FORENSIC PHYSICS

Module 3
Soil
Semester III, 2023 - 24
B. Sc. - M. Sc. FORENSIC SCIENCE (5 YEAR INTEGRATED)

NATIONAL FORENSIC SCIENCES UNIVERSITY (NFSU),

Curti, Ponda, Goa, PIN 403401
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Introduction soil

There are many definitions for the term soil; however, for forensic
purposes, soil may be thought of as any disintegrated material,
natural and/or artificial, that lies on or near the earth’s surface.
Therefore, forensic examination of soil is not only concerned with the
analysis of naturally occurring rocks, minerals, vegetation, and animal
matter; it also encompasses the detection of such manufactured
objects as glass, paint chips, asphalt, brick fragments, and cinders,
whose presence may impart soil with characteristics that make it
unique to a particular location.
When this material is collected accidentally or deliberately in a
manner that associates it with a crime under investigation, it becomes
valuable physical evidence.

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Soil

Soil is a mixture of minerals, organic matter, gases, liquids, and the

myriad of organisms that together support plant life . soil is highly
heterogeneous in nature.
It is a natural body that exists as part of the pedosphere and which
performs four important functions, it is a medium for plant growth; it
is a means of water storage, supply, and purification; it is a modifier
of the atmosphere; and it is a habitat for organisms that take part in
decomposition of organic matter and the creation of a habitat for new
organism.
Soil horizons(layers) soil is made of distinct horizontal layers; these
layers are called horizons. They range from rich, organic upper
layer(humus and topsoil) to underlying rocky layers ( subsoil, regolith,
bedrock).

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Soil

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Soil

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Soil
Soil profile: The soil profile is a vertical section of the soil that depicts all
of its horizons. The soil profile extends from the soil surface to the rock
material.
O - horizon: The O horizon is the upper layer of the topsoil which is
mainly composed of organic materials such as dried leaves, grasses,
dead leaves, small rocks, twigs, surface organisms, fallen trees, and
other decomposed organic matter. This horizon of soil is often black
brown or dark brown in colour and this is mainly because of the
presence of organic content.
A - Horizon or Topsoil: This layer is rich in organic material and is
known as the humus layer. This layer consists of both organic matter
and other decomposed materials. The topsoil is soft and porous to
hold enough air and water.
In this layer, the seed germination takes place and new roots are
produced which grows into a new plant. This layer consists of
microorganisms such as earthworms, fungi, bacteria, etc.
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Soil

Soil profile:
B - horizon or subsoil: It is the subsurface horizon, present just
below the topsoil and above the bedrock. It is comparatively harder
and more compact than topsoil. It contains less humus, soluble
minerals, and organic matter. It is a site of deposition of certain
minerals and metal salts such as iron oxide.
This layer holds more water than the topsoil and is lighter brown due
to the presence of clay soil.
C - horizon: This layer is devoid of any organic matter and is made
up of broken bedrock. This layer is also known as saprolite. The
geological material present in this zone is cemented.
R - horizon: It is a compacted and cemented layer. Different types
of rocks such as granite, basalt and limestone are found here.

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Soil

Formation of soil:
Physical weathering: Weathering is the mechanical or chemical
process by which rocks are broken down, into smaller pieces.as rocks
are broken down, they mix with organic material, which are those
materials that originate from living organisms.
Biological weathering: It takes place as a result of activities of living
organisms. It can be combined with chemical processes like
chemosynthesis of bacteria.
Chemical weathering: result of chemical interaction between water
and atmospheric gases and the bed rock of the region, like oxidation
reaction with 02 and hydrolysis with H2 O and acid action with acid.

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Soil
Composition of soil:
Soil composition is an important aspect of nutrient management.
While soil minerals and organic matter hold and store nutrients, soil
water is what readily provides nutrients for plant uptake.

