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Design for maintainability of high-rise vertical green facades

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 Building Research & Information

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Design for maintainability of high-rise vertical

green facades

Michael Y. L. Chew, Sheila Conejos & Fikril Hakim Bin Azril

To cite this article: Michael Y. L. Chew, Sheila Conejos & Fikril Hakim Bin Azril (2019) Design for
maintainability of high-rise vertical green facades, Building Research & Information, 47:4, 453-467,
DOI: 10.1080/09613218.2018.1440716

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 BUILDING RESEARCH & INFORMATION
2019, VOL. 47, NO. 4, 453–467
https://doi.org/10.1080/09613218.2018.1440716

INFORMATION PAPER

Design for maintainability of high-rise vertical green facades

a a
Michael Y. L. Chew , Sheila Conejos and Fikril Hakim Bin Azrilb
a
Department of Building, National University of Singapore, Singapore; bM&E Division, ISS Singapore, Singapore

ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
Since the introduction of vertical greenery systems (VGSs) in Singapore, building designers have design quality; green facade;
experimented with different VGS designs and types to apply to high-rise building facades. high-rise; living wall;
Although innovative designs have brought variety to the utilitarian high-rise facades clad in maintainability; quality
glass, steel and concrete, little consideration has been given to the issues of maintainability control; vertical greenery
systems; Singapore
during the design/planning stage. This lack of foresight and planning has hindered the efforts of
maintenance personnel and compromised the performance of such green facades. To address
these concerns, an instrumental case study approach was undertaken using a series of site
investigations and interviews with experts and stakeholders. The aim of this research was to
strengthen the knowledge base on high-rise vertical greenery facades in the tropics, leading to
the formulation of case study-based ‘design for maintainability’ (DfM) guidelines. These
guidelines will assist clients, designers and contractors by providing a supplemental reference
during the design, installation and maintenance of high-rise VGSs located in tropical regions.

Introduction 2017) as well as experimentation involving urban heat-

Facades serve as external elements on a building that
protect indoor spaces from weather elements and the
external environment. Through advancements in facade
technology, green facades have been used to showcase
extravagantly the global commitment towards addres-
sing the effects of climate change and promoting
environmental sustainability. Some of the commonly
applied green facade features include building-integrated
photovoltaics (BIPV), vertical greenery systems (VGSs),
light-emitting diode (LED) media walls, automatic
blinds/louvres, high-performance glazing and nano-
facade coating (Chew, 2016). From these many different
facade features, VGSs have become an architectural
fashion in many places. Installing urban vegetation on
roofs and walls is an innovative strategy that provides
environmental benefits. These benefits can include
improved microclimates (Wang, Rahim, Loo, & Miswan,
2014), reduced temperature (Hunter et al., 2014),
enhanced biodiversity (Manso & Castro-Gomes, 2015),
reduced urban heat-island effects (Feng & Hewage, 2014)
and be seen to promote sustainable cities (Pérez-Urrestar-
azu, Fernández-Cañero, Franco-Salas, & Egea, 2015).
Recent critical reviews and research studies on VGSs
tend to focus on the thermal regulation impact (Cuce,
island effects (Aflaki et al., 2017), thermal and cooling
performance (Perini, Magliocco, & Giulini, 2017) and
building energy efficiency (Omrany, Ghaffarianhoseini,
Ghaffarianhoseini, Raahemifar, & Tookey, 2016).
Although work has been undertaken on the critical
design-management assessment (Jim, 2015) and the pro-
cess tree for green facades (Perini & Rosasco, 2013) to
enhance green wall management, little research has
been conducted on design-based values pertaining to
the maintainability of VGSs, especially in tropical con-
ditions. The design and maintenance of vertical green-
eries needs to be studied thoroughly to ensure their
sustainability (Chew & Conejos, 2016; Emilsson,
Berndtsson, Mattssona, & Rolfa, 2007). Dvorak and
Volder (2010) suggest the development of standards
and guidelines for the sustainability of VGSs. Giordano,
Montacchini, Tedesco, and Perone (2017) emphasize
that a technical standard proposal will increase and
improve the deployment of living wall systems.
As a high-density, compact city, Singapore fosters the
greening of its built environment. This is done to encou-
rage a greater awareness of sustainable development and
to improve the city’s image (NParks, 2009). The second
Singapore Sustainable Blueprint 2015 (SSB 2015) set a
new target of 200 hectares of sky-rise greenery (vertical

