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Industry Review of Electrode Consumption Trends in Electric Furnace Smelting

and Sustainability Impact

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Industry Review of Electrode
Consumption Trends in
Electric Furnace Smelting and
Sustainability Impact

Lloyd R. Nelson and Ben Bowman

Wasmund Memorial Symposium of Sustainability in Pyrometallurgy

62nd Annual Conference of Metallurgists (COM 2023) Toronto, Canada, on August 21-24, 2023

1
 Sustainability Imperative
The Need: The Consequences:
• Steel (& Metals) essential for • 2.6 Gt/a direct CO2 emissions
decarbonising energy systems: • 7-9% of global greenhouse gas
o build solar panels, wind turbines, emission (GHG)
transmission towers,
hydroelectricity dams • 11% global CO2 emissions
(more than road freight)
o electric vehicle (EV) cars & trucks!
• 8% of global final energy
• Steel one of most highly recycled demand (20% of industrial use,
materials … “cornerstone of the second only after chemical
circular economy”: sector)
o 80-90% recycling rates globally
• Largest industrial consumer of
• Byproduct slag - lower emission coal
o 550 Mta substituted for clinker in
production of 4000 Mt cement in
2019 (CO2 emissions bigger than
steel)
Sources: Global Energy Monitor Report, June 2022; Iron and Steel
Technology Roadmap Towards more sustainable steelmaking, Int. Energy 2
Agency, Oct 2020
 World Steelmaking in Numbers
Global Production:
• ~2 billion tonnes/a
• Dominated by:
o Blast Furnace (BF) +
Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF):
 ~69% global steel production
 ~31% of global operating crude steel
capacity using EAF technology
 Only 7.9% direct reduced iron (DRI)
supply (125.1 Mt/a) by 2022

Sources: Global Energy Monitor Report, June 2022; Iron and Steel
Technology Roadmap Towards more sustainable steelmaking, Int. Energy 3
Agency, Oct 2020, World Steel in Figures-2023
 Green Electric Furnace Steelmaking
The Imperative
• Significant shift to:

Naturally
Ocurring
White Hydrogen Least

“green” hydrogen-based DRI

+
”green” electric furnace melting/smelting
 To meet 2050 global decarbonisation
targets needs:
o 50% EAF share of steel production
(from ~31%)
o Direct CO2 emission intensity of steel
production must decline ~60% to 0.6 t CO2/t
(from 1.4-1.7 t CO2/t)

The many colours of hydrogen, D Barzik_2023 AIST Webinar, Global Energy

Monitor Report, June 2022; Iron and Steel Technology Roadmap Towards 4
more sustainable steelmaking, Int. Energy Agency, Oct 2020
 Electrode Consumption Minimisation
- Specific & Worthy Theme
 Huge increase in carbon for electrodes, for projected:
o green hydrogen-based DRI + green electric furnace steelmaking
 Increased electrode carbon = increased electrode-derived CO2:
o 2000 Mt steel/a × ~3 kgC/t steel ≈ 6 Mt/a electrode C
o Versus present graphite electrode market ~1Mt/a
o ~22 Mt/a CO2 directly from electrode C?
o Energy:
o Needs green electricity for electric furnaces
o Green electricity demands associated green energy generation:
 Graphite electrode production ~2.8-5.6 MWh/t (~45 MWh/t total - 1986)
 E.g., photovoltaic solar silicon for green electricity :
 Silicon smelting = 50-100 kgC/t electrode consumption
 ~10.5-13 MWh/t metallurgical grade Si
 ~100 MWh/t for final purification
Silicon For The Chemical And Solar Industry XIII_Kristiansand_2016
Carbon Webinar 9 - Graffin Lecture: 125 Years of Synthetic Graphite by Dr. Ryan Paul – YouTube;; 5
The availability of high quality UHP electrodes in the 1980s, IW Gazda, Electrode Use in Electric Arc Furnaces, ISS, 1986
Bert Wasmund’s Penchant for Technology
- CHAT GPT-Open AI
Question Posed:
• Electric furnace Söderberg paste and electrode consumption?

CHAT GPT-Open AI Response:

• “The consumption rate of Soderberg electrodes in an electric furnace is
dependent on several factors, including:
1. Furnace size: The larger the furnace, the more electrodes it will require.
2. Electrode size: The size of the electrode directly affects the electrode consumption rate.
3. Electrode placement: The placement of the electrode within the furnace will also affect its
consumption rate.
4. Production rate: The production rate of the furnace directly affects the electrode consumption rate.
5. Type of material being melted: Different materials will have varying effects on the electrode
consumption rate.
6. Quality of electrodes: Higher quality electrodes will last longer than lower quality electrodes.
• It is important to note that the electrode consumption rate can vary greatly
depending on the conditions in the furnace and the type of material being
melted. It is therefore recommended to regularly monitor the electrode
consumption rate and make adjustments as necessary to ensure optimal
performance.”
6
Need for a Keynote?
- CHAT GPT-Open AI
Question Posed (after “training” CHAT GPT-Open AI a bit)
• Söderberg and Graphite Electrode consumption data in kg per tonne or kg per
MWh?

CHAT GPT-Open AI Response:

• “Unfortunately, I do not have specific data on the consumption of Söderberg and
graphite electrodes in terms of kilograms per tonne or kilograms per megawatt-
hour (MWh). The consumption of electrodes varies greatly depending on the
specific smelting process, the quality of the raw materials, the type of metal
being produced, and other factors. It would be best to consult with a specialist
in the field or conduct your own research for more accurate and up-to-date
information on electrode consumption.”

