LESSON ON

Bituminous Paving
Materials
1
2
Lesson Objectives
The lesson is intended to;
 Equip students with knowledge of different types
of bituminous materials and the properties used in
their characterisation.
 Introduce students to different grades of bitumen.
 Explain the design of hot-mix asphalt.
3
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, students should be able to;
 Demonstrate knowledge of the different types of
bituminous materials used in flexible pavement
construction.
 Select the appropriate bituminous binder grade for
a road project.
 Undertake design of hot-mix asphalt.
4 Types of Asphalt Cements
 Asphalt (also known as bitumen) is the residual product of
the distillation of heavy crude petroleum.
 Solid asphalt types obtained from the distillation process
are:
1. Straight-run asphalt (direct from the vacuum distillation
stage)
2. Air-blown asphalt (vacuum distillation residue
subjected to air-blowing process to harden the
material)
5
Asphalt Cements cont’d
3. Blended asphalt (a mixture of soft and hard bitumen)

4. Polymer-modified asphalts; obtained using polymeric

additives (e.g., rubber, styrene-butadiene-styrene, ethyl-
vinyl- acetate, etc.) to improve binder characteristics.

 The properties of asphalts (bitumen) depend on those of

the parent crude.
6
Asphalt Consistency Parameters
 Consistency is a measure of the hardness or the
degree of fluidity of an asphalt cement sample.
 The most commonly used parameters to describe
asphalt consistency are:
o Penetration
o Viscosity
o Softening point
 7
Penetration
• This is the depth (in
units of 0.1mm) to
which a standard
needle loaded to 100g
will penetrate an
asphalt sample for a
standard duration of 5
seconds at 25oC (see
illustration in Fig.1).
• The harder an asphalt
cement the lower its Fig. 1. Penetration of asphalt cement
penetration and vice-
versa.
8 Viscosity
 Viscosity measures the resistance of a fluid to flow.
 Asphalt viscosity is evaluated when the sample is in a fluid
state at two standardised temperatures; 60oC and 135oC.
 Viscosity at 60oC commonly called the absolute viscosity
represents the consistency of the asphalt in its most
critical state in service.
 Viscosity at 135oC, referred to as the kinematic viscosity,
approximately characterises the material at mixing and
lay-down conditions.
9

Softening Point
• This is the temperature at which an asphalt cement
or binder changes from solid to liquid state.
• The harder an asphalt cement, the higher its
softening point and vice versa.
• The softening point temperature is also referred to as
the Ring and Ball temperature (TR&B).
10 Grading of Asphalts
 Asphalt cements are placed under different standard grades
based on their hardness or degree of fluidity in order to make
it possible for users to differentiate between them and/or to
select the type appropriate for use.
 Asphalt cements may be graded on the basis of either
penetration at 25oC or viscosity at 60oC or performance
(Superpave).
 Grading may also be based on the properties of the aged
residue.
11 Penetration Grading

Penetration Penetration
• Based on
Grade Min. Max
penetration, five
standard asphalt  40-50 40 50
grades exist.
 60-70 60 70
• The standard grades
are detailed in the  85-100 85 100
table.  120-150 120 150
 200-300 200 300
12
Penetration Grading cont’d
 The numerical values for each grade represent the range
within which the penetration for that particular grade lies.

 For example, any asphalt sample whose penetration lies

between 40 and 50 (including the lower and upper limits)
is classified as 40-50 (or 40/50) pen. grade.

 Asphalt manufacturers produce to the grade specific to

the client’s needs only and hence there is never an
intermediate grade outside the standards.
 13 Viscosity Grading