CONTACT Sheila Conejos bdgsmac@nus.edu.sg @SMAConejos

Supplemental data for this article can be accessed https://doi.org/10.1080/09613218.2018.1440716
© 2018 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
454 M. Y. CHEW ET AL.
greenery and green roofs) by 2030 (Ministry of the
Environment and Water Resources, 2017). In response
to the growing interest in high-rise VGSs coupled with
the pursuit of innovative architecture and developers’
corporate social responsibility, the design of buildings
(especially their facades) has grown in complexity. How-
ever, incorporating greeneries into innovative facades
creates new operational and maintenance challenges.
Singapore has two sets of guidelines for sky-rise
greenery (NParks, 2015) used for the implementation
of VGSs. However, their scope is limited to only load-
ing conditions, wind loads and safe design. The recent
design-for-maintainability (DfM) guidelines (Building
& Construction Authority, 2016) do not address
many maintainability aspects of VGSs. The lack of
maintainability guidelines for VGSs highlights the
importance of considering maintainability right from
the design stage. The aim of this paper is to formulate
a set of DfM guidelines for VGSs based on case
studies, site observations and interviews with stake-
holders and experts. As high-rise VGS facades face a
unique set of challenges in maintainability (compared
with other VGS implementations, e.g. indoor or low-
rise), the addition of new information can improve
the processes of planning, installing and maintaining
vertical greenery structures, especially in tropical
regions.
Technical and environmental issues
The concept of vertical greenery is believed to have
started in the ancient Babylonian period. However, it
has recently become increasingly popular. In 1988, a
stainless steel cable system for green facades was intro-
duced to improve VGSs’ structural capacity (Green
Roofs for Healthy Cities, 2008). VGS refers to structures
that allow plants to grow on a vertical surface in a con-
trolled manner with regular maintenance (Wood, Bah-
rami, & Safarik, 2014). The VGSs offered in the market
today are loosely categorized, and in Singapore the
most common systems include the support, cassette,
planter and pocket types (Figure 1). The HDB Building
Research Institute has also developed Verti.Gro, which
is used in some housing developments in Singapore.
The economic, environmental and social benefits of
vertical greeneries have been established in numerous lit-
eratures (e.g. Manso & Castro-Gomes, 2015; Pérez-
Urrestarazu et al., 2015; Safikhani, Abdullah, Ossen, &
Baharvand, 2014); however, there is only a small amount
of research that reports on the various issues concerning
VGS implementation. Perini and Ottelé (2014) identify
the following VGS issues:
. dehydration of climbing plants due to winter or
improper substrate and inappropriate plant selection
. uncontrolled growth of plant species which damages
the building wall
. corrosion of windows and ledges due to drainage
failure
. VGS structures’ inability to support plants that
become too heavy as they mature
Wong, Tan, Tan, Sia, and Wong (2010) also report that
the foliage of a VGS can become damaged due to heavy
tropical rainfall and plants’ inability to retain rainwater.
Manso and Castro-Gomes (2015) suggest that a prolifer-
ation of roots entering voids and cracks can damage a
building’s surface. Safikhani et al. (2014) find that faulty
irrigation systems and improper installation methods
increase operation and maintenance costs. An inferior
maintenance regime (e.g. lack of maintenance access)
can lead to safety risks and eventual dead-plant replace-
ment (Behm & Poh, 2012; Köhler, 2008; Perini &
Rosasco, 2013; Pérez, Coma, Martorell, & Cabeza, 2014).
Chew and Conejos (2016) identify green wall (VGS)
issues in Singapore and categorize them into technical
and environmental defects. The technical defects are with-
ering plants; structural corrosion, felt and planter boxes
bursting, cracks on planter box ledges, and wear and
tear; fixtures improperly secured; water wastage/leakage
and poor irrigation; water dripping on floor/wall and
water stagnation; paint cracks, efflorescent, staining and
dirt accumulation; water seepage; maintenance inaccessi-
bility; safety risks; damaged leaves/foliages and soil loosen-
ing. The environmental defects include the presence of
algae and mould, invasive growth of roots, birds nesting
and pest infestation.
Design for maintainability (DfM)
DfM encompasses the specific measures taken during
planning and design to minimize the occurrence of build-
ing defects and reduce the expenditure of person-hours
and materials needed in order to fulfil the maintenance
needs during the building’s life cycle (Building & Con-
struction Authority, 2016). Early in 2017, the Building
and Construction Authority introduced the concept of
maintainability to Singapore’s construction industry,
which includes the release of the DfM checklist to address
the importance of maintainability (both up- and down-
stream) throughout a building’s life cycle. The DfM
checklist provides a set of design recommendations and
best practices to help developers and architects integrate
maintainability during the design stage to ensure quality
design that considers productivity, safety and labour effi-
ciency during the maintenance stage (Building &