7
Electrode Consumption data
• Focus on Graphite & Söderberg paste:
o with reference to Composite, carbon, pre-bake, amorphous & semi-
graphite electrodes
• Sourced electrode consumption data since 1906:
o single-, twin-/dual-, 3-, 4-, 6-, 8-, but missing 9-electrode configurations
o ~1150 source entries (including pilot plants) from +250 references &
operating data
o ~3400 electrodes
• Various:
o Commodities: “AlSi … to Zn”
o Furnace types and operating modes:
 EAF, Immersed-electrode, submerged-arc, brush-arc, shielded-arc & open-arc
 some even more esoteric pre-1920s …

8
Historical Data Set:
• ~1875 electrode consumption data
points (incl. pilot plants)
• +270 “steel” included

• Distribution:
o 50.9% paste
o 46.3% graphite
o rest composite electrodes

9
 Zn
electric
Amorphous/Pre-bake (1906-1920): furnace
• 1906-Steel: 3-20 kg/t & 3.4-30.2 kg/MWh-e
• 1973-AlSi: 250 kg/t & 19.2 kg/MWh-e
• 1918-Zn: 13.2 kg/t & 5.9 kg/MWh-e

Söderberg paste (1922-1951):

• 1922-Cu conc.: 4.0 kg/t & 5.7 kg/MWh-e
Söderberg pilot
Rennefeld Furnace Herault Electric Furnace

100 Years Søderberg

Electrode,
Kristiansand, 2019;
The Electric furnace, 10
JN Pring, 1921
 Caution electrode consumption metrics
• kg/t most popular … but which t?
o short ton, long ton, tonne?
o t of ore, dry ore, concentrate, “bone-dry”, charge feed, DSC, TMS, calcine, WACS, metal, New Metal, tls, G.T.,
NT, C.T., billet, carbide, alloy, blister, P2O5, Cr, Si …?
o kg … amorphous, pre-bake, carbon, semi-graphite, graphite, paste electrode; or kg C in any source?
o kg consumption = net or gross (including breakage)?
• In an industry like steel, kg/tls may make logical sense, but may be poor for inter-commodity
comparison? Beware kg/t metal when say 50% ChCr versus 65-70% HC FeCr … when alloy product paid /lb
contained Cr?

• Preferred specific consumption metric for commodity comparison:

o kg/MWh = kg/t ÷ MWh/t, to compare different electrode source types
o In steel industry, beware electrical energy plus supplementary chemical energy contributions:
 1 kg/tls ÷ 0.5 MWh-e/tls = 2.0 kgC/MWh-e MWh/t < 1: kg/t < kg/MWh
 1 kg/tls ÷ 0.33 MWh-e/tls = 3.0 kgC/MWh-e … what was MWh-c? MWh/t = 1: kg/t = kg/MWh
MWh/t > 1: kg/t > kg/MWh
• In continuous self-baking Söderberg electrodes, metric of electrode steel casing consumption, or
mm electrode slipped per month, also reported:
o (π(1.60 m)2/4).(21715 mm/month/1000mm/m).(1580 kg/m3)/(35350.4 MWh/month).(94.1% fixed C)
= 1.84 kg C in (unbaked) paste/MWh
Gross Ton; ‘materias seca’ – dry matter; Dry solid charge/calcine;
Waterval ACP converter slag; charge ton; etc. 11
 Electric (Arc) Furnaces (EAF)
– Types & Operating Modes
Electrodes: 1-, 2-, 3-, (4-), 6- & (9-); Graphite,
Söderberg, (other)
AC: electric arc furnace (EAF), immersed-
electrode (slag resistance),open/closed
submerged-arc (SAF), ‘shielded-arc’, partially
open slag bath (POSB)/Brush arc (BAF), Open-
arc (OAF)
DC: Open-arc, immersed-arc, open-bath,
single solid/hollow feed, ‘twin’, ’dual
anode/cathode’, 3- & +4-electrode

EAF Electrode Consumption Benchmarking, Wayne Adams, 2011

12
 Electric Furnace
– Types & Operating Modes
Slag- Immersed- Closed SAFF Open SAF ‘Shielded-arc’
resistance electrode

Electrodes: 1-, 2-, 3-, (4-), 6- & (9-); Graphite, Söderberg, (other)
AC: electric arc furnace (EAF), immersed-electrode/slag-
resistance, open/closed submerged-arc (SAF), ‘shielded-arc’,
partially open slag bath (POSB)/Brush arc (BAF), Open-arc (OAF)
DC: Open-arc, immersed-arc, open-bath, single solid/hollow
feed, ‘twin’, ’dual anode/cathode’, 3- & +4-electrode ‘Open-arc’ ‘Shielded-arc’
‘Twin DC’
‘Brush-arc’

‘Immersed-arc DC’
Application of new technology in the design of high-power electric smelting furnaces,
AG Matyas, RC Francki, KM Donaldson, B Wasmund, CIM Bull vol 85, 1993 13
 Types of Electrodes
• Initially: Carbon/Amorphous/
Pre-bake/Semi-graphite
• Progress to: Graphite & UHP
o (dense, re-impregnated grades)
• Söderberg Electrodes
CW Söderberg: Norwegian Patent 28799, May 18, 1918; US Patent 1,440,724, Apr. 2, 1923