• Grading of asphalts
may also be based Viscosity Absolute Viscosity
on the viscosity of
the fresh sample at Grade Range (Poise)
60oC (absolute Min Max
viscosity).
AC-2.5 200 300
• The standard
viscosity grades are AC-5 400 600
as given in the AC-10 800 1200
table.
AC-20 1600 2400
AC-40 3200 4800
14 Viscosity Grading cont’d
 “AC” designates "asphalt cement"
 The numerical value of each grade represents one
hundredth of the absolute viscosity with a tolerance of 20%.
For example, AC-20 grade has an absolute viscosity mid-
range value of 2000 poise with the range being 1600-2400
poise. Therefore, any asphalt cement whose absolute
viscosity falls within this range is graded as AC-20.
 There is no direct correspondence between viscosity grades
and penetration grades. However, most 60-70 pen. grades,
for example, will qualify as AC-20 grades and vice versa. In
spite of that, AC-20 grades are not equivalent to 60-70 pen.
grades.
 Performance Grading
15
• The Superpave Performance Grading (PG) has been developed to
address hot-mix asphalt (HMA) pavement performance parameters
such as rutting, fatigue cracking and thermal cracking.

• Table 1 is the standard summary table presented in the AASHTO MP 1

Specification for performance-graded asphalt binder.

• The top several rows (all the rows above the "original binder" row) are
used to designate the desired PG grade. For instance, if the average
7-day maximum pavement design temperature is greater than 52oC
but less than 58oC then the “PG 58" column is used.

• The temperatures directly under the “< 58" cell (negative values)are
selected based on the minimum pavement design temperature in oC
to complete the grade designation.
16 Performance Grading cont’d
• Tests are run on the original binder (no simulated aging), Rolling
Thin Film Oven (RTFO) residue (simulated short-term aging) and
Pressure Aging Vessel (PAV) residue (simulated long-term aging) in
order to fully characterize the asphalt binder throughout its life.

• Tests run on the binder are listed in the left-hand column. They are
not necessarily listed by their common names but the applicable
AASHTO test procedure listed. For instance, "Flash Point Temp. T
48, Minimum (oC)" means that the flash point is measured
according to AASHTO T48 and that the value in the adjacent
column represents the minimum allowable in degrees Centigrade.
17 Table 1. Performance Grading Asphalt Binder Specifications
(from AASHTO, 2001)
PG 46 PG 52 PG 58 PG 64
Performance Grade
34 40 46 10 16 22 28 34 40 46 16 22 28 34 40 10 16 22 28 34 40
Average 7-day Maximum Pavement Design
< 46 < 52 < 58 < 64
Temperature, oCa

Minimum Pavement Design Temperature, oCa -34 -40 -46 -10 -16 -22 -28 -34 -40 -46 -16 -22 -28 -34 -40 -10 -16 -22 -28 -34 -40

ORIGINAL BINDER
Flash Point Temp, T 48, Minimum (oC) 230
b
Viscosity, ASTM D 4402:
135
Maximum, 3 Pa*s, Test Temp, oC
Dynamic Shear, TP 5:c
G*/sinf , Minimum, 1.00 kPa 46 52 58 64
o
Test Temp @ 10 rad/s, C

ROLLING THIN FILM OVEN RESIDUE (T 240)

Mass Loss, Maximum, percent 1.00
Dynamic Shear, TP 5:
G*/sinf , Minimum, 2.20 kPa 46 52 58 64
o
Test Temp @ 10 rad/s, C

PRESSURE AGING VESSEL RESIDUE (PP 1)

PAV Aging Temperature, oCd 90 90 100 100
Dynamic Shear, TP 5:
G*/sinf , Maximum, 5000 kPa 10 7 4 25 22 19 16 13 10 7 25 22 19 16 13 31 28 25 22 19 16
Test Temp @ 10 rad/s, oC
Physical Hardeninge Report
Creep Stiffness, TP 1
Determine the critical cracking temperature as -24 -30 -36 0 -6 -12 -18 -24 -30 -36 -6 -12 -18 -24 -30 0 -6 -12 -18 -24 -30
described in PP 42
Direct Tension, TP 3
Determine the critical cracking temperature as -24 -30 -36 0 -6 -12 -18 -24 -30 -36 -6 -12 -18 -24 -30 0 -6 -12 -18 -24 -30
described in PP 42
 Table 1 cont’d

