A fatigue damage map for 2024-T3 aluminium alloy

C . A . R O D O P O U L O S 1 , E . R. D E L O S RIO S 1 , A . LE V E R S 2 and J . R. YATES 1

1
Structural Integrity Research Institute of the University of Sheffield (SIRIUS), Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Sheffield,
Mappin Street, Sheffield, S1 3JD, UK, 2British Aerospace Airbus, Chester Road, Broughton, Chester CH4 0DR, UK
Received in final form 20 March 2002

ABSTRACT The propagation of a fatigue crack from an initial defect of the same order as the scale
of the microstructure through to failure has been modelled using a representation of
fatigue damage according to the Navarro±de los Rios (N±R) model. The fatigue pro-
cesses are presented in the form of a fatigue damage map (FDM). It is shown how the
map can be used to create a traditional S±N curve and to provide information suitable for
estimating fatigue lifetimes under damage tolerant conditions.
Keywords crack arrest; crack instability; fatigue damage map; microstructurally
dependent propagation; microstructurally independent propagation.
NOMENCLATURE D ˆ grain diameter
E ˆ Young's modulus
KIC ˆ fracture toughness
a ˆ crack length
dtip ˆ crack tip opening displacement
s ˆ applied stress
sarrest ˆ stress level at crack arrest
sFL ˆ fatigue limit
sMD ˆ stress level at the transition from microstructure dependent to microstruc-
ture independent crack propagation
stoughness ˆ stress level for static fracture
s1 ˆ crack closure stress
scy ˆ cyclic yield stress

Based on the representation of the crack and the plastic

INTRODUCTION
zone by a continuous distribution of dislocations (as
Fatigue crack growth in polycrystalline materials can be proposed by Bilby et al.4), Navarro and de los Rios
related to the development of plastic deformation ahead developed the so-called N±R model to predict fatigue
of the crack tip.1,2 It is widely accepted that an essential crack growth.5 The model considers that any transgra-
feature of this process concerns dislocation motion and nular crack system is composed of three zones, shown
growth of slip bands across grains.3 The propagation of in Fig. 1: the crack zone, the plastic zone, and the grain
dislocations, however, is not unrestricted but is bounded boundary zone. Considering an equilibrium of disloca-
by features of the microstructure, particularly when the tions throughout the zones4 the stress concentration
extent of plasticity is small. In many materials, disloca- ahead of the slip band for the tensile crack opening
tion movement is constrained to lie on a plane by the mode is given by Ref. [5],
stacking fault energy and consequently dislocations pile
up against the grain boundary. The pile-up of disloca- 1 h  p i
1 1
s2 ˆ scy s1 sin n1 scy sin n2 ‡ s ;
tions will continue until the resulting stress concentra- cos 1 n2 2
tion ahead of the slip band is able to initiate slip in the 1†
next grain.
where s1 is the closure stress on the crack flank, scy is the
Correspondence: J. R. Yates. E-mail: j.yates@sheffield.ac.uk; C. A. Rodopoulos. cyclic yield stress and s2 is the stress at the grain bound-
E-mail: c.rodopoulos@sheffield.ac.uk ary. The fatigue damage parameters n1 and n2 represent,

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570 C. A. RODOPOULOS et al.

in a dimensionless form, the crack length and the crack to demonstrate the advantages of such an approach to
length plus the plastic zone extent, respectively. From design.
Eq. (1), it is clear that s2 increases as the crack tip
approaches the grain boundary. At a specific distance FATIGUE MODELLING
between the tip of the crack and the grain boundary,
referred to as the critical distance, the slip band stress Crack arrest
concentration is high enough to initiate slip in the next Using the simple concepts of dislocation pile-ups and
grain. On this happening, the stress is initially low but it slip band initiation ahead of the pile-ups as described
begins to build up as the crack tip approaches the next above, the condition for crack arrest is assumed to be
boundary. It should be noted that the critical distance is when s2 is unable to attain the level required to initiate a
not constant but increases with crack length. new slip band in the next grain, before the crack tip
The N±R model was originally developed for the pre- reaches the grain boundary. Figure 2 shows in a sche-
diction of short crack growth, however, further work matic way the conditions for crack arrest. Following the
revealed that repetition of the slip band initiation process same arguments as presented in Ref. [6], the condition
can be used to model the growth of longer cracks.6 As a for crack arrest is:
result, the dislocation model has been adapted to charac-
terize fatigue damage from crack initiation through to sFL s1
catastrophic failure. But, one of the limitations of the sarrest ˆ mi q ‡ s1 2†
2a
model is that only transgranular cracks are considered. D

