Characteristics and Controlling Factors On Nickel Laterite Deposits in Sulawesi, Indonesia

5/12/24, 1:52 AM Characteristics and Controlling Factors on Nickel Laterite Deposits in Sulawesi, Indonesia
Characteristics and Controlling Factors on Nickel Laterite Deposits in

Sulawesi, Indonesia
Younggi Choi*, Byounghan Kim
Author Info. +
Correspondence to : *dudrl@komir.or.kr
Received: March 8, 2023; Revised: April 6, 2023; Accepted: April 25, 2023
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (ht
tp://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and
reproduction in any medium, provided original work is properly cited.
Abstract
Sulawesi island, as a global producer of nickel resources, is leading the rapid growth of nickel industry of Indonesia. Nickel
laterite deposits in Sulawesi was formed by lateritization of the world-scale East Sulawesi Ophiolite (ESO) under the active
tectonic setting and tropical rainforest climate. In this paper, exploration cases for nickel laterite deposits in five regions of
Sulawesi are reported. Regional characteristics on nickel laterite deposits in Sulawesi are understood based on various
exploration activities such as outcrop, trench and pit survey, petrological observation, geochemical analysis, and
interpretation of drilling data, etc.. In the northeastern part of ‘Southeast-Arm’, which is a strategic location for nickel
industry of Indonesia, ESO is extensively exposed to the surface. In the Morombo and Morowali regions, typical high-grade
saprolite-type orebodies with a thickness of 10 to 20 m occur. The cases showed that topographic relief tends to regulate Ni-
grade distribution and orebody thickness, and that high grade intervals tend to occur in places where joints and garnierite
veins are dense. In the Tinanggea and South Palangga regions in the southern part of the Southeast-Arm, overburden
composed of Neogene to Quaternary deposits is a major factor affecting the preservation and profitability of nickel laterite
deposits. Despite the overburden, high-grade saprolite-type orebodies composed of Ni-bearing serpentine with garnierite
veins occur in a thickness of around 10 m to secure economic feasibility. In contrast, in the Ampana region in the northern
part of ‘East-Arm’, low-grade nickel laterite deposits with immature laterite profile was identified, which is thought to be the
result of active denudation due to tectonic uplift. Exploration cases in this paper will help to understand characteristics and
controlling factors on nickel laterite deposits in Sulawesi, Indonesia.
Keywords
Indonesia, Sulawesi, Ni-laterite deposits, laterite profile, exploration factors
Characteristics and mineralization regulatory factors of nickel laterite

deposits in Sulawesi, Indonesia
Choi Young-gi * · Kim Byeong-han
https://www.kseeg.org/journal/view.html?doi=10.9719/EEG.2023.56.3.343 1/22
Korea Mine Reclamation Corporation Overseas Investigation Team
summary
Sulawesi, Indonesia, is a world-class producer of nickel laterite deposits and is driving the rapid growth of Indonesia's nickel
industry. Nickel laterite deposits were formed from the active boundary tectonic environment, tropical rainforest climate,
and the world-scale East Sulawesi Ophiolite (ESO). Understanding the characteristics of nickel laterite deposits in Sulawesi is
very important in nickel resource exploration. This paper reports exploration cases of nickel laterite deposits conducted in
five regions of Sulawesi. Regional characteristics of Sulawesi nickel laterite deposits are reported based on various
exploration activities such as surface geological survey, trench and mining cross-section survey, rock description, whole rock
chemical analysis, and interpretation of drilling exploration data. In the Morombo and Morowali regions located in the
northeast of Southeast-Arm, a key area for Indonesia's nickel industry, ophiolite is widely distributed and high-grade typical
saprolite-type deposits exist. Topographic relief controls nickel grade and ore body geometry, and high grade tends to be
produced where joints and garnierite veins are dense. In the Southeast-Am South Tinangae and South Palanga regions, the
overburden composed of Cenozoic sediments lies on top of nickel laterite deposits and is a key factor to be identified during
exploration. Despite overburden, a high-grade saprolite-type ore body composed of nickel-serpentinite along with garnierite
veins has developed to a thickness of approximately 10 m, ensuring economic feasibility. In contrast, the 'East-Arm' northern
Ampana region has low-grade nickel laterite deposits and an immature laterite profile. This is thought to be the result of the
rate of ablation due to tectonic uplift exceeding the rate of formation of nickel laterite deposits. The exploration cases
covered in this paper show the organic interaction between the existing characteristics of nickel laterite deposits and
mineralization regulatory factors.
Key words
Indonesia, Sulawesi, nickel laterite deposits, laterite profiles, exploration parameters
Research Highlights
Characteristics and controlling factors on nickel laterite deposits in Sulawesi are reported based on various
exploration activities.
In the northeastern part of 'Southeast-Arm', typical high-grade saprolite type orebodies occur.
In the southern part of the ‘Southeast-Arm’, overburden is a exploration factor affecting preservation and
profitability of nickel laterite deposits.
In the northern part of ‘East-Arm’, thin nickel laterite deposits with immature laterite profile was identified.
1. Introduction
Nickel resources are not only the main raw material for stainless steel, but also a key raw material for secondary
batteries, which are essential for energy conversion. Nickel ore is largely classified into sulfide ore and oxide ore,
and 60% of the world's nickel resources correspond to oxide ore (Mudd and Jowiit, 2014). Nickel laterite oxide ore
is highly regionally ubiquitous, and 22% of the world's reserves are located in Indonesia. In the 2010s, as the
development of Indonesian nickel laterite oxide ore expanded in earnest and related industries grew rapidly,
Indonesia rapidly emerged as the world's No. 1 nickel resource producer starting in 2018 (USGS, 2019). Due to
unique geological and climatic conditions, most of Indonesia's nickel laterite deposits are concentrated in
Sulawesi. Therefore, understanding the nickel laterite deposits that exist in Sulawesi is very important in nickel
resource exploration.
Today, industrial dependence and importance on nickel resources are increasing day by day. Since nickel
resources are directly related to Korea's industrial competitiveness, which is closely related to steel and secondary
batteries, establishing a stable supply chain for nickel resources is essential. In this paper, we report on cases of
exploration of nickel laterite deposits conducted in Sulawesi as part of the 'Overseas Resources Development
Research Project'. The Overseas Resources Development Research Project is a private subsidy project of the
Korean government that supports private overseas resource development. Based on various exploration activities
at each stage of exploration and development, the characteristics and mineralization regulation factors of nickel
laterite deposits existing in Sulawesi were identified. The purpose of this paper is to improve the exploration
success rate of Korean companies by providing academic and technical background knowledge on the exploration
of nickel laterite deposits in Indonesia.
2. Sulawesi Metropolitan Geology