• Paste – Even for EAF Steel:

o ‘melted’ / transferred & ‘poured into casing’
o sometimes ‘preheated’ outside furnace
o ‘finally baked’ in furnace
• In situ continuous, ‘self-baking’ …
only later fully evolved
• Initially no ‘casing fins’… variants with:
o Al casing (avoid Fe) + Ar-arc welding
o Stainless steel casings – 1.9 m dia. Mn alloys
Operation of Soderberg electrodes in a steel arc furnace, J Einerkjaer, JOM, 1965; Copper smelting in
Boliden’s Rönnskär works described,, O Herneryd, JOM_1954; Comparative Value of Soderberg and 14
Prebaked Electrodes, R van Ness, EFC 1961; Electric Smelting Processes, AGE Robiette, 1973
 Electrode Paste Safety?
• “The procedure for joining the sections of the
Soderberg electrode is the following:
• When too short for further operation, the electrode
is exchanged with a newly extended electrode and
transferred to the welding platform by an overhead
crane.
• The top of the electrode is cleaned & the operator
makes certain that the top layer consists of green
paste.
• A new casing section, 1900 mm high, is put in place,
and inside reinforcing ribs are arc welded through
portholes in the casing, the portholes are closed, and
finally the casings are welded together around the
circumference.
• The electrode is then brought to one of the paste
melting pits, where the empty casing is filled with
crushed electrode paste. Gradually, as the paste melts, it
is rammed and new cold paste is added to avoid swelling
of the paste caused by partial evaporation of the binder.
This typical swelling starts at about 160'C, but the
temperature in the pit has to be kept considerably higher
in order to attain an acceptable melting capacity.
• From the paste melting pit the electrode is put back into
operation on the steel furnace, if convenient. If not, the
electrode is brought to the preheating pit or to the
storing pit.”
Operation of Soderberg electrodes in a steel arc furnace, J Einerkjaer, JOM, 1965; Copper smelting in Boliden’s Rönnskär works described,,
O Herneryd, JOM_1954; Comparative Value of Soderberg and Prebaked Electrodes, R van Ness, EFC 1961; Electric Smelting Processes, 15
AGE Robiette, 1973; The fundamentals of the Søderberg electrode, B Larsen, 100 Years Søderberg Electrode, Kristiansand, 2019
 Electrode Breakage?
• “In case of electrode breakage, the broken
electrode usually has to be replaced at once. The
soft part of the electrode, corresponding to the
length of the stub, will not possess sufficient electric
conductivity to permit an economical power input
rate and the paste will be heated too quickly,
resulting in a poor electrode section.
• Therefore, this part of the electrode is pre-baked in
the pre-heating pit. The electrode is placed in
water-cooled holders in the same position as in the
steel furnace, and if cooled down before going to
the pit, remains in the same position for 6h before
lowering starts. The electrode is then lowered 100
mm every 2h until sufficient operational length is
achieved. The electrode remains in the final
position for at least 24h and is always put directly
from the pit to the steel furnace. A stub of 1m will, • The manpower required for the
according to this, require a pre-baking time of 50h electrode preparation for three
before the electrode is ready for further service. steel furnaces, is one man on
• In spite of this careful and time-consuming practice, three shifts for welding, paste
the pre-baked section of a broken electrode is never melting and ramming, and
of the same quality as an electrode baked in the operation of the equipment
steel furnace under normal working conditions.” involved.”
Operation of Soderberg electrodes in a steel arc furnace, J Einerkjaer, JOM, 1965; Copper smelting in Boliden’s Rönnskär works described,,
O Herneryd, JOM_1954; Comparative Value of Soderberg and Prebaked Electrodes, R van Ness, EFC 1961; Electric Smelting Processes, 16
AGE Robiette, 1973; The fundamentals of the Søderberg electrode, B Larsen, 100 Years Søderberg Electrode, Kristiansand, 2019
 Electrode Paste Safety? “We send a man inside and weld up the 18
fins as well as the horizontal weld.”
• “The Soderberg paste is smelted in a pot which is
heated by circulating hot air, thus avoiding any “Did 1 understand you to say that a man,
danger of over-heating. This pot can then be goes down inside and welds the fins? Is
transported by crane to a point above each that while the power is on the furnace?”
electrode and the charge, approximately one
“We do this under load, yes.”
metric ton at the time, is emptied directly into the
electrode. There is no subsequent ramming of the Electric Furnace Conference 1961

electrode.”

Operation of Soderberg electrodes in a steel arc furnace, J Einerkjaer, JOM, 1965; Copper smelting in Boliden’s Rönnskär works described,,
O Herneryd, JOM_1954; Comparative Value of Soderberg and Prebaked Electrodes, R van Ness, EFC 1961; Electric Smelting Processes, 17
AGE Robiette, 1973; The fundamentals of the Søderberg electrode, B Larsen, 100 Years Søderberg Electrode, Kristiansand, 2019
 Types of Electrodes Graphite core Paste Casing

• Silicon: “consumed faster than bakes”

Fe metal contaminates >98.5% Si in a
“slag-less” smelting process
o Composite:
 Graphite + paste + casing “extrude”
 Numerous design variants
o Even in situ, paste pre-heater

• Hollow Electrode (Origin: CaC2-

Söderberg):
o N2 gas-stabilised (ASEA-Elred DC-arc)
o Feed fines to arc/arc attachment zone (AAZ)
 ‘cooler’, lower electrode consumption?
 despite more internal area & mechanical losses?
Metal Free Self-Baking Electrode, CF Fulgenzi, EFC, 1995; Development of an In Situ Prebaking Electrode System for Silicon Metal Production, A
Vatland, INFACON 7, 1995; Hollow electrode system for calcium carbide furnaces, DE Hamby, JOM, 1967; The hollow electrode-an application to 18
process chrome ore fines, G Rath, EFC, 1990; Influence of Hollow Electrode Charging on the Operation of a FeSi Furnace, HT Ingason, EFC, 1993
 Maximum Electrode Size
– Circular / Oval
• Söderberg: • Ultra-high Power
o mention of 3.05 m monophase? (UHP) Graphite
o 2.1 m dia. circular o 750 mm dia.
o 3.2 m × 0.85 m oval o maximum 800 mm
dia.