18
19 Asphalt Durability
 The durability of an asphalt cement is its resistance to changes
(for the worse) in its original properties in service.
 To serve as a good binder, an asphalt cement must have the
following characteristics:
1. Good adhesion to aggregates.
2. Good viscosities at processing and application
temperatures.
3. Ability to deform easily without rupture in order to resist
stresses while existing as a component of an asphaltic
pavement (visco-elastic behaviour).
20 Asphalt Age-hardening
 When asphalt ages, it becomes hard and brittle and prone to
cracking.
 The major cause of aging is oxidation caused by the reaction
between the asphalt and oxygen in the air, aided by high
temperatures.
 The reaction causes chemical changes in the asphalt which
makes the asphalt brittle.
 Age-hardening in service will cause an asphalt pavement to
exhibit the following failures: disintegration, ravelling and all
kinds of cracking.
21
Liquefied Asphalts
 Asphalts from the distillation process usually exist in a solid
form at room temperature and lower but may be
produced in a liquefied form to enable use without or
with a minimum application of heat.
 Two types of liquefied asphalts exist:
a) Asphalt emulsions (bitumen emulsions)
b) Cutback asphalts (cutback bitumen).
22
a) Asphalt Emulsions
 An asphalt emulsion is a liquefied asphalt obtained by
the dispersion of asphalt globules or droplets (less than 5-
10 microns) in water containing an emulsifying agent (a
soap-like substance which acts as a stabiliser).
 Without the emulsifying agent the asphalt globules will
coalesce and stay out of suspension since asphalt is an
organic material so ordinarily will not mix with water.
 The emulsifying agent, depending on type, will impart
either positive (+) charges or negative (-) charges to the
surface of the asphalt globules which will make the
globules repel one another and stay in suspension.
23 Emulsions cont’d
 When the globules carry electro-positive charges, the
emulsion is called cationic emulsion; if they carry
electro-negative charges, the emulsion is called anionic
emulsion.

 When emulsions come into contact with the surface of

an aggregate, they break or set, i.e. the asphalt
globules react with the surface of the aggregates, lose
their charge and coalesce to form a continuous film on
the aggregate as the water evaporates.
24 Emulsions cont’d
 The rate of set or break leads to three different
emulsions types:
o Rapid Setting (RS),
o Medium Setting (MS), or
o Slow Setting (SS).
25
 In general, the rate at which an emulsion-
aggregate mixture will set (harden) depends on the
following:
a) Surface chemistry of the aggregates with which
the emulsion comes into contact;
b) Composition of the emulsion;
c) Porosity of the surface to which the emulsion is
applied; and,
d) Rate of evaporation of the water which is
dictated by wind conditions, relative humidity
and environmental temperature.
 Table 2. Anionic emulsion types
26
Rapid Setting Medium Setting Slow Setting
RS-1 MS-1 SS-1
HFRS-2 HFMS-2 SS-2h
RS-2 MS-2
MS-2h

Table 3. Cationic emulsion types

Rapid Setting Medium Setting Slow Setting
CRS-1 CMS-2 CSS-1
CRS-2 CMS-2h CSS-1h
The “h” designation means a harder base asphalt cement is used in
the emulsion. The “HF” designation refers to a high float residue which
is an indication of chemical gelling of the emulsion residue.
27 Uses of Emulsions
Emulsion Grade General Application
Surface treatments and penetration
RS
macadam
Open-graded cold asphalt-aggregate
MS
mixtures
Tack coat, dense-graded cold asphalt–
SS
aggregate mixtures, slurry seals.
28 b) Cutback Asphalts (or Cutbacks)
 A cutback is a liquefied asphalt obtained when an asphalt cement
is liquefied by dissolution in an organic solvent (cutter).
 A cutback is described as:

o Rapid curing (RC); if the cutter used is of high volatility (such as

gasoline).

o Medium curing (MC); if a kerosene-type solvent (which is of

medium volatility) is used.
o Slow curing (SC); if the cutback contains cutter of low-volatility
such as diesel.
29 Cutbacks cont’d
 The type of organic solvent or cutter used will
determine the rate at which the cutback will lose its
liquid component and become solid and, hence,
the type of cutback.
 Curing of cutback-aggregate mixtures occurs simply
by the evaporation of the cutter from the cutback
and does not involve any chemical reaction
between the aggregates and the asphalt binder
used.
30