Figure 1. Vertical greenery system (VGS) types in Singapore.
Construction Authority, 2016). The DfM checklist is orga-
nized based on the main components of a building (e.g.
main building areas, mechanical and electrical (M&E)
facilities and landscape and outdoor areas); and each com-
ponent is taken into account via three critical maintain-
ability design factors (access for maintenance, materials
and finishes, and design and detailing). The DfM checklist
provides some guidelines pertaining to VGS maintenance:
(1) the provision of maintenance access for VGSs and for
VGS components for periodic inspection, servicing, main-
tenance and replacement; (2) the provision of automatic
irrigation system with rain sensors and suitable drainage
BUILDING RESEARCH & INFORMATION 455
trays to avoid unsightly puddles; and (3) plant species
selection according to environmental conditions (e.g.
sunny/shady areas).
Statutory efforts relating to high-rise VGS
maintainability
Ensuring the sustainability of a VGS is important; hence,
all VGS should be developed considering the design and
functional intent, environmental factors, appropriate
plant selection and the impact on future maintenance
and safety (Behm & Poh, 2012). Seven years after the
456 M. Y. CHEW ET AL.
implementation of VGS in Singapore, the government
authorities implemented several regulations to improve
VGS maintainability. The 2013 revision to the Singapore
Civil Defence Force Fire Code involved changes to the
list of regulated fire-safety products and materials,
which has affected VGS maintainability concerning fire
safety, requiring fire-rated external wall cladding (Singa-
pore Civil Defence Force, 2013). In response to this,
some VGS suppliers have modified their VGS panel
with aluminium composite revision and replacing the
previous plastic layer. The NParks’ Skyrise Greenery
Guidelines, which cover both vertical greenery and
green roofs, was also released for the landscape and hor-
ticulture industry in 2014 (NParks, 2015); while the
Workplace Safety and Health Council has been advocat-
ing the importance of safety right from the design stage
since 2008 with the release of its Guidelines on Design for
Safety in Buildings and Structures (Workplace Safety and
Health Council, 2011).
Methods
The aim was to develop a set of DfM guidelines for VGS
under tropical conditions that will address the identified
critical VGS issues and defects. The DfM guidelines are
based on data gathered from case studies, field obser-
vation surveys, stakeholder and expert interviews. A
qualitative approach is used: the literature review sup-
ports the contextual framework, while site surveys were
conducted to validate the literature review gathered.
The case study interviews with stakeholders and experts
were conducted to validate the list of defects and design
criteria for high-rise VGSs. The selection of the case
studies, stakeholders and experts is based on purposeful
sampling, the accessibility to locations in order to con-
duct site investigations and the willingness of partici-
pants in this study. The case study approach was
considered an effective way to understand a variety of
building diagnostic issues and green building technol-
ogies (e.g. green wall/VGS, nano-facade coatings) in tro-
pical conditions (Chew, 2005, 2016; Chew & Conejos,
2016; Chew, Conejos, & Law, 2017). The triangulation
of gathered data from different sources was found to
be consistent; this suggests that possible bias is low.
Expert opinions on the performance of high-rise ver-
tical greenery facades were sought from people who are
highly informed about high-rise VGS, in the practice of
design, policy-making, manufacturing, installation and/
or maintenance. Some of the interviewees were specifi-
cally chosen from a list of speakers who gave seminars
on VGS design held by government and professional
organizations, while the others were representatives of
companies involved in the development of the selected
case studies. The experts included architects, suppliers,
engineers, landscaping representatives and officials
from relevant ministries. The experts were from the
middle to upper levels of management and had between
20 and 50 years of special knowledge in handling small to
large-scale organizations, small to large-scale organiz-
ations, and were involved in the design, construction
and maintenance of high-rise green buildings (e.g. VGS
applications) with project costs at S$1 million and
above. Possible solutions and strategies supporting the
selected important design parameters that ensure the
sustainability and high performance of high-rise VGS
were also obtained from these experts.
Interview sessions were conducted in the experts’
offices and lasted between 30 and 60 minutes. To mini-
mize bias, the studies used an interview protocol consist-
ing of the list of VGS defects with photographs, the case
study stakeholder interview results and the design par-
ameters for high-rise VGS (see Appendix 1 in the sup-
plemental data online). The interview protocol guides
the experts’ discussion mainly on selecting the important
design parameters to be considered for the successful
implementation and performance of high-rise VGSs.
The experts’ interview results were transcribed and
coded with the aid of QSR International’s NVivo soft-
ware (version 11), since it simplifies iterative coding by
classifying patterns and relationships during data analy-
sis (Kolenic, 2013). The coding query was constructed
via a direct content analysis method which was collected
from all sources of nodes/themes set up in NVivo, indi-
cating that the cross-validation of data from various
sources was considered to be reliable.
Through these interviews and field observation sur-
vey, a list of high-rise VGS critical defects was gathered.
Pictures of the defects found in the selected case studies
and from relevant research studies were shown to stake-
holders to provide ease in the discussion and selection of
critical VGS defects.
Instrumental case studies
The award-winning case studies include high-rise resi-
dential condominiums, commercial and mixed-use
developments, and institutional buildings with VGS
facades that have received the prestigious Green Mark
Platinum award by the Building and Construction Auth-
ority (BCA) via the Green Mark Scheme (Table 1). Green
Mark is a benchmarking scheme that aims to achieve a
sustainable built environment through the adoption of
green building technologies and the incorporation of
best practices in environmental design and construction.
Of the 12 case studies considered in this research, only
one had been built in 2005, while the rest were completed