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Soil
Composition of soil:
Minerals: Mineral matter is the predominant component of mineral
soils. It constitutes about 45% of total soil composition. It is made
up of a number of particles which vary in size, shape and chemical
composition. Generally, mineral matter is divided into sand, silt and
clay, which are often considered as the main mineral particles.
The constituents of mineral matter are mostly divided into primary
minerals and secondary minerals: The primary minerals are the
broken-down remains of massive rocks which retain much of the
composition of the rocks from which they originated. The secondary
minerals result from the weathering of less resistant minerals
Soil air plays an important role since microorganisms in soil needs air
to undergoes the biological processes that release additional nutrients
into the soil. The major source of soil air mostly is the atmosphere
above the soil. It is important that soils be aerated for plants roots to
have adequate supplies of oxygen through soil air.
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Soil
Composition of soil:
Soil water: Soil water is mainly found within the pore spaces of the
soil. It competes with air for pore spaces and therefore occupies the
pore spaces not occupied by soil air. It is also found in the spaces
between the mineral grains of the soil.
Rainfall and irrigation are the major means through which water
enters the soil from the surface. However, water may enter the soil
from the underground table water through capillarity and negative
atmospheric water demand due to low relative humidity of the
atmosphere. As a universal solvent, soil water creates soil solution by
dissolving nutrient elements, thus making them available for plant use.
Organic matter: Soil organic matter is an important component of
soils; although it constitutes only about 5% of total soil composition
of mineral soils. Soil organic matter (especially humus) is important
because its water holding as well as its nutrient holding capacity
greatly exceeds that of clay, its inorganic counterpart.
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Soil
Different types of soils:
Sandy soil
Clay soil
Silt soil
Peat soil
Chalk soil
Loamy soil

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Soil

Sandy soil: Sandy soils are characterized by less than 18% clay and
more than 68% sand in the first 100 cm of the solum (solum: the
altered layer of soil above the parent material that includes the A and
B horizons). Sandy soils are often considered as soils with physical
properties easy to define: weak structure or no structure, poor water
retention properties, high permeability, highly sensitivity to
compaction with many adverse consequences. Sandy soils has large
particles with large spaces between them. Since sandy soils do not
hold, not suitable for plants.

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Significance of soil evidence
The value of soil as evidence rests on its prevalence at crime scenes
and its transferability between the scene and the criminal.
Thus, soil or dried mud found adhering to a suspect’s clothing or
shoes or to an automobile, when compared to soil samples collected
at the crime site, may link a suspect or object to the crime scene. As
with most types of physical evidence, forensic soil analysis is
comparative in nature; soil found in the possession of the suspect
must be carefully collected and then compared to soil samplings from
the crime scene and its vicinity.
However, one should not rule out the value of soil even if the site of
the crime has not been ascertained.
For instance, small amounts of soil may be found on a person or
object far from the actual site of a crime.
A geologist who knows the local geology may be able to use
geological maps to direct police to the general vicinity where the soil
was originally picked up and the crime committed.
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Soil

Silt soil: Silt Soil is a light and moisture retentive soil type with a
high fertility rating.
As silt soils compromise of medium sized particles they are well
drained and hold moisture well.
As the particles are fine, they can be easily compacted and are prone
to washing away with rain.
By adding organic matter, the silt particles can be bound into more
stable clumps.
Peat soil: Peat soil is high in organic matter and retains a large
amount of moisture.
This type of soil is very rarely found in a garden and often imported
into a garden to provide an optimum soil base for planting.

