses

numbers called stoichiometric coefficients to denote the
number of units of each term in the equation.
Structure 1.1.1 – Balancing Equations
We can therefore describe what reacts and what is produced in a
chemical reaction by writing a chemical equation:
The reaction between Hydrogen and Chlorine for example:
Word equation:

Symbol or formula equation:

When writing symbol equations we must make sure they are balanced
according to their stochiometric coefficients. This means the number of
atoms of each element must be equal on each side.
Structure 1.1.1 – Balancing Equations
A Chemical equation is a record of what happens in a reaction.
– it shows the formula of reactants and products
– gives the number of species involved
• Stage 1: Write the equation
• Stage 3: Replace words with Symbols
• Stage 2: Balance in a systematic way:
– Start with the elements that are present in the least number of
substances.
– Balance the element which occurs in the most substances last.
• Stage 4: Show the physical state of the species (if known)

Only change the number

of the coefficient
(indicating the number of
moles), not the subscript
(giving information about
the molecular formula)!
Structure 1.1.1 – Balancing Equations

Complete the worksheet as instructed.

https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/reactants-products-and-leftovers/latest/reactants-products-and-leftovers_en.html
Structure 1.1.1 – Balancing Equations
Example: Write an equation for the reaction of thermal
decomposition of sodium hydrogencarbonate (NaHCO3) into
sodium carbonate (Na2CO3), water (H2O), and carbon dioxide (CO2).

NaOH + H2SO4 à

Hydrogen + Oxygen à Water

CaO + HNO3 à Ca(NO3)2 + H 2O

SO2 + Mg à S + MgO
Structure 1.1.1 – Balancing Equations
1.

2.

3.
Structure 1.1.1 – Mixtures
Oil in water is a mixture.
In chemistry, a mixture is a material
system made up by two or more different
substances (elements or compounds)
which are (mixed) together but are not
combined chemically. A pure substance
contains only one type of particle.
Mixture Pure

Tap water contains Distilled water only

water and many contains H2O molecules
dissolved substances. but no other molecules
A mixture can also be or compounds.
described as an When there is only one
impure substance. substance present, it is
considered as pure.
Structure 1.1.1 – Mixtures
Structure 1.1.1 – Mixtures
Pure substances cannot be separated into individual constituents without chemical
reaction, which alters their physical properties. In contrast, mixtures can be
separated into individual components that retain their respective physical properties

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Structure 1.1.1 – Mixtures
Mixtures can be homogeneous or heterogeneous.

What is the difference between a homogeneous and heterogeneous mixture?

Structure 1.1.1 – Mixtures
Mixtures can be homogeneous or heterogeneous.

Fill in the table below:

Example States of aggregation Kind of mixture
(Solvent – solute)
Air
Perfume Spray
Smog
River water (O2)
Ethanol and water in wine
Sea water (salt)
Amalgam
Steel
Sand and water
Structure 1.1.1 – Separation techniques
Mixtures contain more than one
element and/or compound that are
not chemically bonded together and so
retain their individual properties. The
substances in a mixture usually can be
separated in different physical ways.

Before looking at different

separation techniques, we
will have to know the key
terminology.

In your notes, research on the

terms solution, solvent, soluble,
insoluble and solute.
Structure 1.1.1 – Separation techniques
Filtration Evaporation & Crystallization

Distillation Chromatography
 Because the
components in a
mixture retain their
individual
properties, they can
be separated easily.

What types of
mixtures and which
states of aggregation
are separated into
their individual
components in the
following examples?
Structure 1.1.2 — The kinetic molecular theory
The kinetic molecular theory states that matter is composed of particles.
The types of interactions between these particles determine the state of
matter of a substance. Solid (s), liquid (l) or gas (g). Depending on
temperature and pressure, all substances can exist in these three states.
Solid (s) Liquid (l) Gas (g)

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Gif_-AtomosLiquid_03.gif
A special state symbol, aq (aqueous) is used for impure solutions,
where a solid is dissolved in a liquid (e.g. salt solution – NaCl (aq)
Structure 1.1.2 — The kinetic molecular theory
The use of state symbols s, l, g and aq is important when writing chemical
formulae and equations. They give information about the state of matter.
Structure 1.1.2 — The kinetic molecular theory
The States of Matter: Changing state of matter
Structure 1.1.2 — The kinetic molecular theory
The States of Matter: Changing state of matter