Table 1. Instrumental case studies.
Case study
CS01. Commercial building
CS02. Mixed-use development
CS03. Educational building A
CS04. Educational building B
CS05. Educational building C
Description
A BCA Green Mark Platinum-awarded
commercial centre completed in 2014
that houses laboratories and office
spaces. It boasts state-of-the-art green
features to complement its focus on
clean technology, such as the six VGSs,
each five storeys tall, located on the
facade of the development
A BCA Green Mark Platinum-awarded
mixed-use development completed in
2016 that houses a SOHO private
residential section on levels 6–11 and a
hotel from level 12 onwards. It features
the tallest external VGS amongst the case
studies. The building won the 2017
Green Good Design Award
A six-storey BCA UD Marks Platinum-
awarded educational building
completed in 2012. There are multiple
sets of VGS within the campus, which
covers an area of 5300 m2 at 35 m in
height, making it one of the largest
installations of vertical greenery in
Singapore
A BCA Green Mark Platinum and UD Marks
Gold Plus-awarded institutional
development completed in 2015 as a
campus extension. The VGS in the
development is in the form of green
walls fronting various sections of the
building’s facade, ranging from two to 11
storeys high
A BCA Green Mark Platinum-awarded
educational institute completed in 2013
and located in an upcoming commercial
hub. There are two sets of VGS on its
facade, one each six and seven storeys
tall, with both supported by a steel mesh
system
(Continued)
BUILDING RESEARCH & INFORMATION
Table 1. Continued.
Case study
CS06. Educational building D
CS07. Residential condo A
CS08. Residential condo B
CS09. Residential condo C
CS10. Residential condo D
457
Description
Completed in 2005, the BCA Green Mark
Platinum-awarded institutional building
is one of the first examples of a green
building with a VGS facade in Singapore.
The five green walls on the facades of
various buildings in the campus are used
as a shading feature for the buildings
Considered one of Singapore’s tallest living
green walls, this BCA Green Mark
Platinum-awarded 22-storey private
condominium was completed in 2015. Its
VGS spans the entire height of the
building’s front facade, flanking the lift
lobby/fire escape stairwell stack
Completed in 2012, this BCA Green Mark
Platinum-awarded residential
development has three 27-storey towers.
Each tower has four VGSs on each side.
The VGSs adopt a support system,
supported by a galvanized mesh frame.
This development also won the Design of
the Year in the President’s Design Award
in 2014
A BCA Green Mark Platinum-awarded
private residential condominium that is
the tallest green wall in the world,
receiving the Guinness World Book
Record for largest vertical garden in
2014. The building’s VGS is a non-
modular type, consisting of a wire trellis
system 79 m high and 20 m wide that
occupies an area of 2289 m2
A BCA Green Mark Gold-awarded private
residential condominium located on the
fringe of the Orchard Road shopping belt
completed in 2011. Unlike other high-
rise applications, the VGS does not cover
the entire length of the building’s facade.
Instead, it acts like a ‘skirt’ across the
condominium’s three towers, cascading
down from the sky gardens and
swimming pool deck on the fifth floor
(Continued)
458 M. Y. CHEW ET AL.
Table 1. Continued.
Case study Description
CS11. Residential condo E A BCA Green Mark Gold-awarded private
residential condominium designed by a
world-renowned architect and
completed in 2014. The development
comprises two towers, both of which
feature VGSs made up of high-tensile
steel cables which are designed
differently, where steel cables are
suspended in a crisscross manner like a
spider’s web
CS12. Residential condo F Completed in 2014, this BCA Green Mark
Platinum-awarded six-storey mixed-use/
residential development has a 435 m2
VGS facade enveloping the building’s fire
escape stairwell. The building’s VGS
features the pocket system and uses
substrate panels.
Note: BCA = Building and Construction Authority; SOHO = small office, home
office; UD = urban design; VGSs = vertical greenery systems.
since 2012. The intention of this study is to discover new
and potential issues and defects that may have not been
covered in the existing literature and previous research.
Findings
The results from the site investigation, instrumental case
studies and interviews with experts and stakeholders are
discussed in this section, such as establishing the critical
VGS defects as validated in the selected case studies and
the selection of important design parameters which were
deemed valuable in addressing the VGS defects.
Establishing the critical VGS defects
As shown in Table 2, the 33 identified defects were cate-
gorized under the technical and environmental issues
and also grouped into specific VGS issues. The technical
issues refer to issues concerning maintenance and con-
struction methods; design and climatic conditions;
water and irrigation systems; drainage and waterproof-
ing systems; and structural stability and material dura-
bility. The environmental issues include issues
pertaining to biological growth such as algae and root
growth as well as the presence of animals (e.g. pests
and birds nesting). The results show that the environ-
mental issues were of relatively lower priority in
comparison with defects arising from technical issues.
This is expected since the latter interacts with the build-
ing’s structural elements, which require greater priority
with regard to rectification when such defects occur.
Of the 33 VGS defects identified, seven critical VGS
defects are crucial in the sustainability and high perform-
ance of high-rise VGS. The seven critical VGS defects
refer to: (1) inaccessibility for maintenance; (2) safety
risks while cleaning/repairs; (3) withering plants; (4)
poor irrigation and water dripping issues; (5) installation
issues/unsecured fixtures; (6) drainage failure; and (7)
algae growth on finishes.
The 12 stakeholders indicated that inaccessibility for
maintenance is the most critical defect that affects VGS
performance. Lack of access provisions will lead to
increased safety risks and the impossibility of conducting
cleaning and maintenance regimes. This issue is evident
in 10 of the case studies examined in this research, where
some could be attributed to a failure to consider main-
tainability during the design stage. In the case of CS10,
workers have to enter residents’ units and climb over a
parapet to access the VGS facade, which disrupts tenants’
privacy as well as causing a delay in maintenance activi-
ties. The next critical VGS defect, which was considered
crucial by 11 stakeholders, pertains to safety risks during
cleaning and/or repairs. This issue is also evident in 10 of
the case studies, where in CS11 there is no maintenance
done in one section since VGS access to that section was
blocked by a Jacuzzi and pond. This is also similar to
CS02 and CS09, where the pools are beneath the VGS
area.
Another defect identified by eight stakeholders is the
‘installation issues/unsecured fixtures’. Inappropriate
installation methods will lead to operation and mainten-
ance issues aside from an upturn in life cycle costs
(LCCs). The defects concerning ‘withering plants’,
‘plant dieback’ and ‘soil loosening due to small planter
box size’ were also considered critical VGS defects,
with each defect receiving 10, seven and six stakeholder
responses respectively. The withering plants and plant
dieback defects were found in seven case studies, while
the soil-loosening defect was not found in all case
studies. The withering plant and plant dieback defects
can also be classified as a design flaw, such in the case
of CS08 where the wrong choice of plant species (Ficus
pumila) may have contributed to the underperformance
of the VGS, since the species installed thrives in subtro-
pical, temperate climates, not in Singapore’s hot and
humid climate.
Nine stakeholders identified ‘irrigation failure’ and
‘water dripping’, which frequently occurred in six of
the case studies. Faulty irrigation will lead to plants
dying and a surge in water consumption costs, while
 BUILDING RESEARCH & INFORMATION 459

Table 2. The critical vertical greenery system (VGS) defects based on case study stakeholders.
Responses
VGS issues VGS defects (n = 12) Occurrence in Case Studies
TECHNICAL Maintenance and construction methods Inaccessibility for maintenance 12 CS01, CS02, CS03, CS05, CS06, CS07,
Safety risk during cleaning/repairs 11 CS08, CS10, CS11, CS12

Installation issues/unsecured 8 None

fixtures
Dirt accumulation 3 All case studies
Dirt staining 2
Paint peeling on wall 1
Fallen leaves deposited on structural 1 All case studies
frame, etc.