The unique 'K'-shaped Indonesian island of Sulawesi is located at the triple junction of the western Eurasian plate,
the southern and eastern Indo-Australian plates, and the northeastern Pacific plate. Due to the interaction of
plates, it has experienced a complex geological history of multiple subduction-collision-auccretion from the
Cretaceous to today ( Hall, 2012 ; Kadarusman et al., 2004 ; Katili, 1978 ). The island of Sulawesi is made up of four
long, narrow mountainous peninsulas called 'Arms' centered on the central highlands, separated by deep bays.
Sulawesi geology is divided into the following lithotectonic provinces based on rock formation and tectonic
environment: 1) West Sulawesi plutonic-volcanicarc, 2) Central Sulawesi metamorphic. belt), 3) East Sulawesi
ophiolite (ESO), and 4) microcontinental blocks of Banggai-Sula and Buton-Tukang Besi ( Hall and Wilson, 2000 )( Fi
g. 1 ). ESO, the host rock of the nickel laterite deposit, is one of the world's three largest ophiolites in terms of size
and occupies an area of 15,000 km 2 ( Monnier et al., 1995 ; Kadarusman et al., 2004 ). ESO is known to have been
obducted over the Eurasian plate during the subduction of the Indo-Australian plate in the late Oligocene ( Parkins
on, 1998 ; Kadarusman et al., 2004 ). ESO is a large, irregular rock body like the ophiolite rock body distributed in
the Lake Mantano-Lake Mahalona-Lake Towuti area and its extension Bahodopi district. Distributed in large
irregular masses, or as imbricated tectonic slices, as in the northern East-Arm, and as isolated small-scale rock
bodies, as in the southern Southeast-Arm. It is distributed as small isolated bodies ( Leeuwen and Pieters, 2012 ).
ESO is an ultrabasic rock body composed mostly (approximately 70%) of rhozolite, harzburgite, and peridotite,
with some gabbro, coarse-grained basalt, and basaltic volcanic rocks ( Parkinson, 1998 ; Kadarusman et al., 2004 ). .
As a result of the predominance of a compressive tectonic environment during the Cenozoic and experiencing
active tectonic uplift, ESO has severe topographic relief from coastal to mountainous terrain. Erosion is active,
forming an overall dissected topography, but Neogene sediments and Quaternary alluvial layers cover the ESO,
forming a flat lowland topography. In the latter case, such a pattern is prominent in the southeast-Southern part
of Am. Although there are differences depending on the region, Sulawesi Island's average annual temperature and
average annual precipitation are approximately 28 ℃ and 2,700~3,200 mm, respectively, corresponding to a tropical
rainforest climate. The tropical rainforest climate, which is humid and hot throughout the year, along with ultra-
basic rock bodies (i.e. ophiolite) occurring widely in the active tectonic setting, are the optimal geological and
climatic conditions for the formation of nickel laterite deposits.
Fig. 1. Geological map of Sulawesi island, Indonesia (modified after Hall and Wilson, 2000;
Kadarusman et al., 2004; Choi et al., 2021). Red circles indicate the areas of studied nickel laterite
deposits.
3. Research method
The subjects of the study are exploration cases conducted as an overseas resource development research project
in five regions of Sulawesi. Each case is located in the main ESO producing areas: Morombo and Morowali regions
in northeastern Southeast-Am, Tinangae and South Palanga regions in southern Southeast-Am, and Ampana
region in northern East-Am ( Fig. 1 ). Exploration cases vary in progress from initial exploration to development. In
each case, various exploration activities were performed depending on the exploration and development stage,
including surface investigation, trench and mining investigation, rock description, whole rock chemical analysis,
and drilling exploration data interpretation.
Pre-rock chemical analysis to determine the chemical composition and quality of nickel laterite deposits was
performed using Wavelength Dispersive X-Ray Fluorescence (WD-
was performed by spectroscopy. The standard sample and the sample for this study were powdered, mixed with
lithium metaborate, and heated to make beads. Loss On Ignition (LOI) was measured by igniting at 1,000°C for 1
hour. Thermo scientific's ARL-9900 Series and equivalent analysis equipment were used for X-ray fluorescence
analysis of the prepared samples. The analysis error range is 0.01% for the main elements SiO 2 , TiO 2 , Al 2 O 3 , Fe
2 O 3 , CaO, MgO, K 2 O, and Na 2 O, and 0.005% and 0.001% for MnO and P 2 O 5 , respectively. , and the trace
elements Ni, Co, and Cr 2 O 3 are 0.005%, 0.001%, and 0.005%, respectively. The analysis results are summarized in
Table 1-5 .
Table 1 Chemical composition for nickel laterite deposits in Morombo area in the northeast part of 'Southeast-
Arm' of Sulawesi
Sample Zone Depth SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 MnO High MgO K 2O Na2O P2O5 In Co Cr2O3 LAW Total
m wt.%
SL-1-1 SP 1 41.63 0.02 1.44 12.88 0.17 0.93 40.19 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 0.42 0.01 0.72 1.33 99.74
m wt.%
SL-1-2 SP 4 40.49 0.01 1.73 13.24 0.18 1.52 40.08 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 0.44 0.01 0.70 1.36 99.75
SL-1-3 SP 8 33.81 0.03 2.82 30.78 0.42 0.60 20.16 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 1.33 0.04 1.95 7.56 99.52
SL-1-4 SP 11 41.34 0.04 3.34 22.28 0.31 0.51 19.24 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 2.06 0.03 1.09 9.05 99.33
SL-1-5 SP 13 41.91 0.04 3.50 22.85 0.33 0.38 16.92 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 2.69 0.03 1.32 9.20 99.20
SL-1-6 SP 16 40.27 0.03 3.41 21.84 0.31 1.09 22.95 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 1.81 0.03 1.20 6.41 99.38
SL-1-7 SP 20 39.04 0.03 3.18 21.49 0.28 1.23 27.52 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 1.16 0.02 1.11 4.51 99.58
SL-2-1 LM 1 37.53 0.04 4.46 27.68 0.39 2.05 17.06 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 1.15 0.04 1.53 7.60 99.53
SL-2-2 SP 3 41.59 <0.01 1.86 12.42 0.17 1.37 38.21 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 0.57 0.01 0.75 2.79 99.74
SL-2-3 SP 7 37.63 0.03 2.61 21.87 0.32 1.02 29.66 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 1.18 0.03 1.24 3.94 99.55
SL-2-4 SP 11 45.40 0.05 5.15 17.90 0.26 0.87 23.38 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 1.01 0.02 1.20 4.32 99.57
SL-2-5 SP 15 47.10 0.03 2.02 25.96 0.38 0.74 13.95 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 1.42 0.04 1.50 6.32 99.48
The samples were analyzed in the laboratory PT. Carsurin Kendari, in accordance with WD-XRF fusion method for
elemental and gravimetric method for LOI. SL-1: Survey Line-1, SL-2: Survey Line-2, LM: Limonite, SP: Saprolite,
LOI: Loss On Ignition.
The production and observation of thin sections to identify the constituent minerals of laterite samples were
conducted at the Korea Mine & Reclamation Corporation's Technology Research Institute. Thin sections were
observed using a Leica DM4500P polarizing microscope, and photographs were taken using a camera (Leica DFC
500) attached to the microscope and software (LAS: Leica Application Suite, v.4.13.0).
㎛ or less, and a non-oriented sample was produced. Analysis was

XRD: Each sample was powdered to a size of 0.5
performed using Discover D8 from Bruker. Cu Kα radiation generated under conditions of 40 kV and 40 mA was
irradiated to the sample rotating 15 times per minute, and analyzed for 0.2 s at 0.01° intervals over a 2-theta range
of 4 to 65°. X-ray diffraction patterns were produced using the Diffrac.eva v4.3 program.
4. Results and discussion: Nickel laterite deposit exploration case