• Table 4 provides the grades of Table 4. Grades of cutbacks available

cutbacks commercially
available in the paving industry. Rapid Medium Slow Curing
• The numbers shown against the Curing Curing (SC)
various grades represent the (RC) (MC)
minimum kinematic viscosity (in
centistokes) at 60oC.
- MC-30 -
• Each grade has an upper
viscosity limit which is double the RC-70 MC-70 SC-70
minimum viscosity (or grade
number).
RC-250 MC-250 SC-250
• Thus MC-70, SC-70, and RC-70,
for example, all have viscosities RC-800 MC-800 SC-800
at 60oC ranging between 70 and
140 cSt, except that they have
different curing rates. RC-3000 MC-3000 SC-3000
31 Asphalt Concrete
 The largest use of asphalt cement (or binder) is for the
production of hot-mix asphalt (HMA) which is primarily used
for the construction of flexible pavements.
 HMA which is also referred to as asphalt concrete, asphalt
paving mix or bituminous paving mixture, etc. is a mixture
of asphalt cement and graded mineral aggregates.
 Asphalt concrete is used to provide structural strength to
pavements that come under very heavy loads.
32 Asphalt Concrete cont’d
 Depending on the intended application, asphalt
concrete mixtures may be designed as “open-graded” or
“dense-graded”.
 Dense-graded mixtures are the traditional and
predominant mixtures used in flexible pavement
construction.
 Open-graded mixtures tend to have relatively large stone
or higher coarse aggregate content and are more
permeable.
 Large-stone open-graded mixtures are more suitable for
supporting heavy truck traffic.
 Grading Requirements (GHA)
33 Percent Passing
Sieve Size Wearing Course Binder Course
(mm) (0/14) (0/20)
28 - 100
20 100 90-100
14 90-100 75-95
10 70-90 60-82
6.3 55-75 47-68
4 45-63 37-57
2 33-48 25-43
1 23-38 18-32
0.425 14-25 11-22
0.300 12-22 9-17
0.150 8-16 5-12
0.075 5-10 3-7
 Asphalt Concrete Design
34
Asphalt concrete design entails establishing the optimum
combination of aggregates (of a certain gradation) and
bitumen (of a certain grade) to achieve a mix that has
adequate;
 Resistance to permanent deformation under traffic loads.
 Resistance to fatigue cracking under repeated traffic
load.
 Resistance to thermal cracking.
 Resistance to skidding.
 Resistance to moisture-induced damage.
 Resistance to aging.
 Workability to reduce effort during mixing, placing and
compaction.
 Aggregates for Asphalt Concrete Design
35
 Aggregates for asphalt concrete mix must be of sound quality and
pass the strength and shape characteristics determined by the
following standard tests:
o Los Angeles Abrasion test
o Flakiness Index test
o Elongation Index test
o Aggregate Impact test
o Aggregate Crushing test
o 10% Fines test
o Water Absorption test
36
Mix Design by Marshall Method
 The Marshall method of mix design is one of the most widely-used
procedures for designing asphalt concrete mixes.

 This method is standardised under the designation ASTM D 1559.

The procedure for the method is as follows:

a) Mixture Preparation

 About 1150-1200g of the graded aggregates meeting

specifications are placed in a mixing pan.

 The actual quantity of material required is that which will result in

a compacted specimen height of 631.27mm.
37

 It is recommended to prepare a trial specimen prior to the

complete test schedule so that if this height is not met, the
quantity of aggregates taken could be adjusted per the
following formula:

63.5 (1)
Q  Qo
h
where,
Q=the quantity of aggregates required
Qo=quantity used for trial specimen
h=trial specimen height (mm)
38