Inaccessibility for maintenance

Design and climatic conditions Withering plants 10 CS01, CS02, CS03, CS04, CS07, CS08,
CS11
Plant dieback 7 CS03, CS08, CS09, CS10
Soil loosening due to small planter 6 None
box size
Water leakage on green wall due to 2
aircon unit
Leaf damage from weather 2 CS01 and CS08
Fallen leaves 2 All case studies

Leaf damage from weather

Water and irrigation systems Poor irrigation and water dripping 9 CS01, CS03, CS05, CS06, CS08, CS09,
issues
Water run-off due to over-watering 5 CS03, CS05, CS08, CS12
Water leakage or wastage 3

Water leakage or wastage

Drainage and waterproofing systems Drainage failure 8 CS02, CS03, CS05, CS08, CS12
Water stagnation 7 CS01, CS02, CS03, CS05, CS08, CS09,
CS11
Waterproofing layer peeling off steel 3 None
planter box
Efflorescence on structure (beam) 3
Water seepage on wall/column 2

Water stagnation
Structural stability and material Planter felt damaged 6 CS03, CS06, CS07, CS12
durability Planter box bursting 4
Structural corrosion 4 CS05, CS06, CS08, CS10, CS11, CS12
Wall cracks and planter box cracks 3 None
Deterioration/wear and tear of 3 CS08 and CS11
structural frame

Deterioration of structural elements

(Continued)
460 M. Y. CHEW ET AL.
Table 2. Continued
VGS issues
ENVIRONMENTAL Biological growth
Biological growth wall
Presence of animals
Note: Bold entries highlighted the criteria with the highest expert responses.
water-dripping issues lead to staining (e.g. corrosion),
algae growth and water ponding, as occurred in CS01
and CS03. Eight stakeholders identified ‘drainage failure’
and ‘water stagnation’ as other critical defects. The ‘drai-
nage failure’ defect is evident in five case studies, while
water stagnation occurred in seven case studies. Lack
of design with maintainability considerations is evident
in these technical issues, e.g. water ponding was common
around the drainage paths of CS02 due to the flat gradi-
ent of the surface along the access walkways. In CS05,
there was water ponding at the second level where the
concrete surface was not screeded at a gradient to divert
water away. Water ponding was also common in CS11
due to lack of drains on the ground floor, which was
an oversight during the design stage.
Six stakeholders specified that ‘the damage of planter
felt’ is a critical defect. This issue occurred in four case
studies. This becomes a design failure when the load of
the plant’s soil once watered was not considered at the out-
set. Two critical defects, ‘algae growth on finishes’ and ‘bio-
logical growth on the structural wall’, were identified by
eight and seven stakeholders respectively, and both are
found in eight case studies. The other technical defects
(dirt accumulation, dirt staining and fallen leaves) received
low stakeholder responses but are found in all case studies,
which could be due to infrequent maintenance regime.
Other environmental aspect defects (root penetration
through wall, pest infestation and bird nesting) also
occurred in a few case studies; however, these were not
considered as critical defects by stakeholders as they can
be addressed through regular maintenance regime.
Important design parameters
Nine of 17 of the design parameters were considered
as the most important by experts (Table 3): (1) LCC;
Responses
VGS defects (n = 12) Occurrence in Case Studies
Algae growth on finishes 8 CS01, CS02, CS03, CS05, CS08,
Biological growth of structural wall 7 CS09, CS11, CS12
Biological growth on suspended
beam/ledge 4
Root penetration through wall
structure 3 CS03
Potential Pest infestation 2 CS02,CS03, CS04, CS12
Bird nesting 1 CS03
(2) maintenance access; (3) plant suitability and sus-
tainability; (4) green wall systems; (5) safety measures;
(6) water efficiency; (7) availability of natural
elements; (8) root growth control; and (9) pest con-
trol. Most of the experts believed that the LCC should
be considered during the design of high-rise VGS for
its overall performance, since failure do so would lead
to occurrences of defects leading to increased oper-
ation and maintenance costs. E01 shared that high-
rise VGS installation on facades requires great start-
up and high maintenance costs, while E09 reported
that they knew of one VGS project that depletes the
building’s maintenance funds due to frequent plant
replacement. E05 stated that the rental of gondolas
and other facade equipment is one reason for high
VGS maintenance costs.
‘Maintenance access’ is also considered an important
design parameter by most experts, since lack of mainten-
ance interventions on a facade will lead to various VGS
defects. E03 mentioned one project where irrigation pipes
were embedded into the structure and that when pipe
chokage occurs; access to the pipes is a challenging issue.
‘Plant suitability and sustainability’ is an important design
parameter considered by nine experts where E01 rec-
ommends the use of Thunbergia for high-rise VGS as it
grows very quickly while E10 endorses the database NParks
Flora & Fauna Web as a general guideline for selecting
native plants or plants that are common in Singapore.
The ‘green wall systems’ is another critical design par-
ameter selected by eight experts based on some cases
where strong plant species with branch thicknesses of
more than 15 centimetres were used as climbing plants,
placing stress on the structural frames and support struc-
tures of the VGS. Not considering the weight of green
wall systems and the incapacity to withstand loadings
may cause damage (e.g. planters bursting) which will
 BUILDING RESEARCH & INFORMATION 461

Table 3. Selected design parameters based on the experts’ interviews.