4.1. Northeast of Southeast-Arm
4.1.1. Morombo region
4.1.1.1. Investigation overview
The study area is located in Morombo District, North Konawe Regency, South East-North East Am. A large nickel
laterite deposit typical of Indonesia exists in the Morombo area. This case was conducted to understand the
characteristics of the ore body being developed in a production mine located in the Morombo region. Two survey
lines (Survey Line-1 and -2) were set up in a mining area exposed to a width of approximately 100 m and a depth of
approximately 20 m to investigate the laterite profile calculation pattern ( Fig. 3A ), and whole-rock chemical
analysis was performed at regular intervals. The vertical geochemical profile was visualized through ( Fig. 4 ). The
results of X-ray fluorescence analysis of samples collected by section are shown in Table 1 .
Fig. 3. Selected photographs for pit survey of the nickel laterite deposits in Morombo area. (A)
Panoramic view for the studied pit. (B) Boundary between limonite and saprolite. (C) Corestones in
upper part of saprolite zone. (D) Fracture-fill and/or coating of garnierite and silica. (E) Highly
connected and densely spaced fractures filled with garnierite.
Fig. 4. Vertical geochemical variations for Survey Line-1 and -2 for the studied pit in Morombo area.
4.1.1.2. Geology of study area
The geology of the study area consists of a single rock phase of ultrabasic rock composed of depressed ophiolite (
Rusmana et al., 1993a ). When observed with the naked eye, the ultrabasic rock undergoes serpentinization and
takes on a light green to bluish green color, and is characterized by various residual structures resulting from
weathering and lateritization ( Fig. 2A ). When observing thin sections, most of the olivine and orthopyroxene that
made up the ultrabasic rock are observed in a serpentine form ( Fig. 2B ). The strike directions of joints and veins
developed throughout the survey area are predominantly west-northwest-east-southeast and north-northeast-
south-southwest, and the slope angle tends to be steep, generally in the range of 60 to 90° ( Figs. 2C , 2D , 2F ). .
The discontinuities of the steep slope intersect, touch, or connect to form a complex network. This network of
discontinuities enables gravitational drainage to deep sections, and is therefore believed to have acted as a major
factor in regulating the leaching and reprecipitation mechanisms of nickel-mineralized fluid. In some places,
fibrous to needle-like serpentine veins show a folded form ( Fig. 2E ), suggesting that tectonic movement
continued even during the nickel-containing serpentine growth period.
Fig. 2. Geology of Morombo area in the northeast part of 'Southeast-Arm' of Sulawesi. Photograph
(A) and photomicrograph (B) of serpentinite. (C) Vertical to deeply dipping joints. (D) Deeply dipping
conjugate veins. Note the sigmoidal shape of veins. (E) Syn-kinematic fibrous serpentine vein. (F)
Stereogram of joints and veins.
4.1.1.3. Laterite profile properties
The laterite profile of the study area was divided into the uppermost soil and limonite zone and the saprolite zone
below, based on the results of field work and chemical analysis. The uppermost soil and limonite zone develop
about 1 m thick in the uppermost section ( Fig. 3B ). It consists of soil that is visually red, orange, or yellow in color
and may also contain organic matter such as plant roots and debris. No identifiable mineral particles or source
rock structures remain, having been completely destroyed. In one analyzed sample (SL-2-1), the iron content was
measured at 27.68 wt.% and the nickel grade was measured at 1.15 wt.% ( Table 1 ). It contains a large amount of
iron oxide minerals such as hematite and goethite, as well as clay minerals, and the nickel element is interpreted
to have been adsorbed and enriched by these clay minerals and iron oxides (Carvalhoe-silva et al., 2003; Fu et al. .,
2014 ).
In the mining cross section, the saprolite zone is confirmed to have a maximum thickness of approximately 20 m
or more. It is produced by a mixture of earthen and rocky acid phases, and is characterized by a variety of residual
structures. Vertically, the lower it is, the stronger it is, and the stone texture is preserved, making it a rock-like
mountain phase, while the upper section is weaker, and the structures collapse, showing a soil-like mountain
phase and often containing core stones ( Fig. 3C ). A steep joint structure and garnierite veins and amorphous silica
veins filling it are frequently developed, and these veins are connected to each other to form a network ( Fig. 3D , 3
E ). Meanwhile, the garnierite described in this paper is not a single mineral species, but a nickel-containing
mineral species such as serpentine, talc, chlorite, sepiolite, and smectite group. A general term for a mixture of
magnesium silicate minerals ( Brindley and Hang, 1973 ; Golightly, 1981 ; Cluzel and Vigier, 2008 ; Wells et al., 2009 ;
Gali et al., 2012 ; Choi et al., 2021 ).
Looking at the main elements, the saprolite zone contains 33.81~47.10 wt.% SiO 2 , 1.44~5.15 wt.% Al 2 O 3 ,
12.42~30.78 wt.% Fe 2 O 3 , and 13.95~40.19 wt.% MgO. , the nickel grade ranges from 0.42 to 2.69 wt.% ( Table 1 ).
Nickel was enriched to over 1.0 wt.% from below SL-1-3 and SL-2-3 in each lateral line ( Table 1 ), and the nickel
grade generally tended to increase as it went down ( Fig. 4 ). The correlation coefficient (r) between Ni and MgO in
the saprolite zone is -0.82 (n=11), indicating a strong negative correlation, which means that as leaching and
substitution for magnesium progresses, nickel enrichment increases. indicates an increase. The highest nickel
grade (2.69 wt.% Ni) is recorded in SL-1-5 and the area, which corresponds to the middle to lower section of the
saprolite zone ( Table 1 ), and in this high-grade section, light green to emerald colored garnierite is found. Joint
surfaces covered or filled are developed densely connected at intervals of 10 to 30 cm ( Fig. 3E ). It is interpreted
that nickel enrichment increases as the density of the discontinuity increases.
4.1.2. Morowali region
The Morowali region is located approximately 45 km north of the previously described Morombo region. This area
is also a representative nickel producing area in Indonesia. In this case, the mining site opened for test production
was investigated and the production pattern of the laterite profile was identified through pre-rock chemical
analysis of the ore body subject to development. In addition, the spatial distribution characteristics of
Gwanghwadae were identified based on the analysis of drilling exploration data. The results of X-ray fluorescence
analysis of the collected samples are shown in Table 2 .
Table 2 Chemical composition for nickel laterite deposits in Morowali area in the northeast part of 'Southeast-Arm'
of Sulawesi
Sample SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 MnO High MgO K 2O Na2O P2O5 In Co Cr2O3 LAW Total
wt.%
LM-01 5.36 0.05 6.28 64.94 2.69 0.02 2.27 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 1.50 0.29 4.20 11.8 99.50
SP-01 39.54 0.02 1.94 12.96 0.163 0.33 29.82 <0.01 0.03 <0.01 2.24 0.02 0.70 11.6 99.40
SP-02 41.39 0.01 0.80 10.06 0.13 0.49 31.85 <0.01 0.03 <0.01 2.12 0.01 0.51 9.7 99.20
SP-03 41.21 0.01 0.98 10.74 0.126 0.77 30.80 <0.01 0.03 <0.01 2.54 0.01 0.58 11.3 99.30
SP-04 42.14 0.02 1.00 9.76 0.131 0.87 34.35 <0.01 0.02 <0.01 1.28 0.01 0.50 9.5 99.70
SP-05 41.85 <0.01 0.76 8.72 0.114 0.51 33.51 <0.01 0.03 <0.01 2.02 0.01 0.47 4.8 99.60
SP-06 42.36 0.02 1.04 10.51 0.134 1.05 32.25 <0.01 0.03 <0.01 0.40 <0.01 0.59 8.7 99.90
The samples were analyzed in the laboratory PT. Intertek Jakarta, in accordance with WD-XRF fusion method for
elemental and gravimetric method for LOI. LM: Limonite, SP: Saprolite.
The geology of the study area consists of the Tokala Formation, a Triassic-Jurassic limestone layer, and an
ultrabasic rock body, which is an overburdened ophiolite ( Simandjuntak et al., 1993b ). The ultrabasic rock body
undergoes extensive serpentinization and appears greenish-black to light greenish-yellow to the naked eye, with a
characteristic pearl luster. According to the regional geological map ( Simandjuntak et al., 1993b ), a northwest-
southeast oriented thrust fault developed, which caused the ultrabasic rock body to thrust into the upper part of
the Tokala Formation. Fault zones related to this are identified in several places at the outcrop scale ( Figs. 5A , 5B ).
The fault zone is composed of a light greenish yellow clay matrix with developed plate-like foliation and fragments
of ultrabasic rock of various sizes. These fault outcrops are found at an altitude of 350 to 250 m, and the nickel
laterite deposit, which will be described later, develops at a relatively higher altitude of about 400 m. In terms of
age, the fault damage zone where the fracture zone develops serves as a passage for the mineralized solution that
descends due to gravity drainage, while the fault core, which has become clay due to concentrated strain, delays
the drainage of the mineralized solution. It is believed that the groundwater level was controlled by doing so.
Fig. 5. Representative photographs of fault zones in Morowali area in the northeast part of
'Southeast-Arm' of Sulawesi. (A) Highly fractured fault damage zone. (B) Fault core mostly composed
of fault gouge.
From the top to the bottom, a typical profile consisting of a ferruginous cap, limonite zone, and saprolite zone
develops ( Fig. 6A ). The iron cover, which is 1 to 2 m thick in the uppermost section, is a purple to red iron surface
layer that occurs in highlands and often does not appear on slopes due to erosion. It is thought to be composed
mainly of hematite, and is characterized by weathered residual structures such as vermicular, boxwork, and
honeycomb ( Fig. 6B ). Beneath the iron cover, limonite belt lies 1 to 4 m thick ( Fig. 6C ). It is a red to orange soil
layer in which no visible tissue has developed. As a result of X-ray fluorescence analysis, the iron content (Fe 2 O 3
= 64.94 wt.%) of the LM-01 sample was found to be characteristically high, and it is believed to be composed mainly
of iron oxide minerals such as goethite and hematite. The nickel content reaches 1.5 wt.%, which is interpreted as
the result of nickel being adsorbed and enriched on iron oxide ( Fu et al., 2014 ). Characteristically, high contents of
chromium (Cr 2 O 3 = 4.2 wt.%), manganese (MnO = 2.69 wt.%), and cobalt (Co = 0.29 wt.%) were detected. In the
seven samples analyzed, the correlation coefficients between cobalt and manganese and cobalt and chromium
were all 0.99, indicating a positive correlation close to 1, which indicates that cobalt, manganese, and chromium
tend to remain concentrated together during lateritization. ( Llorca and Monchoux, 1991 ; Lambiv et al., 2013 ;
Delina et al., 2020 ).
Fig. 6. Selected photographs of nickel laterite deposits in Morowali area. (A) Panoramic view for the
studied test pit. Note the well developed laterite profile zones. (B) Ferruginous cap showing
vermicular or honeycomb texture. (C) Limonite zone. (D) Yellowish saprolite showing stockworks
structure. (E) Fibrous serpentine filling fracture.
The saprolite zone is the main development target, and is exposed to a thickness of more than 2 to 7 m in the
mining cross section, and in drilling data, it can reach a thickness of more than 20 m. Depending on the
weathering pattern, it is calculated as tan ~ light yellow ~ light green. It is composed of stony saprolite, a coarse-
grained rock fragment, on the basis of soil saprolite, a fine-grained matrix, and the latter preserves some of the
original rock tissue. Characteristically, reticular veins connected to discontinuities develop ( Fig. 6D ). These
reticular veins are filled or coated with fibrous to needle-like serpentine, talc, and garnierite ( Fig. 6E ). Amorphous
silica, which is presumed to have precipitated in the last stage, covers all of the above filling. X-ray fluorescence
analysis results for six saprolite samples (SP-01~-06) along with the outdoor acid phase showed 39.54~42.36 wt.%
SiO 2 , 0.76~1.94 wt.% Al 2 O 3 , 8.72~12.96 wt It shows major element contents ranging from .% Fe 2 O 3 and 29.82 to
34.35 wt.% MgO, corresponding to a typical saprolite type (or hydrous Mg-silicate type) ore body. The nickel grade
ranges from 0.40 to 2.54 wt.%, and the arithmetic average value is calculated to be 1.77 wt.% (n=6), which is
considered high grade.
Meanwhile, the study area is about 7 km away from the coast and is a mountainous terrain with relatively large
elevation changes. Drilling exploration was conducted intensively along the ridge taking into account the
topography. As shown in Figure 7 , by creating a cross section in the northeast-southwest direction (A-A')
perpendicular to the ridge and in the northwest-southeast direction (B-B') parallel to the ridge, the geometric
characteristics of the Gwanghwadae can be identified. In cross-section, the so-called 'mirroring' pattern, in which
the laterite profile resembles the topography, is recognized. On ridges, a thick mineralized zone up to ~28 m deep
develops, while in lowlands or steep slopes, the mineralized zone develops thinly, with a thickness of at least 10 m.
On the ridge, a deep water table is formed and leaching progresses over a wide section ( Golightly, 2010 ; Butt and
Cluzel, 2013 ), but on the steep slope, the leaching section is narrow and the ablation rate is high, which is
interpreted as a result reflecting the influence of the topography. do.
Fig. 7. Interpreted mineralized zone for nickel laterite deposits in Morowali area. (A) Topographic map showing locations of drill
holes and cross sections. GPS coordinate is based on WGS84 (datum) and UTM zone 5 (grid). (B, C) Interpreted cross sections.
Note the vertical exaggeration.
4.2. Southeast-Arm South