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Soil
Chalk soil: Chalk soil can be either light or heavy but always highly
alkaline due to the calcium carbonate (lime) within its structure.
As these soils are alkaline they will not support the growth of
ericaceous plants that require acidic soils to grow.
If a chalky soil shows signs of visible white lumps then they can’t be
acidified and gardeners should be resigned to only choose plants that
prefer an alkaline soil.
Loam soil: Loam soil is a mixture of sand, silt and clay that are
combined to avoid the negative effects of each type.
These soils are fertile, easy to work with and provide good drainage.
Depending on their predominant composition they can be either
sandy or clay loam.
As the soils are a perfect balance of soil particles, they are considered
to be a gardeners best friend, but still benefit from topping up with
additional organic matter.
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Significance of soil evidence
The value of soil as evidence rests on its prevalence at crime scenes
and its transferability between the scene and the criminal.
Thus, soil or dried mud found adhering to a suspect’s clothing or
shoes or to an automobile, when compared to soil samples collected
at the crime site, may link a suspect or object to the crime scene. As
with most types of physical evidence, forensic soil analysis is
comparative in nature; soil found in the possession of the suspect
must be carefully collected and then compared to soil samplings from
the crime scene and its vicinity.
However, one should not rule out the value of soil even if the site of
the crime has not been ascertained.
For instance, small amounts of soil may be found on a person or
object far from the actual site of a crime.
A geologist who knows the local geology may be able to use
geological maps to direct police to the general vicinity where the soil
was originally picked up and the crime committed.
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Collection and preservation of soil evidence
When gathering soil specimens, the evidence collector must give primary
consideration to establishing the variation of soil at the crime-scene area.
For this reason, standard/reference soils should be collected at various
intervals within a 100 foot radius of the crime scene, as well as at the site of
the crime, for comparison to the questioned soil.
All specimens gathered should be representative of the soil that was removed
by the suspect.
In most cases, only the top layer of soil is picked up during the commission
of a crime. Thus, standard/reference specimens must be removed from the
surface, without digging into the unrepresentative subsurface layers.
Approximately a tablespoon or two of soil in each sample is all the
laboratory needs for a thorough comparative analysis. All specimens
collected should be packaged in individual containers, such as plastic vials.
Each vials should be marked to indicate the location at which the sampling
was made.
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Collection and preservation of soil evidence
Soil found on a suspect must be carefully preserved for analysis. If it is
found adhering to an object, as in the case of soil on a shoe, the investigator
must not remove it.
Instead, each object should be individually wrapped in paper, with the soil
intact, and transmitted to the laboratory.
Similarly, loose soil adhering to garments should not be removed; these
items should be carefully and individually wrapped in paper bags and sent to
the laboratory for analysis.
Care must be taken that particles that may fall off the garment during
transportation will remain in the paper bag.
Automobile vehicles: Separate samples are collected from under all the
fender and frame areas of the vehicle; care is taken to remove the soil in
clump form to preserve the order in which the particles of soil adhered to the
car and to the other soil on the car. Undoubtedly, during the normal use of
an automobile, soil will be picked up from numerous locations over a period
of months and years. This layering effect may impart soil with greater
variation, and hence greater evidential value, than that normally associated
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Forensic examination of soil
Most soils can be differentiated by their gross appearance.
A side-by-side visual comparison of the colour and texture of soil
specimens is easy to perform and provides a sensitive property for
distinguishing soils that originate from different locations. Soil is
darker when it is wet; therefore, colour comparisons must always be
made when all the samples are dried under identical laboratory
conditions.
It is estimated that there are nearly 1,100 distinguishable soil colours;
hence, colour offers a logical first step in a forensic soil comparison.
Low-power microscopic examination of soil reveals the presence of
plant and animal materials as well as artificial debris.
Further high-power microscopic examination helps characterize
minerals and rocks in earth materials.
Although this approach to forensic soil identification requires the
expertise of an investigator trained in geology, it can provide the most
varied and significant points of comparison between soil samples.
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Forensic examination of soil
Only by carefully examining and comparing the minerals and rocks
naturally present in soil can one take advantage of the large number
of variations between soils and thus add to the evidential value of a
positive comparison.
A mineral is a naturally occurring crystal, and like any other crystal,
its physical properties - for example, its colour, geometric shape,
density, and refractive index - are useful for identification. More than
2,200 minerals exist; however, most are so rare that forensic
geologists usually encounter only about 20 of them.
The number of comparative points and their frequency of occurrence
must be considered before concluding that specimens are similar and
judging the probability of their common origin.
Building materials such as brick, plaster, and concrete blocks are
combinations of minerals and rocks that can easily be recognized and
compared microscopically to similar minerals found on the
breaking-and-entering suspect.
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Forensic examination of soil

Variations in soil:
The ultimate forensic value of soil evidence depends on its uniqueness
at the crime scene. If, for example, soil composition is
indistinguishable for miles surrounding the location of a crime,
associating soil found on the suspect with that particular site will
have limited value.
Significant conclusions that link a suspect with a particular location
through a soil comparison may be made when variations in soil
composition occur every 10 to 100 yards from the crime site.
However, even when such variations do exist, the forensic geologist
usually cannot individualize soil to any one location unless it contains
an unusual combination of rare minerals, rocks, or artificial debris.