Solid Liquid Gas

Particles are tightly packed
Strong forces of attraction
between the particles
Particles vibrate in fixed positions
but don’t move around
They have a fixed shape
They have a fixed volume
Cannot be compressed
The particles have a relatively low
amount of energy
Particles are not tightly packed
Medium forces of attraction
between particles
They move around and slide
over each other, vibrating and
rotating
They have no fixed shape
They have fixed volume
Cannot be compressed
The particles have a medium
amount of kinetic energy
Particles are loosely packed
Negligible forces of attraction
between particles
They move around, sometimes bump
into each other, vibrating and rotating
They have no fixed shape
They have no fixed volume
Can be compressed
They have a high amount of kinetic
energy
Structure 1.1.2 — The kinetic molecular theory
The States of Matter: Changing state of matter
Substances change their states of matter as they absorb or release energy. Solid
ice will absorb energy as it is heated. This is a (so called) endothermic process.

liquid

solid gas

When particles change from a less condensed state to a more condensed state
(gas to liquid) energy is released to the surrounding the the process is exothermic.
Structure 1.1.2 — The kinetic molecular theory
Under certain conditions solid substances can turn into gases directly
without melting. Examples for this process of sublimation is dry ice (solid
CO2, carbon dioxide). The opposite of sublimation is deposition.
Structure 1.1.2 — The kinetic molecular theory
The States of Matter: Changing state of matter

Freezing of water being an energy releasing process (exothermic) is useful

Orange growers spray their

fruit with water on
particularly cold nights to
protect them against the cold.
Structure 1.1.2 — The kinetic molecular theory
Structure 1.1.3 — Temperature is a measure of
average kinetic energy
Temperature is a measure for the average kinetic energy
of particles. Kinetic energy is the energy of motion.

As substances absorb energy, particles of a solid vibrate in the lattice more,

particles in a liquid vibrate more and move faster, while in a gas they move faster.
Structure 1.1.3 — The Kelvin Scale
• The Kelvin is a base unit of temperature
measurement in the international System of
Units (SI).

• Kelvin temperature is proportional to the

average kinetic energy of particles and is
considered an absolute scale.

• Temperatures are usually measured in degrees

Celsius, but for certain calculations in
Chemistry, Kelvin must be used.

• Conversion is easy:
0° Celsius = 273K.
Adding 273 to a temperature in degrees
Celsius converts it into a temperature in Kelvin.

• Absolute zero (0K) implies that at this

temperature the particles cannot transfer any
kinetic energy on collisions.
Structure 1.1.3 — Heating curve of water
Activity – Kinetic theory
Information
Ammonium chloride (NH4Cl)
decomposes when heated into the
acidic gas, hydrogen chloride (HCl) and
the alkaline gas ammonia (NH3). When
these two gases cool, they re-form the
original ammonium chloride.
The hydrogen chloride molecule is
about twice as heavy as the ammonia
molecule.

Construct a results table

Write a balanced equation showing
how Ammonium chloride decomposes
into ammonia and hydrogen chloride.
Explain the results/observations in
terms of particles.

Note: Indicator paper = "litmus"

paper. It is red below pH 4.5 and blue
above pH 8.2
The States of Matter: Changing state of matter
At point A, the beginning of observations, the substance exists in a
solid state. Material in this phase has _______________ volume
and _____________ shape. With each passing minute,
_____________ is added to the substance. This causes the
molecules of the substance to ____________ more rapidly which
we detect by a ________________ rise in the substance. At point
B, the temperature of the substance is ______°C. The solid begins
to __________. At point C, the substance is completely
____________ or in a ___________ state. Material in this phase
has _______________ volume and _____________ shape. The
energy put to the substance between minutes 5 and 9 was used to
convert the substance from a ___________ to a ___________.
This heat energy is called the latent heat of fusion.
Between 9 and 13 minutes, the added energy increases the
______________ of the substance. During the time from point D
to point E, the liquid is ___________. By point E, the substance is
completely in the __________ phase. Material in this phase has
_____________ volume and ___________ shape. The energy put
to the substance between minutes 13 and 18 converted the
substance from a ___________ to a ___________ state. This heat
energy is called the latent heat of vaporization. Beyond point E,
the substance is still in the ______________ phase, but the Substance Melting point Boiling point
molecules are moving _______________ as indicated by the Bolognium 20 °C 100 °C
increasing temperature. Unobtainium 40 °C 140 °C
Which of these three substances was likely used in this phase Foosium 70 °C 140 °C
change experiment?