4.2.1. Tinanggea region
The exploration area is located in the Tinangaea region of South Konawe Regency, South-Eastern Am. Nickel
laterite deposits are currently being developed and produced in mines surrounding the exploration area. In this
case, at a very early stage of exploration, basic investigations, including trench surveys, were conducted to identify
the potential for nickel laterite deposits prior to full-scale drilling exploration. Small-scale trenches (Test Trench-
1, Test Trench-2) were opened at two locations where mineral deposits were expected to exist near the surface,
and a detailed cross-sectional survey was conducted to determine the calculation pattern of the laterite profile ( Fi
g. 9 ). In addition to visual observations, the vertical geochemical profile was visualized through whole-rock
chemical analysis at approximately 1 m intervals ( Fig. 10 ). The results of X-ray fluorescence analysis of samples
collected by section are shown in Table 3 .
Table 3 Chemical composition for nickel laterite deposits in Tinanggea area in the southern part of 'Southeast-
Arm' of Sulawesi
m wt.%
TT1-1 YL 1 56.26 0.46 6.86 25.88 0.39 0.18 0.81 0.44 0.14 0.04 0.64 0.06 0.99 6.35 99.53
TT1-2 YL 2 49.01 0.03 3.14 27.96 0.57 0.65 5.19 0.04 0.03 <0.01 2.19 0.09 1.30 9.30 99.53
TT1-3 YL 3 54.98 0.03 2.98 23.27 0.76 0.41 5.81 0.07 0.04 <0.01 1.65 0.06 1.03 8.45 99.55
TT1-4 TZ 4 68.25 0.02 1.32 14.06 0.27 0.15 8.21 <0.01 0.02 <0.01 0.58 0.02 0.57 6.05 99.51
TT1-5 TZ 5 60.14 <0.01 1.25 13.61 0.12 0.64 14.85 <0.01 0.01 <0.01 0.40 0.01 0.72 7.78 99.52
TT1-6 TZ 6 70.17 <0.01 0.86 10.08 0.08 0.12 10.31 <0.01 0.01 <0.01 0.59 <0.01 0.63 6.65 99.50
TT1-7 TZ 7 66.12 <0.01 0.70 12.28 0.15 0.10 12.26 <0.01 0.02 <0.01 0.39 0.01 0.53 7.01 99.56
TT2-1 RL 1 13.16 0.11 8.05 62.20 0.38 0.02 0.68 0.06 0.03 0.06 1.03 0.09 2.49 10.95 99.56
TT2-2 YL 2 47.18 0.03 3.93 26.58 0.96 0.74 6.54 0.01 0.02 <0.01 2.95 0.12 1.24 9.22 99.55
TT2-3 YL 3 50.33 0.02 2.74 28.87 0.33 0.45 5.84 <0.01 0.02 <0.01 1.47 0.04 1.48 7.94 99.55
TT2-4 YL 4 47.90 0.03 2.77 35.44 0.47 0.40 1.99 <0.01 0.02 <0.01 0.98 0.06 1.64 7.77 99.52
TT2-5 TZ 5 73.60 0.02 1.90 14.81 0.13 0.30 2.31 <0.01 0.02 <0.01 0.76 0.02 0.84 4.84 99.56
m wt.%
TT2-6 TZ 6 70.81 0.01 1.73 15.44 0.19 0.28 3.20 <0.01 0.02 <0.01 0.79 0.03 1.04 6.01 99.55
TT2-7 TZ 7 74.54 <0.01 1.59 15.41 0.15 0.17 1.23 <0.01 0.02 <0.01 0.45 0.02 0.93 5.02 99.52
elemental and gravimetric method for LOI. TT1: Test Trench-1, TT2: Test Trench-2, RL: Red Laterite, YL: Yellow
Laterite, TZ: Transition Zone, LOI: Loss On Ignition.
Fig. 9. Selected photographs for trench survey. (A) Test Trench-1. (B) Test Trench-2. (C) Red laterite.
(D) Yellow laterite. (E) Earthy garnierite. (F) Mixture of various colored clay minerals. (G) Laminated
greenish clay. Note the collapse breccia texture. (H) Amorphous silica lump. Red stars indicate
sample locations.
Fig. 10. Vertical geochemical variations for Test Trench in Tinanggea area. (A) Test Trench-1, (B) Test
Trench-2.
The geology of the study area consists of ultrabasic rocks estimated to be from the Cretaceous to the Cenozoic
Era, the Neogene, Miocene to Pliocene Langkowala Formation, Boepinang Fm., and Eemoiko Formation. It consists
of overlying Quaternary alluvium (Simandjuntak et al., 1993a). Ultrabasic rock bodies are rarely exposed to the
surface due to the overlying sedimentary layer, but may be exposed sporadically due to differential erosion ( Fig. 8
). The ultrabasic rock body undergoes serpentinization and appears blue-green to the naked eye, and is
characterized by the development of reticular veins and various residual structures depending on the degree of
weathering. As a result of observing the mining site and outcrop at an adjacent developed mine, it was confirmed
that the maximum thickness of the Neogene sedimentary rock flow and Quaternary alluvial layer overlying the
ultrabasic rock body was approximately 30 m. From a historical perspective, they may have the advantage of
preserving the ore body by being deposited after the formation of a mineral deposit, but from a development
perspective, they may reduce profitability as they act as overburden. The presence or absence of overburden and
its development pattern are key investigative factors to determine.
Fig. 8. Topography and geology of the nickel laterite deposits in Tinanggea area in the southern part
of 'Southeast-Arm' of Sulawesi. (A) Elevation map. Note WNW-ESE structural trend. GPS coordinate
is based on WGS84 (datum) and UTM zone 5 (grid). (B) Interpreted cross section (A-A’). N-Q:
Neogene-Quaternary deposits. (C) Outcrop photograph of the Quaternary alluvium. Men in white
circle for scale. (D) Exposure of parent rock (ultramafic rock).
In the trench cross-section, the top soil, red laterite, yellow laterite, and transition zone develop sequentially from
the surface to the bottom ( Figs. 9A , 9B ). Due to limitations in the work at the time of the investigation, it was not
possible to confirm the saprolite zone, which was expected to occur in the lower part of the transition zone.
Meanwhile, the term 'limonite zone' is generally used for the soil layer that develops in the upper section of the
laterite profile, but in this trench investigation, the chemical composition and acid phases of the section did not
correspond to the typical limonite zone, so the term was used. Instead of using , the term 'laterite' was used, which
has a broad meaning of soil formed through leaching and residual processes in tropical climates.
Red laterite develops from the surface to a depth of about 1.5 m. Visually, it consists of red soil and contains a large
amount of iron oxide minerals ( Fig. 9C ). It contains organic matter such as plant roots and debris, and the host
rock tissue has been completely destroyed, leaving no residue. This section is characterized by a high iron content
(Fe 2 O 3 = 62.20 wt.%), which indicates that it contains a large amount of hematite or goethite. The nickel grade
reaches 1.03 wt.%, and it is interpreted that the nickel element was adsorbed and enriched by iron oxide
(Carvalho-e-silva et al., 2003; Fu et al., 2014 ).
Yellow laterite develops about 3 m thick beneath the red laterite, and is visually distinguished as a yellow soil layer
( Fig. 9D ). Although most of the host rock structure has collapsed, some parent rock fragments and mineral
particles remain. It is composed of a very diverse mixture of earthy) to clay minerals in red to brown, orange to
yellow, and light green ( Fig. 9F ). Emerald-colored garnierite is produced, and it is a mountain form of earthen or
amorphous particles agglomerated without a definite shape ( Fig. 9E ). In some sections, amorphous silica and
transparent opal come together to form lumps. Looking at the main elements, it contains 47.18~56.26 wt.% SiO 2 ,
2.74~6.86 wt.% Al 2 O 3 , 23.27~35.44 wt.% Fe 2 O 3 , and 0.81~6.54 wt.% MgO, which is mostly iron acid. It is thought
to be the result of the large amount of smectite group (eg, nontronite, saponite) clay minerals containing cargo and
iron. The nickel grade ranges from 0.64 to 2.95 wt.% and the average value is calculated to be 1.65 wt.% (n=6). The
high grade value exceeding the general grade of the oxidation zone (0.8 to 1.2 wt.% Ni) is nickel-containing. In
addition to the smectite group ( Elias et al., 1981 ; Butt and Cluzel, 2013 ), it is interpreted to be due to the
production of earthen garnierite masses.
The transition zone is a section created by a mixture of earthen and stony ridges. The lower it gets, the stronger it
becomes and the stony structure is preserved, showing a rock-like mount. As the upper part goes, the strength
weakens and the tissues collapse, gradually increasing the proportion of clay minerals. It shows the mountain top
approaching the soil. In particular, yellow to light green amorphous clay minerals show structures that indicate
reprecipitation mechanisms, such as colloform and lamination ( Fig. 9G ). In some sections, a large amount of
amorphous silica is concentrated and is produced in the form of lumps ( Fig. 9H ). Among the main elements of the
transition zone, Fe 2 O 3 ranges from 10.08 to 15.44 wt.%, which is somewhat lower than that of yellow laterite, but
MgO varies greatly from 1.23 to 14.85 wt.%, which is in the range of serpentine, talc, and smectite. It is interpreted
that this is due to the various composition ratios between them. The nickel grade was slightly enriched compared
to the host rock, ranging from 0.39 to 0.79 wt.%.
By examining the entire vertical geochemical profile, trends in the spatial distribution of major elements according