Top view down Söderberg in situ

continuous, self-baking, electrode steel
casing with steel fins, hard & soft paste
below

ALX Graphite automated jointing

Oval electrode

Research of the Operation Modes Of Self-Baking Electrodes of High-Power Electric Ore-Smelting Furnaces at PJSC “Nikopol Ferroalloy Plant”, AG Grinshpunt
YuB Dedov, Infacon XIV, 2014, Insights Into the Influences Of Paste Additions and Levels on Söderberg Electrode Management, LR Nelson FX Prins, INFACON X, 19
2004; Case Studies – Improving EAF Operations by Utilizing ALX Graphite Electrodes and the Architect Furnace Evaluation System, Bryan Chiappelli, EEC 2016
 Graphite Electrode Wear
- Extensively Studied in Steelmaking

50 ± 20% 50 ± 20%
7 ± 3% 8 ± 7%

Optimum Use of Electrodes in Arc Furnaces, B Bowman, UCAR; Performance evaluation of graphite electrodes under varying conditions in a modern arc furnace shop, PA Lefrank,
Electrode Use in Electric Arc Furnaces, ISS, 1986; Causes and Remedies for Electrode Breaks, C Fulgenzi, AISTech Conf Proc, 2005; Globe Trotters Electrode Consumption Benchmarking, 20
K Vanover, 2011; Case Studies – Improving EAF Operations by Utilizing ALX Graphite Electrodes and the Architect Furnace Evaluation System, Bryan Chiappelli, EEC 2016
 Discontinuous Electrode Consumption
Breakage - Management/Design Issues
• Design issues:
o Rotating Phosphorus with Pre-bakes & ‘water’ telescoping seals to lower oxygen in air ingress –
inevitable steam explosion
• Söderberg nightmare = >1 break/week vs. Benchmark “no break in a decade”
• Steelmaking graphite somewhat surprisingly breakage challenged:
o Breakage rate as high as 5-10% (1980s); 0.5-5% or 5-25 scrap breaks/month (2011), <3% (2016)
Benchmark “no break in 1½ years”
• Industry has progressed significantly:
o Electrode quality (e.g., reduction in graphite properties standard deviations 1970-1982: ρapparent
42%, ρelectrical 49%, CTE (longitudinal & transverse) 20 & 26%, MOR (transverse) 7% lower);
o Electrical arc & furnace control (10% saving reported);
o Operational conditions and practices “can subordinate the effect of electrode properties”

Operation of a 25000-Kw rotating phosphorus furnace, EC Marks, JOM,1965; Development of Electrode Consumption at Hadeed, 1989; Electrode evaluation by a modern arc furnace, JA Raley, Electrode Use in Electric Arc
Furnaces, ISS, 1986; Coated Electrodes to Reduce Graphite Consumption, RH Kaltenhauser, Electrode Use in Electric Arc Furnaces, ISS, 1986; Electrode Consumption in a Modern High-Power Electric Steel Shop, W Armstrong, 21
AISTech 2012; Globe Trotters Electrode Consumption Benchmarking, K Vanover, 2011, Factors Affecting Electrode Consumption, J Jones, 2011, Bindura Nickel Corporation Smelter Operations, E Dzingayi, Pyro 2006
 Continuous Electrode Consumption
Extension of Rigorous Steelmaking Analysis (’70s)
• “Tip Consumption”:

vapour pressure pC(g) [atm]

1.E-08
o “Tip Sublimation”: 30-70% wear in Steelmaking
1.E-18

Sublimation
 direct high-temperature carbon/graphite sublimation: 1.E-28

1.E-38
Tarc, Ohmic heating (I2R) × t
1.E-48
[kgC / kA2.h] 0 2000 4000

o Thermal Shock Spalling Temperature [°C]

o “Immersed/Submerged Erosion” Tip consumption:

(electrode carbon as “expensive” source of energy or reactant)
 Inadvertent “Reductant” for feed charge burden oxide components:
• ~40% reduction in graphite consumption for SCR DRI versus scrap steel only (also mechanical wear)
• ~80% reduction in hollow graphite consumption for hot pre-reduced feed to DC-arc for FeCr
• ~40% reduction in paste consumption for sinter (“Mn3O4”) from ore (“MnO2”) in SAF
 “Reductant” for oxidation by reducible oxides in liquid slag
 “Dissolution” into liquid metal to carburise & raise dissolved [C] content
 Carburisation, react making carbides (CaC2, SiC, etc.)
Basic properties of high intensity electric arcs used-in steelmaking, EUR 5716 e, 1977; Electrode erosion in electric arc furnaces - the controlling parameters, GR Jordan, Ironmaking & Steelmaking, 4,
1978; Optimum Use of Electrodes in Arc Furnaces, B Bowman, UCAR, 1981; Factors Affecting Electrode Consumption, J Jones, 2011; Temco - The Australian Ferro Alloy Producer, JH Bourke CK Berglin,
AusIMM, Smelting and Refining Operators Symposium, May 1985; Performance evaluation of graphite electrodes under varying conditions in a modern arc furnace shop, PA Lefrank, Electrode Use in 22
Electric Arc Furnaces, ISS, 1986; Case Studies – Improving EAF Operations by Utilizing ALX Graphite Electrodes and the Architect Furnace Evaluation System, Bryan Chiappelli, EEC 2016
 Continuous Electrode Consumption
Extension of Rigorous Steelmaking Analysis (’70s)
Surface Oxidation =
• “Side Oxidation”
30-70% wear in Steelmaking
Temperature-/time-driven
[Tlocal + TOhmic heating (I2R)] × t
[kgC / kA2.h]
o Oxidation rate = Temperature-driven:
 Low-temperature (550-1000°) continuous (CLTO)
 Low-temperature discontinuous (DLTO)
 High-temperature (>1000°C) - HTO
o “Oxidising” gases located in:
 Gas bubbles in foaming slag
 Freeboard
 Above roof
o “Oxidising” reactive gases as:
 O2(g) in air or as injected O2(g)
 Water vapour - H2O(g) (feed moisture, waters of hydration)
 CO2(g) from calcination or carbothermic reduction products
 reactive SiO(g)
Basic properties of high intensity electric arcs used-in steelmaking, EUR 5716 e, 1977; Electrode erosion in electric arc furnaces - the controlling parameters, GR Jordan,
Ironmaking & Steelmaking, 4, 1978; Optimum Use of Electrodes in Arc Furnaces, B Bowman, UCAR, 1981; Factors Affecting Electrode Consumption, J Jones, 2011; 23
Performance evaluation of graphite electrodes under varying conditions in a modern arc furnace shop, PA Lefrank, Electrode Use in Electric Arc Furnaces, ISS, 1986
 Irregular Consumption –
Söderberg Electrodes
An Expert System Approach – even in 1995 …
Consumption diagnosis divides the rules into the areas where the usage probably has taken place
• Electrode Tip Consumption • Electrode Splitting - Splitting with fracture of
Relevant mechanisms are as follows: the baked column, usually occur spontaneously.
o oxidation and other chemical reactions*, Explained by:
o evaporation/sublimation at the electrode spots, o thermal stresses,
o splitting (due to thermal shocks), arc o mechanical forces and
o and slag erosion. The consumption occurs as a o erroneous operation.
continuous process,Process type
with periodical : FeSi
variations. 75%; Electrode dia.
• Factors to be 1.7 m
examined:
 Electrode conditions: • current variation / furnace shut-downs
• electrode current • visible horizontal cracks in baked electrode
• current variations Computed slipping index limit •
•
casing fin overlap and cavities because of fins
brittle electrode
• furnace shut-downs, etc
 Furnace conditions will also affect: = 2.24x10-9 mm/A2.h
• carbon stoichiometry (distinction between SCR and TCR*) • Surface Losses - Consumption from electrode
• segregations of raw materials surface is due to oxidation, normally continuous
• changes in raw materials (dried, calcined, pre-reduced, etc.) process:
 Electrode paste quality: o even surface oxidation
• electrical resistivity o necking or pencil shape
• modulus of elasticity and tensile strength
o changes in gas or slag composition
• reactivity of electrode carbon, etc
o changes in gas velocity
*Differing oxygen potentials: Selective and Total Carbothermic Reduction
Expert system for Soderberg electrodes, R Innvaer, K Fidje, K Kalgraf, INFACON VII,
Trondheim, 1995 24
 Söderberg Electrode Wear/Breaks

Mechanical break of baked electrode; Steel casing Split; Baked electrode: Splitting; slag oxidation, and casing oxidation/protection
Wear Mechanisms:
1) Oxidation of baked paste/steel casing by: a) Extent of oxidation of ore and feed oxides; b) liquid slag reducible oxides; c) Feed & product drying and/or
thermal decomposition gas species: H2O(g), CO2(g) & SiO(g). 2) Ingress air. 3) Oxidising supplementary heating or refining fuels/gases. 4) Air oxidation above
roof. 5) Carbon Dissolution loss into liquid metals, mattes, blister, etc.. 6) Process Melting versus Reductive Smelting = pO2 - Selective Carbothermic
Reduction (SCR) – ilmenite (product TiO2 slag), Ni laterite (high Ni grade); Total Carbothermic Reduction (TCR) maximum recovery– Cr, Mn, Si ferroalloys
Baked electrode oxidation, Fluting, Splitting & Slabbing & baked electrode cracking resulting in progressive electrode ‘Tip loss’.

The Oxidation of Soderberg Electrodes in Electric Reduction Furnace,

MN Zevgolιs, 1992; The Soderberg self-baking electrode, MO Sem, J. 25
Electrochem Soc, 1954
 Electrode Protection Against Oxidation
• Colder lower rate of oxidation, oxygen-free electrode?
• Water-cooling ~10% lower
• Water-cooled electrode sections + graphite (various designs)
• Inert gas
• Oxidation inhibitors; Retardants coatings - surface
impregnated/baked:
• Al refractory flame-sprayed (20-30% lower consumption)
• Other retardant coatings (~20-30% lower consumption)
• Al-, Cu- (in P2O5 reduction), Steel-clad carbon/graphite?
• Since inception, Elkem has marketed the Söderberg
electrodes steel casing as protection against oxidation