Experts
Design criteria Design parameters Representative statements from experts (n = 12)
Technical Maintenance and Life cycle cost E01: Great start-up and maintenance. [A] 3–4-storey high green 10
construction methods walls will cost S$3M to construct and about S$20K–30K monthly
considerations to maintain
E09: One vertical greenery project is ‘bleeding’ maintenance costs
due to frequent plant replacement
Maintenance access E03: Some irrigation pipes are embedded into the structure, so any 9
chokage would be a big issue [ … ] if you can’t access these
pipes, it would be a problem
E12: Accessibility issues due to access through residents’ units.
Gondola tracks [are] available but [the] gondola [is] unable to be
used due to [the] crisscrossing wires [getting] in the way
Safety measures E01: Safety would be more of an issue for modular systems as the 7
(including fire safety) whole plant or even the cartridge may fall
E06: Vertical greenery has a problem: when it dries up, it’ll cause a
vertical spread of fire
Proper construction and E02: This kind of condition, it’s a question whether the wire rope 1
installation methods becomes rusty or no fraying [referring to the installed wire rope
enveloped by a thick vine]
Design and climatic Plant suitability and E01: [I] used the Thunbergia plant as it’s very fast to grow but the 9
considerations sustainability problem is that the lower parts of the wall would be less dense
E10: The general guideline is to select native plants or plants which
are common in Singapore. There is a database called NParks
Flora & Fauna Web, which you can refer to
Availability of natural E01: Plants need soil, some don’t grow well because the roots have 6
elements girdled through all the soil
E05: [The plant] won’t grow well if it’s placed in areas with low/too
much sunlight [or a] great wind load
Water and irrigation systems Water efficiency E06: I saw a water pipe coming down from the planters, water was 7
continuously dripping out
E09: Felt system [does] not do much to retain moisture, leading to
high water consumption
Drainage and waterproofing Proper drainage and E07: Water ponding around the drainage paths is due to [the] flat 5
systems waterproofing systems gradient of the access walkways
E11: Roots getting onto the concrete [will] damage the
waterproofing layer
Structural stability and Green wall systems E01: Plants [are] forced to grow perpendicularly to the wall, which 8
material durability is against gravity
considerations E06: Most cassette types, they’re a nightmare to maintain, they will
always outgrow
E11: So we always design with a 1.5× safety factor [ … ] our [green
wall system] can survive up to 110 km/h of wind load
Environmental Environmental considerations Algae growth control E01: Major algae growth below [and around] green walls 1
Root growth control E09: Thunbergia, due to rapid growth, will develop thick roots over 6
time, hence possibly damaging [the] property
E11: The only damage I can foresee is when the roots touch the
concrete, [and] may encroach any existing surface crack and may
widen them, hence leading to some structural damage
Pest control E08: Mosquito, eh! Gradient and prevention of water ponding [is 6
important] because it concerns public health. It’s beyond design
already
E09: No containment of water, [so] no mosquito breeding
Biodiversity E08: So the attitude towards landscaping is different. It lets nature 4
rule. [Pointing to a certain project] I can see that there is [a]
design conflict between the architecture of the building and the
plants, both wants to shout. I respect the green, you’re supposed
to shout, let the building [be] set back into the landscape
Bird nesting control E01: Plants could fall and birds would build nests 1

eventually lead to increased maintenance and safety
risks. E06 notes that most plants in cassette types will
become larger than the cassette size. Seven experts
responded that ‘safety measures’ and ‘water efficiency’
are also important design parameters. E01 mentions
that there are safety issues concerning modular systems,
as the whole plant or even the cartridge may fall. The
issue on fire safety was raised when E06 saw the photo
collage of CS10 showing dead zones which may become
major fire hazards if left to dry. In terms of water effi-
ciency, E06 relates that in one project he saw a water
pipe coming down from the planters and water was con-
tinuously dripping out.
Six experts chose the ‘availability of natural elements’,
‘root growth control’ and ‘pest control’ as important
design parameters for plant growth and survival. E01
462 M. Y. CHEW ET AL.
noted that plants need soil, while E05 explains that plants
will not grow well if placed in areas with low or too much
sunlight or when exposed to a great wind load. E11
agreed that root growth is a problem that will lead to
structural damage if it is not attended to, while E08
emphasizes that mosquito breeding is a public health
concern, so the prevention of water ponding is very
important. Five experts include ‘proper drainage and
waterproofing systems’ as E07 relates a situation where
water ponding around the drainage paths of one project
occurred due to the flat gradient of the access walkways.
The inconsistencies in design concerning drainage and
waterproofing could be the result of lack of attention
to the interfacing between the VGS facade design and
the placement of the M&E systems, reflecting insufficient
collaboration between the landscape architect and struc-
tural/M&E engineers during the design stage, as reflected
in CS02.
Few experts chose ‘proper construction and installa-
tion methods’, ‘algae growth control’ and ‘bird nesting
control’ as important design parameters, since they felt
these issues could be dealt with directly with if proper
installation methods are followed and there is a regular
inspection and maintenance regime. Another issue
identified that is generally not considered when design-
ing VGS is the issue of biodiversity, which refers to the
integration of wildlife habitats in green building features
providing ecological value. E08 indicates, while referring
to a particular project, that design conflict is evident
between the architecture of the building and the plants,
where both want to have their features foregrounded.
Summary
Comparing stakeholder and expert interview results has
shown that both parties have noted the importance of
maintenance access and safety measures when addres-
sing the issues concerning inaccessibility and safety
risks during cleaning and maintenance. The issue of
withering plants is acknowledged by both parties as
being detrimental to the VGS’s overall performance
and indicating that plant suitability and sustainability
will solve this defect. Both parties also have the same
view concerning the poor irrigation and dripping issues
that can have a negative effect in achieving water effi-
ciency and noted that properly applying the installation
methods and green-wall systems could provide structural
stability and material durability for VGS. The experts
identified LCC as an important aspect in designing
VGS. Although the stakeholders did not specifically
mention the term LCC, both parties mentioned the fact
that high-rise VGS maintainability entails higher oper-
ation and maintenance costs. In addition, while the
experts chose root growth control and pest control as
important design parameters, the stakeholders did not
consider these parameters as important since for them
they are manageable as long as inspection and mainten-
ance is done every month. The stakeholders have ident-
ified drainage failure and algae growth as critical defects,
which experts gave less priority to since they are techni-
cal issues that should have been considered at the design
stage.
Although the selected VGS implementations in this
research study were completed after 2012, similar defects
are not being addressed in these new VGS implemen-
tations. Some prevalent defects discovered in this study
occurred due to design and systems failure as well as insuf-
ficient coordination with designers and other allied pro-
fessionals (such as facility managers, M&E engineers and
horticulturists). New concerns have emerged (fire safety
and biodiversity) which are important design parameters
that will help promote the overall wellbeing of VGSs.
DfM guidelines
The DfM guidelines provide a set of design, construction
and maintenance recommendations to help inhibit preva-
lent defects while ensuring the optimal performance and
high maintainability of high-rise VGS facades in the tropics.
The proposed DfM guidelines can be a useful reference
material that features international and local standards, rel-
evant reference materials and valuable insights gathered
from the expert interviews. See Appendix 2 in the sup-
plemental data online for a list of normative standards
referenced in the DfM guidelines. The critical VGS defects
that are due to design failure are: (1) safety risks (including
fire safety) and lack of maintenance access during installa-
tion, cleaning and maintenance of high-rise buildings; and
(2) the wrong choice of plant and lack of consideration for
the natural elements essential for plants’ growth and survi-
val (e.g. sun, water and soil). While the VGS defects that can
be attributed to systems failure are: (1) faulty irrigation
causing plants to die and lead to high water consumption
cost; (2) lack of drainage provisions and screed as well as
the provision of drip trays, which can also be an oversight
made in the design stage; (3) waterproofing issues occur-
ring if there is infrequent inspection and maintenance for
root growth; and (4) structural stability and material dura-
bility issues that refer to the optimum capacity of VGS
components under various environmental exposures
(e.g. heat and wind loadings). The defects considered lack
of maintenance foresight are biological growth and animal
control issues, which could be caused by several factors
(e.g. water stagnation).
The critical VGS defects are categorized according to
the identified VGS issues presented in the first column