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Forensic examination of soil
Density gradient analysis :
a cylinder is filled with various solutions in such a manner that at the
bottom is the solution with highest density while at the top is the solution
with lowest density and in between the density gradually decreases from
bottom to top.
The soil sample is then placed in the cylinder.
The soil will sink through the solution with higher density until it reaches the
place where its density matches with the density of the solution.
At this place, the soil particles will remain suspended and thus create bands
in the solution. The bands will represent the varying densities of the
particles making the soil.
Ph measurement of soil:
Ph of soil determines the acidity or alkalinity of soil. Ph meter is general
instrument to measure the hydrogen ion concentration in soil.
H+ ions show acidity of soil and OH- ions shows basicity of soil If the pH is
less than 6 then it is said to be an acidic soil, the pH ranges from 6-8.5 it’s a
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Forensic examination of soil
Microscopic examination of soil:
Generally binocular microscopes are used for mineral identification. For
rocks and stone material usually, petrographic microscopes are preferred.
For magnification on biological material found in soil such as saliva, pollen
etc. SEM and TEM are used.
Density and refractive index can be analyzed by using polarized light,
electrically heated stage in it. polarized microscope is helpful in analyzing
the internal features. From the analysis of crystalline solid structure, class
characteristics of crystal specimen are identified. standard compound is
replacement of stereo and petrographic microscope.
X ray diffraction method:
Results of the XRD pattern of untreated sample show the high intensity and
broad peaks of silica in the form of α quartz. after applying the required
XRD setup conditions. Silica removal was confirmed by the much-reduced
intensity peaks in the XRD pattern.

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Forensic examination of soil

Microscopic observation with chemical reagents:

Place the soil sample on the stage of microscope in the same manner as
described above and examine. Moisten a small portion of soil with water and
then add a small drop of concentrated hydrochloric acid (HCl) on it.
Observe the nature of reaction as- bubbles and colour.
Bubbles arising from solid particles indicate insoluble carbonates such as
chalk, dolomite or lime stone. Similarly yellowing colour indicates the
presence of soluble iron it can be confirmed by appearance of green colour
on adding a few drops of potassium ferrocynide solution to the sample

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Soil distribution

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Soil distribution

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Soil distribution

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Soil distribution

Geographical Indicator: A geographical indication (GI) is a sign used to

represent an entity that have a specific geographical origin and possess
qualities that are due to that origin. In order to function as a GI, a sign
must identify a product as originating in a given place.
Soil colour: The colour of the soil is usually the first thing people notice.
Mostly this is just the topsoil but it does not reflect the entire soil. The
topsoil is usually darker than lower layers (or horizons) because this is where
organic matter accumulates.
Soil colour is usually due to 3 main pigments:
black—from organic matter, red—from iron and aluminium oxides,
white—from silicates and salt.
Colour can be a useful indicator of some of the general properties of a soil,
as well as some of the chemical processes that are occurring beneath the
surface.

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Soil distribution

Geographical Indicator:
Soil content: The basic components of soil are minerals, organic matter,
water and air. The typical soil consists of approximately 45% mineral, 5%
organic matter, 20-30% water, and 20-30% air. These percentages are only
generalizations at best. The variation in soil content can represent the
geographical feature.
Soil particle size: Particle size Distribution represents the percentage of soil
particles of different size ranges. It is an important property of soils that can
be used in a wide range of applications. Coarse-Grained Soil
Gravel: 4.75mm to 80mm
Sand: 0.075mm to 4.75mm
Fine-Grained Soil
Silt: 0.002mm to 0.075mm
Clay: < 0.002mm

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Soil distribution
Geographical Indicator:
Ph of soil: Soils can be naturally acid or alkaline, and this can be measured by
testing their pH value.
Having the correct pH is important for healthy plant growth. Being aware of the
long-term effects of different soil management practices on soil pH is also
important. Research has demonstrated that some agricultural practices
significantly alter soil pH.
Nearby water bodies: The soil distribution is influenced by the nearby water bodies
like ponds, rivers, lakes etc.
Agriculture: Throughout human history, our relationship with the soil has affected
our ability to cultivate crops and influenced the success of civilizations. This
relationship between humans, the earth, and food sources affirms soil as the
foundation of agriculture.
Sea level: The sea level has an important role in controlling different properties of
soil. The water holding capacity and salinity are generally influenced by sea level.
Hence, the properties can be used for analysing geographical behaviour of soil.
Wheather: Soil can also influence climate. Soils that are wetter or denser hold
heat and stabilize the surroundings from temperature changes more so than drier,
looser soils.
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 Thank you

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