Even though the fields of fracture mechanics and fa-

tigue have made remarkable advances in the understand- where a is the crack length, sFL is the fatigue limit of the
ing of the physical issues involved in fatigue damage, the material and D is the grain diameter. The parameter mi is
design process within even the most advanced industries the grain orientation factor and is given by,7
still relies on huge databases to quantify materials, geom-  
etries and loading conditions. As a result, issues such mi 2a
ˆ 1 ‡ 0:5 ln 3†
as material selection and operational life remain an expen- m1 D
sive and time consuming process. In this work, Eq. (1) is
used to predict the development of different damage con- where 1  mi  3:07and i ('2a/D) is the number of half
ditions throughout the fatigue life which can be repre- grains within the crack system. It should be noted that mi
sented as a fatigue damage map (FDM). An example increases monotonically with i from a value of 1 until
based on the structural aluminium alloy 2024-T3 is used it reaches the saturated Taylor value of 3.07 (truly

s
s2

s cy s

s1 s2

s1

ro

ro
0 a iD/2 iD/2 + r
o
x
0 n1 n2 1 x/c

Crack Plastic Boundary 0 a iD/2 + r

zone zone o
zone
x

Fig. 1 Configuration of the three zones of the N±R model in which
the equilibrium of forces are considered. D is the grain diameter, ro
is the width of the grain boundary and i is the number of half grains,
i ˆ 1, 3. . . The stresses operating are: s is the applied stress, s1 is
the crack closure stress, scy is the cyclic yield stress and s2 is the slip
band stress concentration.
0 n1 n21 x/c
Fig. 2 The maximum value of the slip-band stress concentration s2
is attained when the crack approaches the grain boundary. At this
instance, if the slip-band stress concentration is unable to initiate
plastic slip in the next grain, the crack arrests.

ß 2003 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Fatigue Fract Engng Mater Struct 26, 569±575
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A FATIGUE DAMAGE MAP 571

polycrystalline behaviour). The hypothesis that m1 ˆ 1 is when the crack tip stress field is able to initiate slip bands
a necessary condition and is rationalized by the fact that, on two successive grains without growth. A further sim-
in many cases, crack nucleation takes place in grains that plification is that, at the transition, the plastic zone
are most favourably orientated so that the resolved stress extends over two grain diameters, see Fig. 4. Expansion
is at maximum. Whilst it may not be a sufficient condi- of Eq. (1) using the relationships cos 1 (x) ˆ (2(1±x)),1/2
tion, since other factors such as variations in grain size, sin 1 (x) ˆ p/2 ± cos 1 (x) gives,
the population of inclusion sizes and local variations
in the metallurgy will also affect the formation of cracks, 2  c p p p
sMD ˆ s 2 1 n2 † ‡ scy 2 1 n1 † scy 2 1 n2 †
the important point is that the fastest growing cracks will p 2
p p 
be associated with favourably orientated grains. A typical s1 2 1 n1 † ‡ s1 4†
output of Eq. (2) is shown in Fig. 3 in which the values 2
sFL ˆ 140 MPa, s1 ˆ 0 and D ˆ 44 mm were used in the
calculations.8 The parameters n1 and n2, as shown in Fig. 4, are,

i 4
n1 ˆ and n2  1 5†
Microstructurally dependent and independent crack i
propagation
Using Eq. (5), Eq. (4) can be rewritten as,
The fundamental difference between a microstructurally
dependent (MD) and a microstructurally independent 2  c p p p 
(MI) crack is that the propagation of the former is influ- sMD ˆ s 2 1 n1 † s1 2 1 n1 † ‡ s1 6†
p y 2
enced by microstructural features such as twin, grain and
phase boundaries, while the latter is dominated by the In the case of no crack closure, s1 ˆ 0, Eq. (6) becomes,
stress distribution ahead of the crack tip and the cyclic
yield stress of the material.6 According to Refs [9,10] the s
 !
transition from microstructure dependent growth to 2 i 4
sMD ˆ scy 2 1 7†
microstructure independent growth takes place when p i
the crack tip plastic zone becomes larger than the grain
size. A rational assumption that could relate the effect of Eqs (6) and (7) represent the transition from microstruc-
the grain boundary to the above is that the transition ture dependent to microstructure independent growth
takes place when the ability of the grain boundary to for a given crack. In Fig. 5 the transition is plotted
block the progression of crack tip plasticity within one considering s1 ˆ 0. The cut-off value for the MD±MI
grain is overcome at the instance the load is applied. It transition is the crack instability limit, which is described
follows from this premise that the transition takes place in the next section.