 To provide adequate data, three test specimens must be

prepared for each asphalt content and aggregate
combination.
 The asphalt content is by definition given as;

weight of asphalt
Asphalt content , Pb   100 (2)
weight of asphalt  weight of aggregates
39
 Based on the above definition, the amount of asphalt
required to mix with a given weight of aggregates to attain a
target asphalt content (Pb) for the mix is;
Wag
Wb 
 100  (3)
  1
 Pb 
where,
Wb=weight of asphalt cement required
Wag=weight of aggregates taken
Pb=target asphalt content in %
40
 Specimens must be prepared to asphalt contents that
vary in 0.5% increments.
 At least two of the test specimens must have asphalt
content above the optimum and two below.
 Usually six different asphalt contents are selected
requiring a total of 18 Marshall specimens to be
scheduled, i.e., three samples for each asphalt
content.
 The weighed aggregates are dried in an oven and
maintained at a temperature about 30oC above the
mixing temperature.
41

 The mixing temperature is the temperature which

corresponds to asphalt viscosity of 17020cSt.
 This temperature is obtained from the viscosity-
temperature data on the asphalt binder being used.
 A quantity of the required asphalt binder corresponding
to the desired asphalt content of the mix is added to the
heated aggregates and then quickly and thoroughly
mixed to obtain a uniform coating of asphalt on the
aggregates.
42
b) Compaction of Mixture
 The whole of the mixture is transferred into the
compaction mould for compaction to proceed.
 Compaction takes place when the mixture has
attained the compaction temperature which is the
temperature corresponding to a viscosity of 28030cSt.
 This temperature which is slightly lower than the mixing
temperature is obtained from the viscosity–
temperature curve for the asphalt cement sample
being used and is usually in the region of 135-140oC.
43

 Samples that cool below the compaction temperature are not

recommended for use and must be discarded.

 The hammer and mould to be used for the compaction must be

heated to temperatures around 100oC or a bit more.

 It is recommended that the inside of the mould be given a light

application of oil to aid extrusion of compacted samples later after
they have cooled.

 In compacting, one face of the specimen receives the required

number of blows of the hammer: the faces are reversed and the
same number of blows is administered to the reversed face.
44
 The number of blows per face is dictated by the level of traffic as
follows:

Design Traffic Number of

Traffic
(ESAL) Description Blows/Face
<104 Light 35
104- 106 Medium 50
>106 Heavy 75

 After compaction, samples are identified by their asphalt

content and allowed to cool preferably overnight before being
extruded from the moulds.
45 c) Tests on compacted Specimens

i. Bulk Density test

 This test is carried out on the extruded compacted
specimen (called Marshall specimen) before any
destructive test.
 The volume of the compacted specimen is determined
by the water displacement method instead of the
physical dimensions of the sample.
 The commonest approach is the saturated surface dry
method.
46
Saturated surface dry method
 The compacted sample is weighed in air (Wa), then
weighed fully submerged in water (Wsub).
 After the sample has been removed from water the
surface is wiped dry of any free flowing water.
 In this condition, the sample is said to be saturated
surface dry (i.e. it is saturated but the surface is dry).
 The saturated surface dry sample is then weighed in air
(WSSD).
47
 At the end of the weighings, the bulk (total) volume (Vmb)
of the compacted specimen is given as;

WSSD  Wsub
Vmb  (4)
w
Hence, the bulk density (ρmb)of the compacted sample
becomes;
Wa
 mb  w (5)
WSSD  Wsub
ρw=density of water
48

ii. Stability and Flow Test

 This is a destructive test and must be carried out only
when bulk density determinations have been
completed on the Marshall specimens.
 Marshall specimens for the stability and flow test are
conditioned for 30 to 40 minutes in a water bath
maintained at 60oC.
 At the end of the conditioning period, a specimen is
removed from the bath and carefully wiped dry.
49

 The sample is then positioned in the testing head and the

flow meter set in position.
 A compressive load is applied at a constant rate of 51
mm/min until failure.
 The failure load in kN is the stability value and the
corresponding compression measured in one-hundredth
of an inch is the flow.
 In all, the test should not last more than one minute from
the beginning to the end in order to keep the specimen
temperature practically unchanged at 60oC.
50 d) Theoretical Maximum Density

 The theoretical maximum density is the density that

will be obtained if it was possible to compact the
asphalt concrete mixture to a voidless volume (all
air voids driven out).
 This parameter cannot be attained in practice
because no amount of compaction can achieve a
voidless volume but its value can be determined
theoretically, hence the name.
51 Theoretical Maximum Density cont’d
 Let this simple three-stone structure represent a
compacted asphalt concrete specimen.