Electric Smelting Points Way to Lower Cost, M Sem FC Collin, Elektrokemisk AS, Eng & Mining J, 1947; Copper-clad carbon electrodes on a phosphorus furnace, EA Holtgrewe, JOM, 1964; Electrode
Consumption in a Modern High-Power Electric Steel Shop, W Armstrong, AISTech 2012; Use of electrodes with surface protection, AT Vavilova, Metallurgist, 1990; Oxidation Inhibited Pre-baked Carbon
Electrodes For Submerged Arc Furnaces, R. A. Greinke, EFC,1996; Water cooled electrodes-modification for two furnace operation, O Prenn, Electrode Use in Electric Arc Furnaces, ISS, 1986; Coated 26
Electrodes to Reduce Graphite Consumption, RH Kaltenhauser, ibid., 1986; Experiences with an In-shop applied coating to reduce electrode consumption, JE Gawel, ibid., 1986
EAF & LRF Steelmaking
- Carbon to Graphite
• Improvements to:
• Electrode quality (density, aggregate sizing* & re-impregnation)
• Electrical – arcing and furnace control
• Operational advances

271
“In the (dual anode-cathode) DC-arc LRF,EAF/LRF
the typical
phenomenon of unequal electrode wear as
observed where the anode is consumed faster than
the cathode. To compensate for this, the polarity of
electrodes is interchanged after some heats to kg/MWh
achieve equal electrode consumption”.

kg/t

Electric Furnace Steelmaking-Treatise on Process Metallurgy, Vol 3, Industrial Processes,

* Binder/fines oxidise preferentially
J Madias, 2014, Induction Ladle Refining Furnace for Secondary Metallurgical
Applications, M. Bhandari, INFACON X 2004
27
 EAF – Steelmaking Electrode Consumption
- Improvements Unrelated to Electrode Quality
• Effectively run higher power with longer stabilised arcs, lower current, so less I2R
ohmic heating and temperature, for lower electrode:
• tip losses, through arc sublimation
• side oxidation losses

EAF Electrode Consumption Benchmarking, W Adams, 2011;

A performance comparison update – AC vs DC furnaces, B Bowman, Iron and Steel 28
Engineer, 1995
 Extension of Steelmaking Electrode Tip
Consumption Metric kgC/kA2.h to:
DC /Gr
SCR

- DC-arc Graphite Single hollow El SCR Ilmenite Smelting

- AC Graphite 6iL SCR Ilmenite Smelting (÷ 3 or 6 current/electrode)
Tip consumption rate versus current squared
80 0.04 kgC/kA^2.h
DC/Gr
SCR 0.03 kgC/kA^2.h 0.02 kgC/kA^2.h

70 0.014 kgC/kA^2.h

60

50 0.01 kgC/kA^2.h

kg /h
40

30
Metric kg/kA2.h =
20
AC
6iL/Gr
slope
SCR
Selective Carbothermic
Each point
10 represents Reduction (SCR):
one furnace
• [Fe] + (TiO2)
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
kA 2
B. Bowman, "Broad, radiation-dominated arcs in steel and ferroalloy furnaces", 10th European Electric Steelmaking Conference,
Graz, 2012; Optimaler Einsatz von Graphitelektroden im Lichtbogenofen, B Bowman, Stahl und Eisen 102, 1982; The Quebec Iron 29
and Titanium smelting process, D Poggi, Professional Development Seminar of the CIM and Mc Gill University, April 1980
 Extension of Steelmaking Electrode Tip
Consumption Metric kgC/kA2.h to:
- DC-arc FeCr - Single solid & DC-arc Graphite, TCR
- DC-arc FeCr - Hollow El Graphite, pre-reduced + TCR
Tip consumption rate versus current squared
80
0.03 kgC/kA^2.h DC 0.02 kgC/kA^2.h DC
HES/Gr
Sol./DC
TCR
TCR
70 0.014 kgC/kA^2.h

DC DC
60 HES/Gr Sol./DC
0.012 kgC/kA^2.h
TCR TCR

50 0.01 kgC/kA^2.h
kg /h
DC
HES/Gr
TCR /
40 pre-red

30

20
Total Carbothermic
10 Reduction (TCR):
• [Fe,Cr] + stripped slag
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6241
kA 2

30
 Extension of Steelmaking Electrode Tip
Consumption Metric kgC/kA2.h to:
- AC 3- & 6-iL Söderberg Shielded-arc SCR Ni Laterite
- AC Graphite versus Söderberg: 6iL SCR Ilmenite
Tip consumption rate versus current squared
80 0.02 kgC/kA^2.h
0.08 kgC/kA^2.h

0.014 kgC/kA^2.h
70

60

50
kg /h
0.008 kgC/kA^2.h
40
AC 6iL/Sod
Shielded-arc
SCR
30
AC 3-El/Sod. AC
Shielded-arc 6iL/Sod

20
SCR AC
6iL/Gr
SCR TiO2
Selective Carbothermic
SCR

0.009 kgC/kA^2.h
Reduction (SCR):
10 • [Fe] + (TiO2)
• [Ni,Fe] + (FeO)
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
kA 2
A performance comparison update – AC vs DC furnaces, B Bowman, Iron and Steel Engineer, 1995; A Method of Studying Soderberg Electrode Consumption,
R Innvaer A Hempel, INFACON 8, 1998; Impact of electrode paste on Soderberg electrode performance, PM Wilkinson S Ganguly, Infacon IX, 2001; Production of
HCFeMn Using High Proportions of Sinter in the Charge, J Pais, Infacon 8, 1988; Alternative Ironmaking at BHP New Zealand Steel, CR Ure, EFC 2000
31
 Extension of Steelmaking Electrode Tip
Consumption Metric kgC/kA2.h to:
- DC-arc Graphite Steel Scrap Melting
- AC Söderberg TCR Smelting: SAF Fe75Si / SiMn / HCFeMn
0.0157 kgC/kA^2.h
Tip consum ption rate versus current squared
80
Total Carbothermic
70
Reduction (TCR):
Reactive
• [Fe,Cr,Mn] + [Si] + slag
60 SiO(g)
0.008 kgC/kA^2.h
50
kg /h 0.006 kgC/kA^2.h
40