to lateritization can be identified ( Fig. 10 ). The content of Ni, Co, and MnO is highest in the yellow laterite section
(TT1-2, TT2-2) at a depth of about 2 m, that is, in the area where the earthen garnierite mass is produced, and
shows a pattern of gradually decreasing downward. As can be seen, the vertical change patterns in the two
trenches are similar. Looking at the correlation coefficient between Ni and specific elements for the 14 samples
analyzed, there is a high positive correlation of 0.85 with Co and 0.89 with MnO, which indicates that their
chemical behavior is generally similar. do. This trend is a general characteristic of the oxidation zone, the upper
section of the nickel laterite profile ( Brand et al., 1998 ). The fact that the contents of Fe 2 O 3 , Al 2 O 3 , and Cr 2 O 3
increase toward the top indicates a tendency for residual enrichment of elements with relatively low solubility in
the oxidizing environment near the surface ( Fu et al ., 2014 ; Delina et al., 2020). The correlation coefficient
between Fe 2 O 3 and specific elements is 0.84 with Al 2 O 3 and 0.97 with Cr 2 O 3 , showing a very high positive
correlation, showing that the chemical behavior of these elements is similar. This is consistent with the fact that
iron oxides and Fe-rich clay minerals become more frequent in the upper laterite zone during outdoor
observation. Excluding the red laterite section, the SiO 2 content is characteristically very high, which is thought
to be due to the opal to amorphous silica lumps observed during cross-sectional investigation. MgO shows a low
value in the laterite zone, which is an oxidizing environment, and its content tends to gradually increase as it
moves downward through the transition zone. However, values below 15.0 wt.% indicate that the saprolite zone
has not yet been reached (cf., Golightly, 1981 , 2010; Choi et al., 2021 ; Konopka et al., 2022 ).
In general, the development target for nickel laterite deposits in the southeast-southern region is the saprolite
zone where the garnierite vein develops. Garnierite mainly develops in the middle to lower section of the saprolite
zone, where the paleowater table is located ( Golightly, 1981 ; Gali et al., 2012 ; Marsh et al., 2013 ; Fu et al., 2014 ,
2018). However, in this trench, a high-grade section (~2.95 wt.% Ni) is confirmed in the yellow laterite zone, which
is the upper section of the profile, and in this high-grade section, earthen garnierite lumps are calculated to be
surrounded by yellow laterite soil. This is interpreted as the result of garnierite being formed in the saprolite zone,
then uplifted, and undergoing soil transformation in the oxidation zone near the surface.
4.2.2. South Palangga region
The study area belongs to the Nampalanga area, Namkonawi County, located approximately 25 km east of the
Tinangae area discussed earlier. The survey area is a large-scale nickel laterite deposit development area and
production mines are concentrated there. This survey was conducted to understand the characteristics of the
developed ore bodies that exist in the southern part of ESO. We observed the outdoor surface of the ore body
under development in the production mine, collected one parent rock sample, six saprolite samples (SP-01~06),
and one limonite sample (LM-01), and conducted a survey on these. In addition to thin section observation, X-ray
fluorescence analysis and X-ray diffraction analysis were performed. The results of X-ray fluorescence analysis are
shown in Table 4 , and the results of X-ray diffraction analysis are shown in Figure 13 .
Table 4 Chemical composition for nickel laterite deposits in South Palangga area in the southern part of
'Southeast-Arm' of Sulawesi
Sample SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 MnO High MgO K 2O Na2O P2O5 In Co Cr2O3 LAW Total
wt.%
SP-01 36.41 0.04 2.54 17.06 0.28 0.47 28.24 <0.01 <0.01 0.02 1.87 0.01 0.71 11.91 99.56
SP-02 32.69 0.02 1.17 21.78 1.95 0.55 25.24 <0.01 <0.01 0.01 1.86 <0.01 0.51 13.06 98.84
SP-03 32.60 0.01 1.34 26.47 0.27 0.32 23.48 <0.01 <0.01 0.01 2.49 0.08 0.50 11.33 98.90
SP-04 39.41 0.02 1.17 12.74 0.09 0.08 32.37 <0.01 <0.01 0.01 1.17 0.03 0.51 12.15 99.75
SP-05 38.44 0.01 0.68 9.88 0.15 1.82 33.78 <0.01 <0.01 0.01 0.77 0.01 0.40 13.72 99.67
SP-06 34.12 0.04 2.14 20.11 0.84 0.28 26.73 <0.01 <0.01 0.02 1.61 <0.01 0.98 12.85 99.72
LM-01 8.07 0.10 6.09 72.53 1.05 0.18 3.02 0.02 <0.01 0.03 1.56 0.13 2.66 4.21 99.65
elemental and gravimetric method for LOI. LM: Limonite, SP: Saprolite, LOI: Loss On Ignition.
Fig. 13. XRD patterns of bedrock, saprolite (SP-01 to SP-06), and limonite (LM-01) samples from
South Palangga area showing their mineral components. Srp: serpentine, En: enstatite, Sm:
smectite, Gt: goethite, Chl: chlorite, Tlc: talc, Tr: tremolite, Mag: magnetite, Cal: calcite, Hem:
hematite, Kln: kaolinite.
4.2.2.2. Survey area geology and mineral deposit calculation pattern
The geology of the study area is similar to the Tinangae area described above. The upper part of the ultrabasic
rock body is unconformably covered by Neogene sedimentary rocks and Quaternary alluvium ( Fig. 11A ). The
sedimentary layer identified in the mining area consists of a thick gray mudstone layer, and bivalvia fossils are
produced ( Fig. 11B ). In many cases, the saprolite zone is placed directly below the boundary between the
overburden and the unconformity surface. The saprolite zone, the ore body to be developed, appears red to the
naked eye due to oxidation and exists at a thickness of less than 10 m. Stone saprolite, with some of the parent
rock structure preserved, is dominant, and as a result of weathering and alteration predominantly occurring along
the discontinuity, soil saprolite is commonly filled along the insulating structure. Characteristically, groups of
emerald-colored garnierite veins frequently develop ( Figs. 11C , 11D ). The production and residual texture of light
green serpentine are prominent ( Fig. 11E ).
Fig. 11. Selected photographs for pit survey of nickel laterite mine in South Palangga area in the
southern part of 'Southeast-Arm' of Sulawesi. (A) Panoramic photograph for the studied pit. Note the
very thick overburden above the nickel laterite deposits. (B) Bivalvia fossil discovered in Neogene
mudstone (overburden). (C) Garnierite veins in saprolite orebody. (D) Amorphous garnierite
fragments taken from garnierite veins. (E) Residual texture. Note the matrix of greenish serpentine.
4.2.2.3. Characteristics of host rock and ore
When observing thin sections, the host rock is identified as serpentinite, which is an ultrabasic rock converted
into serpentinite, and some remaining orthorhombic pyroxene and olivine are observed surrounded by serpentine
( Figs. 12A , 12B ). As a result of X-ray diffraction analysis of the host rock, serpentine is dominant, and the
remaining orthorhombic pyroxene is judged to be magnesium-rich enstatite ( Fig. 13 ). The flaky saprolite samples
(SP-01~06) are composed of serpentine in which most of the mafic minerals such as pyroxene and olivine are
serpentinized, and minor minerals include talc, ilmenite, spinel, and other minerals. Opaque minerals are observed
( Figs. 12C , 12D ). It shows various residual structures such as mesh texture, veinlet-filling, pseudomorph texture,
and recrystallization. As a result of X-ray diffraction analysis, it is determined that saprolite ores are mainly
composed of nickel-containing serpentine and also contain some nickel-containing talc, smectite, and iron oxide
minerals ( Fig. 13 ). As a result of X-ray fluorescence analysis, the samples contained 32.60~39.41 wt.% SiO 2 ,
0.68~2.54 wt.% Al 2 O 3 , 9.88~26.47 wt.% Fe 2 O 3 , and 23.48~33.78 wt.% MgO. It is classified as saprolite and
matches well with the outdoor mountain facies and petrological characteristics. The flaky limonite zone (LM-01)
contains small amounts of spinel and limonite, but is mostly composed of opaque minerals ( Fig. 12E , 12F ). As a
result of I support it. As a result of analyzing the entire sample, the nickel grade varies from 0.77 to 2.49 wt.%.
When considering the results of thin section observation and et al., 1998 ; Butt and Cluzel, 2013 ), the orebody is
classified as a typical saprolite type.
Fig. 12. Photomicrographs of the nickel laterite deposits in South Palangga area. (A, B) Bedrock. (C, D)
Saprolite zone. (E, F) Limonite zone. (A), (C) and (E) were taken under plane polarized light. (B), (D)
and (F) were taken under crossed polarized light. op: opaque mineral, Im: ilmenite, Srp: serpentine,
Opx: orthopyroxene, Ol: olivine, Spl: spinel.
4.3. North East-Arm: Ampana region