200 s2

180 2024-T3 Aluminium alloy s cy

160 s1
Applied stress (MPa)

140
120 Crack growth zone
100
80 ro

60
Crack arrest zone
40
20 a
0 iD/2 iD/2 + ro
0 x
0.1 1 10 100
n1 n21 x /c
Normalised crack length (2a /D) 0

Fig. 3 The crack arrest curve for 2024-T3 aluminium alloy. Fig. 4 A schematic representation of the transition from
A fatigue limit of 140 MPa8 was used. Crack closure has been microstructure dependent to microstructure independent growth
neglected. according to the N±R model.

ß 2003 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Fatigue Fract Engng Mater Struct 26, 569±575

572 C. A. RODOPOULOS et al.
800
2024-T3 Aluminium alloy
700 Crack instability
600
Applied stress (MPa)
500
400
300
200 MD growth
100
0 400
0.1 1 10
Normalised crack length (2a /D )
Fig. 5 Transition from microstructure dependent (MD) to
microstructure independent (MI) crack propagation. The cyclic
yield stress was taken as 440 MPa.8 The other values used are as in
Fig. 3. The transition is bounded by the instability curve (see Fig. 6).
Crack instability and fracture toughness
There are two competing static failure mechanisms to
consider: plastic collapse and unstable fracture. Plastic
collapse can be modelled by the progression of the
plasticity across the component. Fracture can be mod-
elled, in the simplest case, by the attainment of a stress
intensity equal to the fracture toughness of the material
appropriate to the section thickness of the component.
Solution of Eq. (1) in terms of n1 gives the position of
the crack tip in relation to the active microstructural
barrier at the instance the barrier is overcome as,6
0  1
sFL
s1
s mi p ‡ s1
Bp 2a=D
nc1 ˆ cosB
@2
scy s1
From Eq. (1) the conditions for general yielding can be
estimated by considering that the crack tip plastic zone is
infinite. As a result, n1c ! 0 and Eq. (8) reduces to,
sFL s1
sinstability ˆ mi p ‡ scy
2a=D
A typical output of Eq. (9) for 2024-T3 aluminium alloy
is shown in Fig. 6. From Fig. 6, it is clear that, when the
cracks are small, failure by general yielding is only antici-
pated when the far-field stress is close to yield. When
the major crack is large in relation to the component
dimensions, the reduction in the load bearing section
will reduce the applied stress at which collapse will occur.
Failure by unstable fracture can be represented, in the
worst case, when the maximum stress intensity factor
reaches the plane strain fracture toughness KIC. Although
this means the use of linear elastic fracture mechanics
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600
Crack instability
Applied stress (MPa)
MI growth
500
2024-T3 Aluminium alloy
100 0.1 1 10 100
Normalised crack length (2a /D )
Fig. 6 Crack instability for 2024-T3 aluminium alloy. The effect of
crack closure is neglected.
beyond its limits, and the disregard of increasing tearing
toughness in thin sheet materials, it is considered to be
an adequate and conservative approximation. Thus, in
the section that follows, the construction of a fatigue
damage map also includes conditions of failure by frac-
ture according to,
KIC
stoughness ˆ p 10†
Y pa
where Y is the crack shape factor.
DISCUSSION
Combinations of different damage events as discussed
C and modelled above lead to the development of an
C
A 8†
FDM, shown in Fig. 7. In the FDM, there are five
zones of interest with each zone associated with a specific
damage event.
Crack arrest takes place when the crack tip opening
displacement tends to zero. According to the model,
the crack tip reaches the grain boundary before the cor-
responding crack tip plasticity is able to extend into the
next grain. In this zone, a crack of length less than a grain
9†
diameter will propagate to the grain boundary where it
will arrest. Equations 2 and 3, show that when a ˆ D/2,
sarrest ˆ sFL. Thus, the fatigue limit represents the con-
stant-amplitude limit under which cracks of depth less
than D/2 will not propagate to failure. Correspondingly,
for cracks longer than D/2, the propagation limit is given
by the arrest curve. It should be noted that the crack
arrest curve follows an almost identical pattern to the
well-known Kitagawa±Takahashi diagram.11
A distinction between microstructure dependent and
microstructure independent crack propagation has
been a topic of fatigue research for many years. Micro-
structure dependent growth is when transgranular cracks
ß 2003 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Fatigue Fract Engng Mater Struct 26, 569±575