0.004 kgC/kA^2.h
30
0.003 kgC/kA^2.h

20

10
16900
0 kA2
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
kA 2
A performance comparison update – AC vs DC furnaces, B Bowman, Iron and Steel Engineer, 1995; A Method of Studying Soderberg Electrode Consumption, R Innvaer A
Hempel, INFACON 8, 1998; Impact of electrode paste on Soderberg electrode performance, PM Wilkinson S Ganguly, Infacon IX, 2001; Production of HCFeMn Using High Proportions of
Sinter in the Charge, J Pais, Infacon 8, 1988; Alternative Ironmaking at BHP New Zealand Steel, CR Ure, EFC 2000
32
 Extension of Steelmaking Electrode Tip
Consumption Metric kgC/kA2.h to:
- DC-arc Graphite Steel Scrap Melting
- AC Söderberg TCR Smelting: SAF Fe75Si / SiMn / HCFeMn
0.0157 kgC/kA^2.h

Total Carbothermic
Reduction (TCR):
Reactive
• [Fe,Cr,Mn] + [Si] + slag
SiO(g)
0.008 kgC/kA^2.h

0.006 kgC/kA^2.h

0.004 kgC/kA^2.h

0.003 kgC/kA^2.h

16900
kA2

A performance comparison update – AC vs DC furnaces, B Bowman, Iron and Steel Engineer, 1995; A Method of Studying Soderberg Electrode Consumption, R Innvaer A
Hempel, INFACON 8, 1998; Impact of electrode paste on Soderberg electrode performance, PM Wilkinson S Ganguly, Infacon IX, 2001; Production of HCFeMn Using High Proportions of
Sinter in the Charge, J Pais, Infacon 8, 1988; Alternative Ironmaking at BHP New Zealand Steel, CR Ure, EFC 2000
33
 122 data
Immersed El

Breakage

Electrode short, no further

travel, electrode lowered by
Wisdom-bands welded on sides

Copper smelting in Boliden’s

Rönnskär works described, 34
O Herneryd, JOM, 1954
• Good ~2.5 kg/MWh 122 data
Immersed El
• Benchmark ~1.8 kg/MWh
• Less oxidation, new
Electrode seals?
• Data needed checking?

AC 3-El Söderberg Startup AC 6iL Immersed Söderberg

35
 43 data
Myth: SAF

• Söderberg universally higher

consumption rate = untrue!

Truth:
• All electrode types – progressive & significant, quality improvement over decades
• No immunity afforded from high consumption if excessive breakages and/or poor
electrode/operational management!

36
 182
SAF/DC

• Mean ~14 kg/t paste for HC ferroalloys

• 3.4 kg/MWh = FeCr (typically ~50% higher MWh/t, depending on pre-treatment)
• +40% higher for HC FeMn ~4.8 kg/MWh
• SiMn >25 kg/t & ~6.5 kg/MWh

37
 182 data
SAF/DC
• DC 1-El Graphite FeCr: Mean ~1.5 kg/MWh; 3 Sites (1 CDR Kiln+hollow-fed) < 1 kg/MWh
• Benchmark ~1.8-2 kg/MWh for FeCr SAF for Söderberg
• Benchmark <3.5 kg/MWh for HC FeMn SAF; ~6.5 kg/MWh for SiMn for Söderberg

38

• Electrode types surprisingly similar given:
o Wide range of consumptions (8-170 kg/t)
• Highly specific to:
o product type (14 - >98.5% Si)
o extent of carbothermic reduction/reactive SiO(g) production
o SAF electrode & furnace electrical conditions
143 data
SAF
• Metallurgical-grade (MG) Silicon:
o consume electrode faster than can bake paste!
o avoid casing Fe in > 98.5% Si product
o Normal consumption:
 Si MG: 80-100 kg/t versus 50-60 kg/t Fe75%Si
 Si MG: ~7-10 kg/MWh @~10.5 MWh/t

Electrode Consumption in
Production of 75FeSi and Si-
Met, J Westly EFC vol 42, 1984

Consumption of electrodes in electric

furnaces melting silicon ferroalloys,
VP Vorobev VI Zhuchkov, IVUZ
Chernaya Metallurgiya 8, 1974
39
 138 data
EF/LRF

• Good = 2.5-3.5 kg/MWh

• Lower current 6iL, better than 3-El
• Some data need scrutiny/
interpretation

40
• Benchmark Graphite <2 kg/MWh: 56 data
EF
• AC 6iL solid graphite electrodes at lower
current
• DC-arc, single hollow-fed graphite more
prone to tip C sublimation, internal
oxidation & tip breakage

• Benchmark Söderberg ~3 kg/MWh

• Claims of kg/t paste consumption –
lower than kg/MWh equivalent?

41
• Benchmark SAF: 378 SAF

o Lowest <2 kg/MWh regardless of

electrode type?
• Anomalies?
o Phosphorus with Carbon electrodes
o Low Söderberg paste Mn with 2-stage or
preheat/pretreat/sinter
o A few real anomalies for scrutiny?