4.3.1. Investigation overview
The eastern-northern region is known to be a major ESO producing area ( Kadarusman et al., 2004 ), but it is not a
place where the nickel industry is developed. The study area is located approximately 10 km southwest of Ampana,
the main administrative city in the northern part of Dongbu-Am. This case is a detailed exploration stage to secure
light quantity. A total of 499 holes and 2,602 m of drilling exploration were conducted at the precise exploration
target site. The characteristics of the nickel laterite deposit were identified through the analysis of drilling
exploration data. Whole cancer chemical analysis was performed on a total of 1,901 samples from the recovered
drill cores at intervals of 1.0 to 3.0 m. Based on the pre-rock chemical analysis data, boreholes with an average
nickel grade of 1.0 wt.% or more were classified as mineralized zones. For these mineralized zones, geochemical
characteristics of major element contents were derived and meaningful information about mineralization was
interpreted. The analysis data is summarized in Table 5 .
Table 5 Summary of chemical composition of mineralized drill holes (above 1% in average Ni grade) for nickel
laterite deposits in Ampana area in the northern part of 'East-Arm' of Sulawesi
Zone n wt.% SiO2 TiO2 AI 2 O 3 Fe2O3 MnO High MgO In Co Cr2O3 MC Thickness (m)
Average 31.07 0.16 7.59 33.50 0.49 0.61 12.95 1.19 0.05 1.49 27.40 6.70
Total 446 Min 4.79 0.01 0.28 5.31 0.04 0.03 0.98 0.03 0.00 0.05 0.00 2.00
Max 53.75 0.68 20.46 66.82 2.86 11.33 36.52 2.25 0.15 6.26 41.50 20.00
Average 18.43 0.25 10.74 49.01 0.70 0.21 4.34 1.22 0.08 2.23 29.70 3.60
Limonite 171 Min 4.79 0.03 3.03 24.68 0.11 0.03 0.98 0.42 0.03 0.58 0.00 1.00≤
Max 42.52 0.68 20.46 66.82 2.86 1.81 11.59 2.13 0.15 6.26 41.00 10.00
Average 37.89 0.12 6.04 25.47 0.38 0.79 16.89 1.28 0.04 1.11 27.70 3.60
Saprolite 245 Min 12.07 0.01 0.28 5.31 0.04 0.06 5.19 0.19 0.00 0.05 0.00 1.00≤
Max 51.37 0.53 19.20 54.69 1.92 7.89 34.13 2.25 0.09 3.10 41.50 17.00
Average 47.43 0.04 2.29 10.66 0.14 1.46 29.93 0.22 0.01 0.41 12.00 -
Saprock/Bedrock 30 Min 41.97 0.01 1.04 5.84 0.08 0.11 24.15 0.03 0.00 0.27 3.70 -
Max 53.75 0.10 5.78 15.52 0.26 11.33 36.52 0.53 0.02 0.50 22.70 -
The samples were analyzed in the laboratory PT. Sucofindo Palu, in accordance with WD-XRF fusion method for
elemental and gravimetric method for Moisture content (MC).
4.3.2. Survey area geology and laterite profile calculation pattern
The geology of the study area consists of ultrabasic rocks, Pliocene Molasse sediments, and Quaternary reefal
limestone (Rusmana et al., 1993b). Through field surveys and drill core logging, the laterite profile is divided into
top soil, limonite zone, saprolite, and saprock to bedrock. The calculation pattern for each section is the same or
similar to the cases described above. However, some characteristics that stand out in the Ampana region are
explained as follows.
In some boreholes, each section of the profile is developed sequentially and well ( Fig. 14A , 14B ), but in many cases,
the saprolite zone is thin or poor. In particular, garnierite veins are rarely observed in the saprolite zone. As a
result of spatially plotting the average nickel grade for each borehole, a tendency for nickel to be relatively highly
enriched along the north-south ridges was recognized ( Fig. 15A ), which is interpreted as an influence of
topography. The influence of topography becomes more noticeable when the drilling results are plotted by setting
a cross section perpendicular to the ridge ( Fig. 15B ). In cross-section, a 'mirroring' pattern in which the laterite
profile reflects the topography is recognized. In relatively flat highlands, the laterite profile thickness is thick,
while in lowlands or steep slopes, the profile thickness is thin. In particular, on steep slopes, the limonite belt is
the thinnest. As in the Morowali region, it is interpreted as a result of the variability of the leaching zone and
differences in the rate of ablation depending on the topography ( Butt and Cluzel, 2013 ; Maurizot et al., 2019 ).
Fig. 14. Representative drilling result in Ampana area in the northern part of 'East-Arm' of Sulawesi.
(A) Drill core box showing laterite profile zones and (B) average chemical composition of core
samples every 2m interval by XRF.
Fig. 15. (A) Nickel grade distribution map from drilling results for nickel laterite deposits in Ampana
area. The nickel grade was calculated from average of chemical compositions by XRF data for each
drill holes. GPS coordinate is based on WGS84 (datum) and UTM zone 5 (grid). (B) Representative
cross section for the nickel laterite deposits. Its location is shown in (A). The laterite profile zones
were interpreted from drilling results. Note ‘mirroring’ shape of nickel laterite deposits. Be cautious
with the two different vertical scales for topography and drilling data.
4.3.3. Gwanghwadae Characteristics
Boreholes with an average nickel grade of 1.0 wt.% or higher are classified as mineralization zones, and their main
characteristics are summarized as follows. The thickness of the mineralized zone ranges from 2 to 20 m, with an
average of 6.7 m, and the average nickel grade was calculated to be 1.19 wt.% ( Table 5 ). Looking at each section,
the thickness of the limonite zone and the saprolite zone were both 3.6 m on average, and the nickel grades were
1.22 wt.% and 1.28 wt.%, respectively, with no significant difference. Overall, it is judged that the low-grade ore
body exists in a thin manner. In particular, unlike the limonite zone, the saprolite zone is characterized by its
thinness despite undergoing isovolumetric weathering. The average value of major element content in each
section is 18.4 wt.% SiO 2 , 10.7 wt.% Al 2 O 3 , 49.0 wt.% Fe 2 O 3 , 4.3 wt.% MgO, and saprolite in the limonite zone (n
=171). In large (n=245), 37.9 wt.% SiO 2 , 6.0 wt.% Al 2 O 3 , 25.5 wt.% Fe 2 O 3 , 16.9 wt.% MgO, saprock to bedrock
(n=30) It was found to be 47.4 wt.% SiO 2 , 2.3 wt.% Al 2 O 3 , 10.7 wt.% Fe 2 O 3 , and 29.9 wt.% MgO. Each section
shows a typical chemical composition according to nickel lateritization. When the content of major elements in
each section is plotted vertically, the characteristics of mineralization are clearly recognized ( Fig. 16 ). Moving
from the lower bedrock to the upper limonite zone, elements Ni, Fe 2 O 3 , Al 2 O 3 , Co, TiO 2 , Cr 2 O 3 , and MnO
are enriched, while MgO, SiO 2 and CaO tend to decrease. In other words, it is interpreted that differential leaching
and residual action due to lateritization have developed well. Looking at the correlation between major elements
for all 446 samples analyzed, it was found to be 0.81 between MgO and SiO 2 , -0.88 between Fe 2 O 3 and MgO, and
-0.95 between Fe 2 O 3 and SiO 2 , leading to this interpretation. support. Meanwhile, the correlation between Ni
and MgO is -0.38, indicating that the correlation is generally low. This indicates that nickel was not enriched with
hydrous magnesium silicate minerals in the saprolite zone, which is consistent with the weak production of the
garnierite zone.
Fig. 16. Vertical geochemical variations for nickel laterite deposits in Ampana area.
Considering the nickel laterite profile development stage model proposed by Butt and Cluzel (2013) , the limonite
zone and saprolite zone developed in the Ampana region mineral deposits due to leaching and retention, followed
by a reprecipitation mechanism in which nickel was enriched. It is interpreted that this was weak. Although there
are variations depending on the region, the period of ESO dominance in Sulawesi is generally the same, from the
late Oligocene to the early Miocene ( Parkinson, 1998 ; Kadarusman et al., 2004 ; Hall and Wilson, 2000 ). Despite a
similar period of time as other regions, the weak development of mineral deposits in the Ampana region is
interpreted as the result of high rates of erosion and ablation due to tectonic uplift outpacing the speed of mineral
deposit formation ( Maurizot et al., 2019 ). In other words, it is believed that the mature profile was not preserved
as a result of repeated ore body loss processes due to rapid erosion and ablation before the mature profile was
formed. In the Ampana region, Quaternary reef limestone was uplifted to approximately 500 m above sea level,
indicating active tectonic uplift ( Satyana and Purwaningsih, 2011 ). Due to the collision between eastern Sulawesi
and the Bangui-Sula microcontinent that has continued since the Neogene, regional tectonic movements were
active in eastern-Am, including Ampana ( Hall and Wilson, 2000 ; Kadarusman et al., 2004 ; Watkinson et al. ., 2011
).
4.4. Characteristics and formation conditions of nickel laterite deposits