1000
Crack instability
Applied stress (MPa)
MD growth
100
Crack arrest
2024-T3 Aluminium alloy
10
0.01 0.1
Crack length (mm)
Fig. 7 A fatigue damage map for 2024-T3 aluminium alloy in terms
of applied stress against crack length. The effect of crack closure
and crack shape factor was neglected. A value of KIC ˆ 34 MPa m,
8
was used for the fracture toughness. The initial crack length is
equal to a typical inclusion size of 10 mm.
propagate along crystallographic planes. Because these
planes extend only to the grain boundaries, the latter act
as barriers to crack propagation. This situation extends as
long as a single family of slip planes can accommodate
the crack tip plasticity. At longer crack lengths, crack tip
plasticity becomes more intense and can only be accom-
modated by multiple slip planes.12 At this point, a transi-
tion to microstructure independent growth ensues and
the plastic zone extends to more than one grain. This
assumption has been shown to be reasonable by Yoder
et al.10 who examined the transition from microstructure
dependent to microstructure independent growth for a
number of materials. Three stages of crack growth were
identified by de Lange13 namely: (a) the incipient crack
stage: growth within the limits of the first grain; (b) the
hesitating crack stage: growth against the first grain
boundary; (c) the running crack stage: still physically
small but endowed with propagation characteristics of a
long crack. The idea behind the running crack is that
crack growth cannot be temporarily halted or perman-
ently arrested by microstructural barriers and therefore,
unless the crack driving force (effective stress) drops to a
value defined by the crack arrest zone, the crack will
continue to propagate until failure.
It is worth noting that the microstructure dependent
growth area expands into long crack sizes at low stress
levels. This is consistent with the fractographic observa-
tions of Schijve14 that structure sensitive crack growth
mechanisms exist in 2024-T3 aluminium alloy. Schijve
also commented that structure sensitive crack growth
appeared to depend on the applied stress level and was
more prevalent at low stresses.
Within the microstructure independent growth zone,
crack propagation is assumed to follow a behaviour that
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A FATIGUE DAMAGE MAP 573
can be predicted by LEFM. This behaviour terminates
when crack instability commences. Two types of crack
Toughness
failure
instability are considered in this work. If the stress is
MI growth high, crack instability is achieved by general yielding,
Eq. (9). Alternatively, for lower stress levels, the condi-
tions described by Eq. (10) are satisfied and instability is
dominated by fast fracture.
The boundaries between the zones are given by the
equations developed above. Within each area, the crack
growth rate is known through an appropriate modelling
equation.
1 10 An example of the use of the fatigue damage map is
presented in Fig. 8. In this case, the material is assumed
to be composed of uniform equiaxed grains, no crack
closure stresses have been included and the crack has
p
been assumed to form on the first loading cycle from a
10 mm intrinsic inclusion, so the crack initiation period is
neglected. The last two assumptions will tend to under-
estimate the fatigue lifetime for a given initial defect. To
avoid the lack of similitude that results when the propa-
gation of both short and long cracks are described by the
same Paris type approximation (da/dN ˆ CDK n), the
propagation is expressed in terms of the crack tip
opening displacement (da/dN ˆ C'dtipn'). Accordingly,
the growth rate of da/dN ˆ 6.6  10 11DK,2.3 (m/cycle),
reported for the 2024-T3 aluminium alloy15 is trans-
formed into da/dN ˆ 17.7dtip1.58 (m/cycle), following
the steps described in detail in Ref. [16].
It is well established that inclusions are common
sources for fatigue crack formation in 2024 aluminium
alloys. The work of Hillberry and coworkers17±19 has
clearly demonstrated that the statistical variability of
1000
Crack instability
Toughness
4.8 × 10−6 m/c
1.5 × 10−8 m/c failure
Applied stress (MPa)
165,114 cycles
101,654 cycles
100
MD growth MI growth
Crack arrest
2024-T3 Aluminium alloy
10
0.01 0.1 1 10
Crack length (mm)
Fig. 8 Fatigue crack growth and life prediction for 2024-T3
aluminium alloy according to the fatigue damage map and the N±R
model at a peak stress of 200 MPa. A value of 10 mm was chosen to
represent an initial crack like defect in the form of an inclusion. The
crack growth rates at particular combinations of defect size and
applied stress and the number of cycles spent in each growth phase
are illustrated in the figure.