1
2

Air void Actual compacted

3
specimen

 In the actual specimen, the structure is composed

essentially of thousands of bitumen-coated particles in
shoulder-to-should contacts with tiny air voids between
them as indicated above.
 Theoretical Maximum Density cont’d
52
Let,
W1, V1=weight and volume of coated particle 1, respectively
W2, V2=weight and volume of coated particle 2, respectively
W3, V3=weight and volume of coated particle 3, respectively
Vv=volume of air voids
Weight of compacted specimen=W1+W2+W3
Bulk volume (total volume) of compacted specimen (Vmb = VT) is given
as;
Vmb=V1+V2+V3+Vv (6)
The voidless volume of compacted specimen, Vvoidless =V1+V2+V3 (7)
Hence, the theoretical maximum density, ρmm is obtained as;
W  W2  W 3 
 mm 
1

Vvoidless (8)
 Theoretical Maximum Density cont’d
53  Suppose a loose mixture of known weight is dropped in a graduated
cylinder initially filled with water to a known volume mark (Fig. 2 (a)).
 The water level will rise to a new volume mark to reflect the volume of the
loose mix introduced (Fig. 2 (b)).
 The difference in the water volumes will be the voidless volume if that
quantity of loose mix were to be compacted to expel all air voids.

Voidless volume if lose

sample were compacted to
drive all air voids

Fig. 2 (a) Fig. 2 (b)

 By this procedure, the theoretical maximum density of the asphalt mixes

may be determined using Eq. (8).
54 e) Voids Analysis
 The important properties of the compacted specimens of the
paving mixture are the bulk density, and voids in the mixture.
 Three different kinds of voids are identified. These are;
1) Air voids content or voids in total mix (VTM)
This is the total volume of the small pockets of air between
the coated aggregate particles throughout the compacted
paving mixture, expressed as a percentage of the
compacted specimen volume.
VTM 
Vv
 100 (9)
Vmb
55

2) Voids (volume) in mineral aggregates (VMA)

This is the volume of inter-granular space between the
aggregate particles in a compacted paving mixture that
includes air voids and volume of the asphalt coating
around the aggregates, expressed as a percent of the
total volume.

VMA 
Vv  Vbe
 100
(10)
Vmb
56

3) Voids filled with asphalt (VFA)

This is the proportion in percent of the volume of inter-granular
spaces between the aggregate particles in a compacted paving
mixture that has been filled with asphalt.
Vbe
VFA   100 (11)
Vbe  Vv
where,
Vbe=effective bitumen volume (volume of bitumen coat)

Note that, of the total bitumen volume in the mix, part will be
absorbed into the pores in the aggregates and not be available
for coating the aggregates.
  By substituting weights for volumes, it can be shown
57
that;
  mb 
VTM  1001 

 (12)
 mm 
(100  Pb )Gmb (13)
VMA  100 
Gsb
 VTM 
VFA  1001  (14)
 VMA 
where,
Pb=asphalt content in %
Gsb=bulk specific gravity of the aggregates used in the mix
𝜌𝑚𝑏
Gmb=bulk specific gravity of the mix (Gmb= )
𝜌𝑤
ρmb , ρmm = bulk density and theoretical maximum density of
the compacted specimen, respectively.
58

The following must be noted:

 . Gsb is a constant of the aggregates used
 Gmb is derived directly from the bulk density values of the
specimen
 ρmm may be evaluated for each asphalt content by the
standard test ASTM D2041.
 A more practical way of determining ρmm for each asphalt
content is to use the standard test (ASTM D2041) to determine
the value at a known asphalt content close to the optimum.
  The value so determined is used in the following equation to
59
determine the parameter, Gse, which is a constant of the
aggregates but not determinable in the laboratory.
100
Gmm  (15)
100  Pb Pb