Ultrabasic host rocks and their serpentinization, tropical rainforest climate, tectonic environment, topography,
geological structure and erosion rate are the main factors regulating the development of nickel laterite deposits (
Golightly, 2010 ; Butt and Cluzel, 2013 ; Marsh et al., 2013 ). The characteristics of nickel laterite deposits are
determined by the organic interaction of these major factors. By synthesizing the exploration cases covered in this
paper, we will discuss the characteristics of nickel laterite deposits and mineralization regulation factors in each
region of Sulawesi.
Southeast-Am The northeastern coastal region is a key area for nickelateite development in Indonesia. It occupies
a large area and has significant advantages for development because ESO is exposed to the surface and nickel
laterite deposits exist from the surface. As a result of the investigation, it was confirmed that a high-grade
saprolite-type ore body with a thickness of 10 to 20 m was preserved in the Morombo and Morowali areas due to
lateritization of extensive ultrabasic rock bodies. Topography controls the distribution of nickel grades and the
geometry of mineralized zones, with mineralized zones developing thickly and with high grades, mainly in high-
altitude terrain such as ridges. High topographic relief is thought to have contributed to the formation of high-
grade ore bodies at depth by maximizing leaching by forming a deep water table ( Butt and Cluzel, 2013 ).
Additionally, high-quality ore bodies tend to develop in places where discontinuities such as joints and garnierite
veins are densely developed. It is believed that mechanical weathering caused by the development of
discontinuities promoted chemical weathering and provided favorable conditions for nickel leaching and
precipitation. Widely developing thrust fault zones are also a major factor regulating mechanical weathering.
Repeated tectonic uplift caused by strike fault movement increases topographic relief and readjusts the location of
the water table, causing the leaching-sedimentation mechanism of mineralized fluid to undergo several cycles,
leading to the development of high-grade ore bodies ( Brand et al., 1998 ; Golightly, 2010 ; Butt and Cluzel, 2013 ),
and the southeast-northern region of Am, including Morombo and Morowali regions, are considered typical
examples of this ( Choi et al., 2021 ; Fu et al., 2014 ).
Southeast-Southern Arm is a major nickel laterite mineral producing area that has recently been actively
developed. The ESO is exposed as a relatively small, isolated rock body covered or surrounded by Neogene
sediments and Quaternary alluvium. For this reason, nickel laterite deposits are rarely exposed directly to the
surface, and in many cases, they are covered by overburden. This overburden is located at the top of the deposit
and preserves the ore body, but it is a key exploration factor that must be identified as it can reduce profitability
during development. As a result of the investigation, variability in the presence and thickness of the overburden
depending on the topography and paleotopography is recognized in the southeast-southern part of Am, including
Tinangaea and Nampalanga. In the case of Tinangaea, the point where ultrabasic rocks are expected to be exposed
without overburden
As a result of conducting a trench investigation, it was confirmed that the zone developed sequentially from the
oxidation zone composed of laterite soil to the transition zone. In addition to the outdoor mountain bed, the
chemical composition of each section clearly shows the vertical distribution trend of major elements due to
lateritization, such as leaching near the surface, residual enrichment, nickel-smectite group, and garnierite
reprecipitation. Meanwhile, in the production mine in the Nampalanga region, which is currently being actively
developed, an overburden is placed, and a high-grade saprolite-type ore body is developed below it with a
thickness of about 10 m. As the garnierite vein group developed in the saprolite zone, nickel was mainly
concentrated in nickel-containing serpentine.
In the northern part of Dongbu-Am, ESO is exposed on the surface, but development of nickel laterite deposits is
not active. It is confirmed that a thin layer of low-grade mineral deposits exists, at least in the vicinity of Ampana.
This area also develops some high-grade zones along the ridge due to the influence of topography, but overall the
laterite profile is immature. In particular, the reprecipitation mechanism of the nickel-containing mineralized
fluid, where nickel was enriched in earnest, was weak. It is thought that the high rate of erosion and ablation due
to active tectonic uplift is the result of outpacing the rate of ore body formation. In order to more clearly
understand the abundance potential of eastern-northern Ampan, more information must be accumulated along
with the case of the Ampana region.
conclusion
World-scale nickel-laterite deposits exist in Sulawesi, Indonesia, due to the active-margin tectonic environment,
extensive ophiolites, and extensive geological and climatic conditions of a tropical rainforest climate. In addition
to regional formation conditions, regulatory factors for nickel laterite mineralization in each Sulawesi region
determine the abundance characteristics and economic feasibility of the ore body. In the southeastern-
northeastern part of the rock, where Morombo and Morowali are located, ultrabasic rock bodies are widely
distributed and thick, high-grade saprolite-type ore bodies exist. Topography and geological structure affect the
geometry of the ore body and the quality of nickel. In the southeast-southern part of the rock, where Tinangaea
and Nampalanga are located, Cenozoic sedimentary rocks cover ultrabasic rock bodies. A high-grade saprolite-
type ore body in which a garnierite vein develops exists below the Overburden, which is composed of Cenozoic
sedimentary rocks. In contrast, in the Ampana area located in the northern part of Dong-Am, low-grade ore bodies
exist thinly. Overall, the laterite profile was immature, and the reprecipitation mechanism of the nickel-containing
mineralized fluid was weak. The mineralization regulatory factors identified in regional exploration cases are key
factors that must be identified when exploring nickel laterite deposits. The academic and technical background
knowledge provided by the actual exploration cases covered in this study is expected to be used as useful
information to improve the exploration success rate of Korean private companies.
buy buy
The exploration cases covered in this paper were supported by the Overseas Resources Development Research
Project, a government subsidy project. We would like to thank the reviewers and editor-in-chief for their
constructive criticism to improve the quality of the paper. We would like to thank Manager Seong Mina of the
Korea Mine & Reclamation Corporation's Technology Research Institute for supporting the X-ray diffraction
analysis and microscopic observation. We would like to thank Dr. Jong-Gyu Park for his helpful advice on pre-
cancer chemical analysis. We would like to thank all those involved in the support project who provided much help
in field research under difficult conditions in remote overseas locations.
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Characteristics and Controlling Factors On Nickel Laterite Deposits in Sulawesi, Indonesia