574 C. A. RODOPOULOS et al.
the inclusion size is a major influence on the scatter of
fatigue lifetimes. It is therefore considered that the as-
sumptions made will have little bearing on the quality of
the lifetime predictions arising from the use of the fa-
tigue damage map.
The crack growth rate at a particular crack length and
stress range can be extracted from the map through the
underlying crack growth model. Furthermore, the
number of cycles taken to grow a crack from any arbi-
trary initial size to any other size can also be found by
integration of the growth equations. In Fig. 8, the
number of cycles associated with particular crack sizes
and applied stresses refer to the duration of each phase
of crack growth, namely microstructure dependent
and microstructure independent in this case. Such esti-
mates are a key part of inspection and maintenance
scheduling.
Using the life estimates at different stress levels, the
fatigue damage map can also be used to create a conven-
tional S±N curve as shown in Fig. 9. The agreement with
published experimental data15 is reasonable. However it
should be noted that, in its current form, the N±R model
is unsuitable for ultra-high cycle fatigue. The differences
between predicted and measured lifetimes reflect the
statistical nature of fatigue, in terms of intrinsic defect
shapes and dimensions, grain sizes and orientations, sur-
face defects and residual stresses, and the deterministic
nature of the model.
The fatigue damage map presented in this paper is
amenable to being developed into a probabilistic model
by a Monte Carlo simulation technique, in a similar
manner to that presented by Laz et al.19 However, recent
work on the inclusion sizes in clean steels20 suggests that
more sophisticated statistical approaches, such as the
Reference [15]
300 Initial crack length 10 ±mFDM+N−R prediction
Applied stress (MPa)
250
200
150
2024-T3 Aluminium alloy
100
105 106 107
Cycles to failure
Fig. 9 Fatigue life prediction using the N±R model and the fatigue
damage map for 2024-T3 aluminium alloy. In the calculations, an
initial crack like defect of 10 mm was used. Variations in initial flaw
size, microstructure, residual stress and surface finish are thought to
be responsible for the scatter of the experimental results.
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Generalized Pareto Distribution, offer significant advan-
tages over conventional log-normal descriptions of inclu-
sion size populations.
It should be noted that the N±R fatigue model and the
fatigue damage map are independent concepts. The fa-
tigue damage map is offered as a procedure for present-
ing complex, interrelated fatigue data in a convenient and
accessible form. The N±R fatigue model is one of many
fatigue crack growth models that could be used to con-
struct the fatigue damage map. Indeed, it would be pos-
sible to construct a fatigue damage map entirely from
experimental data if sufficient information were available
to make the exercise meaningful.
CONCLUSIONS
The fatigue damage map is a useful and convenient way
of describing the process of fatigue damage from the
cracks of the scale of the microstructure through to the
cracks that result in structural failure. The map presented
in this paper is built upon the N±R model of crack
growth that has been developed to use readily available
material parameters. Despite the simplifying assumption
used in the model, the map is an accessible way of pre-
senting the complex interactions between competing
failure mechanisms.
Although the map is based on a deterministic model,
the statistical nature of the formation of fatigue cracks
from a population of inclusions could be introduced in
the same manner as other models have been adapted to
become probabilistic in nature.
The fatigue damage map has potential applications in a
wide range of design situations:
 The map can provide the foundation for a comparison
between different materials under specific design specifi-
cations.
 The map can be used to estimate the number of cycles
between specific fatigue damage events.
 Life and crack growth predictions can be used in conjunc-
tion with nondestructive inspections.
 The map is flexible enough to incorporate the introduc-
tion of additional physical events or material modifica-
tions, such as shot peening, that could alter the zones of
fatigue damage, such as plasticity and roughness induced
closure (via s1), corrosion fatigue (via scy , Kt ), and stress
ratio (via sFL, scy).
108
Acknowledgements
The authors are indebted to Professor Mike Brown (Uni-
versity of Sheffield) for his useful comments, to Airbus
UK and the Royal Academy of Engineering for the
provision of a Senior Research Fellowship to ERR and
ß 2003 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Fatigue Fract Engng Mater Struct 26, 569±575

to the EPSRC for support to CAR through a Research
Associateship.
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