42
• Benchmark industrial DC-arc graphite < 1kg/MWh: 56 data
DC
• 4x Sites; 2x commodities; 3x electrode types
• > 2kg/MWh for more oxidising steel scrap melting and SCR ilmenite smelting

43
 • Benchmark industrial DC-arc 133 data
Pilot EF
graphite < 1kg/MWh:
• … approaching Experimental
Arc Chamber results

• Pilot Plant … in 2 commodities,

almost emulating industrial DC-arc
electrode consumptions of 1.1 to
1.5 kg/MWh

Technology for the Production of New Grades and Types of Ferroalloys, D Slatter
Infacon 4, 1986; Electrode Wear and Arc Processes in Submerged Arc Furnaces, MB 44
Muller TE Magnussen, UIE VII_1972
 Comparative Electrode Costs
- Historical & Type
2023 US/t
Date price Electrode Type x Cost
1917 1714 Carbon electrode £15.00
1961 899 Paste
1961 1169 Paste + casing unless Al or stainless/s?
1961 2361 Pre-bake 2.6 Paste
1961 2833 Pre-bake+nipple 2.4 Paste + casing
1964 2929 Carbon
1964 3579 Copper-clad Carbon 1.2 Carbon
1964 5922 Semi-graphite 2.0 Carbon
1973 Oil crisis 4x 1973 Coal tar pitch
Periods of high price volatility:
1977 10234 Graphite 6x 1973 Needle coke
• 2-fold in paste
1981 UHP Graphite 3.5 1973 price
• 8-fold in graphite
1994 4120 Prebake 5.2 Paste
Historical price trend:
1994 797 Paste = 6.2kg/7.2kg
• Graphite/paste ~2.5-5x
1994 5768 Graphite =1kg/7.2kg 7.2 Paste
1994 1488 Composite Electrode 1.9 Paste
2010 1385 Paste
Q1-2022 1054 Paste
Q4-2022 1781 Paste 1.7 Q1-2022 Paste
Q2-2023 1627 Paste
Q2-2023 1400 Paste
Q2-2023 2200 Graphite 400mm dia. UHP 1.6 Q2-2023 Paste
Q2-2023 3800 Graphite 750mm dia. UHP 2.7 Q2-2023 Paste
Q2-2023 6000 Graphite 750mm Premium 4.3 Q2-2023 Paste
The Electric Furnace, JN Pring, 1921; Comparative Value of Soderberg and Prebaked Electrodes, R van Ness, EFC 1961; Copper-clad carbon
electrodes on a phosphorus furnace, EA Holtgrewe, JOM, 1964; The Use of a Compound Electrode for the Production of Silicon Metal, V Gallego J 45
Bullón, EFC 1994; The availability of high quality UHP electrodes in the 1980s, IW Gazda, Electrode Use in Electric Arc Furnaces, ISS, 1986
 Green Electric Furnace Smelting
BF Substitution Consequences Demand Competition:
 Hugely alters demand for  New green EV and battery
“electrodes”, both: economies placing huge demands
on graphite supply:
o Graphite electrodes o ~0.2 Mt/a graphite
o Söderberg paste (~20% by mass graphite)
 Less BF cokemaking, so fewer coke o 5x growth (will match current
oven production facilities? electric furnace graphite market)?
o Under-supply of byproduct coal tar  Raw Materials Demands:
pitch … essential binder: o Essential Needle coke precursor for
synthetic graphite production?
 Graphite electrodes (25-35% by o Unexpected, recent supply strain =
mass & 10-15% by mass per curtailed Russian anthracite supply:
impregnation of double/triple re-
impregnated UHP products)  Enforced substitution of petroleum
coke aggregate in electrically
 Söderberg paste (~25% by mass) calcined aggregate (ECA) – impact
Cost $$$ on consumption trends?
Petrochemical Industry substitutes/supply = huge demand & decarbonisation pressures?
Substitutes from Bio-Carbon – remain to be commercialised?
Sources: Global Energy Monitor Report, June 2022; Iron and Steel
Technology Roadmap Towards more sustainable steelmaking, Int. Energy 46
Agency, Oct 2020
Benchmark Lowest Electrode
Consumptions
• Highly commodity-, so process-dependent
• Steel:
o Remains < 1 kg electrode/t (~2 kg electrode/MWh)
 Lower LRF < 0.3 kg/t, but translates to ~5 kg/MWh in steel (x2 in FeNi LRF)

• Industry Benchmarks in kg electrode/MWh:

o DC-arc Graphite:
 multiple smelting operations achieving 0.8-1 kg electrode/MWh

o AC Söderberg paste:
 <2 kg paste/MWh (<1.9 kgC/MWh; ~50-100% higher than lowest graphite)

o Reconcile lower DC-arc Graphite consumption in electric furnace smelting with:

 ~2.5-5x cost premium?
 Net overall emission and environmental footprint?

47
Electrode Consumption -
Postulated Benchmark Contributions?
“Non-oxidising” “SiO(g)
?
“Negligible arcing”
negligible CO2 (0.007% Si) oxidation” “all oxidation”
“Tip sublimation”
+ “side oxidation”
+ “thermal stress
spalling”

  ? ? 

48
 Conclusions
• Choice of Electrode Type
o less clear/definitive than proponents of Graphite or Söderberg paste present?
• Graphite:
o Inherent Quality, Strength and Robustness
o Independent of Baking, so less “slow time”
o Higher conductivities/current density (25-30 A/cm2)
o But limited to 0.8 m dia. and still with some power-off time to join
• Söderberg paste:
o Fundamentally lower cost – can savings be better directed to drive sustainability
more broadly ?
o Continuous self-baking, so higher power-on time
o Larger electrodes (2.1 m dia.) compensate for lower current density (2-8 A/cm2)
• Definite scope to further lower/optimise electrode consumption &
direct emissions
• Enabler for a green electric furnace smelting renaissance
… fittingly emblematic of Bert Wasmund’s technical & sustainability visions!
49
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