Table 4. Design for maintainability guidelines for high-rise vertical greenery facades.
Problem
Issues on maintenance and
construction methods
Access to the ledge is nil
Inaccessible area for maintenance
Need to climb onto the access ledge
High level of maintenance for safety
during cleaning/repairs
Design
Compliance with the structural
integrity of the green wall system
should be certified by a professional
structural engineer. Safety and
maintenance concerns must be
thought of and addressed early
during the design stage (Center for
Urban Greenery and Ecology
(CUGE), 2014). Design the structure
with a 1.5× safety factor (E11)
Access should be designed via passive
means as much as possible, not
only to reduce reliance on BMUs
and other equipment required to
facilitate accessibility but also to
reduce instances of inconvenience
to building inhabitants (E02, E11)
Considerations for fire-rated VGS
materials to be specified as per
SCDF requirements. Provide a
sufficient buffer between the VGS
and facade openings (e.g. balconies,
windows) to prevent fire
encroachment into interior spaces
and reduce the chances of biomass
that contributes to fire risk (E11)
Facade work decisions (including the
VGS) should consider ease of access,
the relative cost of hiring and
erecting scaffolding, and the
possible frequency of maintenance
(BS 8221-2:2012, SS 509-2:2015)
Structural elements should not be
covered by the VGS for easy
periodic inspection. For high-rise
VGSs, provide easy and safe
maintenance access to all facade
areas at every level (CUGE, 2013)
BUILDING RESEARCH & INFORMATION
Construction
Adhere to the Workplace Safety and
Health Act concerning the safe
design, construction and
maintenance of scaffolding,
working platforms and gondolas
(BS 6150:2006+ A1:2014, SS
542:2008)a
Adequate site supervision should be
performed to make sure workers
understand and comply with the
established safe working
procedures, safety rules and
working methods, including the
proper use of all personal
protective equipment provided to
avoid a fall from heights and falling
objects (CUGE, 2013)
Use scaffolding as per SS CP 14:1996
and ensure the proper supervision
of workers working at height.
Implement a comprehensive safety
plan for working on the facade (e.g.
fall prevention fall prevention
systems and personal fall arrest,
and a permit-to-work system
(Workplace Safety and Health
Council, 2011)
An apron of sufficient size should be
built at the front of the VGS to allow
access of MEWPs such as scissor lifts
and boom lifts. No turf should be
planted adjacent to the VGS as it
can hamper MEWP access
463
Maintenance
Put in place a regular maintenance
schedule conducted by qualified
workers to look out for potential
risks, hazards and problems.
Conduct periodic inspections of
supporting structures to ensure
that structural integrity is
maintained (CUGE, 2013). Perform
visual inspection for structural
corrosion etc. (E03)
The greenery cascading down should
not encroach on a currently owned
space or directly under a water
features. There should be no
unmaintained vegetation over
private spaces (E08)
Discourage the replacement of large
areas of cassette and planter-based
VGSs within one maintenance
cycle (as a drastic measure to
minimize frequency), since this
may affect overall VGS aesthetics
and performance (E11)
Ensure that maintenance personnel
know the proper use of fall-
protection systems (BS EN
363:2008). Conform to ASME
A120.1-2014 for the safe use of
permanently installed BMUs for
facade maintenance
Ensure that the chances of the
biomass contributing to a fire risk
should be reduced and kept at a
distance (E08)
Ensure that the guiderail height for
maintenance access is according to
the work-at heights standards
(E08)
(Continued )
464 M. Y. CHEW ET AL.
Table 4. Continued.
Problem
Design and climatic issues (survival)
Dead plant zone
Withering plants
Issues on irrigation systems
Water leakage/water stagnation due
to a poor gradient/poor irrigation and
drainage system
Issues on drainage and
waterproofing systems
Water dripping problem
Structural stability and material
durability issues
Planter felt is damaged
Planter box is bursting
Design
Proper orientation of the VGS should
be considered. Ensure that the
plant and material selection
considers the maintenance
frequencies and cost issues (CUGE,
2013).
Specify the correct plant species (e.g.
native plants adapted to the local
climate) in order to reduce the
possibility of immature plant
death. Recommend more than
one species to ensure even
coverage as growth patterns vary
across species (E06–09)
For support, cassette and planter-
based VGSs, specify a drip-based
irrigation system complete with
built-in rainwater harvesting and
recycled water (Riley, 2017) to
minimize water consumption
Recommend the use of an
adjustable automated irrigation
system based on weather
conditions to reduce the amount
of water (E01, E09, E12)
Conform to BS 4428:1989 for the
proper drainage layout and
system of landscape areas. The
surfaces on which planters are
placed should be on a gradient
that directs excess water towards
the drain. Specify drains adjacent
to planters at the base of the VGS
VGS types that require simple
installation due to a minimal
locking mechanism are not
recommended. For high-rise VGSs,
climber plants can grow from
ground level to the 10th storey
(E10)
Specify fire-rated VGS materials as
per SCDF requirements (E06, E07,
E09, E11)
A planter box approach (500 mm
width × 600 mm depth) with
enough soil will allow the roots to
grow more freely than a modular
system; hence, the VGS can last for
a longer period of time (E06)
Construction
Inspect plants carefully upon their
arrival at the site for damage to
leaves/stems that occurred during
transport and handling. The
landscape contractor should refer
to the plant list for seasonal
requirements related to the time of
planting and contract specifications
for additional requirements (Harris
& Dines, 1998)
Install pre-planted panels safely and
ensure quality workmanship.
Provide a growing medium that is
dense enough to sustain the
chosen plants and to provide the
proper nutrient needs (E01)
Maintain construction quality control
during the installation of green wall
components, installation of fixtures
and fittings, and vegetation
planting
Test that the irrigation system and
rainwater harvesting system are
properly installed and functioning
effectively
Drain inlets should be durable and
appropriate for the climate zone
(Harris & Dines, 1998)
Test to ensure that during and after
installation the drainage systems
effectively convey water to the
storm water drainage system at
ground level (CUGE, 2013)
Installation methods vary across
different types of VGS. Take into
consideration areas with strong
winds due to the location of the
building itself or the placement of
VGSs at higher altitudes (E11)
The installation of the VGS should be
performed by registered and
specially trained workers to ensure
quality workmanship (E06). Ensure
the correct plant spacing for the
desired plant coverage
Ensure quality control during the
installation of green wall
components, fixtures and fittings
Maintenance
Monitor conditions regularly to head
off problems of insect attack,
irrigation, disease or soil problems
(Harris & Dines, 1998)
Conduct annual or semi-annual
inspections to control or prevent
bird interaction with the VGS for
plant survival. Routinely monitor
plant growth for plants’ health
status
Follow and maintain a three-month
pre-planting period for plant
replacement so that plants will not
die from shock (E11)
Avoid overwatering (Riley, 2017). The
presence of excess water should
serve as a signal that too much
water is delivered or that the
frequency of irrigation should be
lessened (E06). Irrigation systems
require regular maintenance (BS
7370-5:1998). There has to be a
good maintenance schedule with
irrigation in terms of water and/or
fertigation (E11)
Drainage systems require regular
maintenance. Drainage fixtures
should be checked visually
regularly and thoroughly cleaned
annually (BS 7370-5:1998)
Ensure good housekeeping practices
and control root growth to prevent
damage of the waterproofing
membrane
Inspect systems, especially modular
systems, for water ponding due to
clogged drainage holes which
allow mosquito breeding (E09)
Conduct periodic inspections to
ensure elements are properly in
place as plants mature and
maintain the image of the VGS
(E11)
Perform regular maintenance
regimes (pruning) and ensure
proper soil and irrigation
considerations to maintain the
growth of plants and prevent
unlikely planter bursting/damage
due to overwatering and root
growth
(Continued )
 BUILDING RESEARCH & INFORMATION 465