Gse Gb
where,
Gse = the effective specific gravity of the aggregates.
Gb=specific gravity of asphalt (values range between 1.01-
1.03, adopt 1.02).
 Once the value of Gse has been determined, it is substituted
back into Eq. (15) so that subsequently, the value of Gmm and
hence ρmm for any other asphalt content can be calculated
using the equation.
 If the aggregates used do not absorb bitumen, then Gse=Gsb
 f) Presentation of Test Data
60

 Once the density and voids analysis have been completed, the
relevant data are presented in graphical form by preparing the
following plots:
o Bulk density vs. Asphalt content
o Marshall Stability vs. Asphalt content
o Flow vs. Asphalt content
o Air voids content (VTM) vs. Asphalt content
o VMA vs. Asphalt content
o VFA vs. Asphalt content
 As a precaution, it is necessary to check that the plots exhibit
characteristics similar to the corresponding plots in Fig. 3.
61

Fig. 3. Graphical presentation of design data

62
 The following characteristics must be exhibited by the plots:
• Stability increases with asphalt content, reaches a peak and then decreases.
• Flow increases with increasing asphalt content
• Density increases with increasing asphalt content, reaches a peak and then
decreases.
• VTM decreases with increasing asphalt content
• VMA decreases with increasing asphalt content reaches a minimum and
then increases.
• VFA increases with increasing asphalt content.
 Note that peak density and peak stability do not necessarily occur at the same
asphalt content. Maximum stability tends to occur at an asphalt content slightly
lower than for maximum density.
63 f) Determination of Optimum Asphalt Content
 The optimum asphalt content may be determined by any of the
following methods:
1. Asphalt Institute’s Method
In this method, the following steps are followed:
Step 1:
 Determine the asphalt content corresponding to the following;
o maximum stability
o maximum density
o mid-point of specified air voids range
Find the average of the three values obtained.
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Step 2:
 Enter the appropriate curves in the data plots and
determine the values of the following parameters
corresponding to the average asphalt content;
• Stability
• Flow
• Air voids (VTM)
• VFA
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Step 3:
 Compare the values of the above parameters obtained
from the plots with the specification values or limits (see
Table 5).
 If all the specification values are met, the mix formulation is
accepted, otherwise, the mixture design process should
start all over again by first adjusting the gradation to vary
slightly from the previous while still keeping within the
acceptable gradation limits.
66 Table 5. GHA Marshall Mix Design Specs
Mix Criteria Light traffic Medium traffic Heavy traffic
(<104ESALs) (104-106 ESALs) (>106ESALs
Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max.
Compaction 35 50 75
blows/face
Stability (N) 3368 - 5338 - 8006 -
Flow (units of 8 18 8 16 8 14
0.25mm)
Air Voids 3 5 3 5 3 5
Content (%)
Voids filled with 70 80 65 78 65 75
Asphalt (%)
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2. NAPA (National Asphalt Paving Association) Method

In this method emphasis is placed on the air voids content
(VTM) in the mix. The following are the steps to follow in
determining the optimum asphalt content.
Step 1:
 Determine the asphalt content corresponding to the
median of the specifications air voids content (4%) and
take this value as the tentative optimum asphalt content.
 Step 2:
68
 Determine the values of the following parameters at the
tentative optimum asphalt content:
• Marshall stability
• Flow
• VFA
Step 3:
 Compare the values of each of the above parameters against
the specification values or limits (see Table 5). If all meet
specifications, then the tentative optimum asphalt content
becomes the optimum asphalt content, otherwise the mixture
should be redesigned by first varying the gradation while
staying within specification limits.
69 f) Selection of Job Mix Formula
 The Job Mix Formula consists of;
a) the gradation
b) the optimum asphalt content
 This is established at the final stage of the laboratory
design as the mix that met all requirements, was most
economical and gave the most satisfactory results.
 The plant production of asphalt concrete on a large
scale for the road project is based solely on the Job
Mix Formula.
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END OF LESSON
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