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Characteristics and Controlling Factors On Nickel Laterite Deposits in Sulawesi, Indonesia

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5/12/24, 1:52 AM Characteristics and Controlling Factors on Nickel Laterite Deposits in Sulawesi, Indonesia

Characteristics and Controlling Factors on Nickel Laterite Deposits in

Characteristics and mineralization regulatory factors of nickel laterite

Korea Mine Reclamation Corporation Overseas Investigation Team

2. Sulawesi Metropolitan Geology

㎛ or less, and a non-oriented sample was produced. Analysis was

4. Results and discussion: Nickel laterite deposit exploration case

4.1.1.1. Investigation overview

4.1.1.2. Geology of study area

4.1.1.3. Laterite profile properties

4.1.2. Morowali region

4.1.2.1. Investigation overview

4.1.2.2. Geology of study area

4.1.2.3. Laterite profile properties

Note the vertical exaggeration.

4.2. Southeast-Arm South

4.2.1.1. Investigation overview

4.2.1.2. Geology of study area

4.2.1.3. Laterite profile properties

4.2.2. South Palangga region

4.2.2.1. Investigation overview

4.2.2.2. Survey area geology and mineral deposit calculation pattern

4.2.2.3. Characteristics of host rock and ore

4.3. North East-Arm: Ampana region

4.3.2. Survey area geology and laterite profile calculation pattern

4.3.3. Gwanghwadae Characteristics

4.4. Characteristics and formation conditions of nickel laterite deposits

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