Table 4. Continued.
Problem
Biological growth and animal control
issues
Algae growth on the wall finish
Root penetration through the wall
Notes: aThese codes of practice for the painting of buildings also refer to standards that can be applicable in ensuring safety during the installation of high-rise
vertical greenery systems (VGSs). BMU = building maintenance unit; MEWP = mobile elevating work platforms; SCDF = Singapore Civil Defence Force.
Design
Planters or modules should be
designed to be sufficiently deep to
contain the spread of the roots
(E11, E12)
A considerable buffer should be
placed between the VGS and
facade windows to prevent
staining of the latter as a result of
the use of aerosol-based
insecticide (E12). Keep the plants
away from the building’s walls by
having a gap between the wall
and the VGS (E11)
Choose plants that do not trap water
and harbour pests and disease
pathogens (Building and
Construction Authority, 2016)
Construction
Roots should be contained within
planters/pockets to prevent
encroachment onto the building’s
facade walls (E11)
During and after installation, prevent
any biological growth (e.g. mosses,
lichens, algae) as much as possible.
When necessary and not on a
regular basis, treat such growth
with anti-algae/anti-fungus
solutions (CUGE, 2012). Fertilizers
and insecticides should be
approved by the Agra-Food &
Veterinary Authority of Singapore
(E01)
Maintenance
The scope of works by maintenance
contractors should include looking
out for mosquito breeding sites
(e.g. instances of water ponding)
near the VGS (E08, E09)
Remove mould, lichen and other
growths with a stiff brush (BRE,
1992)
Inspect plants periodically for both
pest and disease infections. Do not
use pesticides and fungicides to
prevent them from contaminating
run-offs and eventually the
groundwater (CUGE, 2012).
Conduct periodic inspections to
ensure that root growth is
controlled to avoid penetration in
walls and that branches have not
thickened to avoid bird nesting
(E11)

by a set of defect photographs taken from case studies
(Table 4). The corresponding VGS issues and defects
are presented on the other three columns, highlighting
the corresponding design, construction and maintenance
measures to ensure better performance of VGSs. The
proper design and construction detailing will aid in
minimizing the existence of defects and delay the prema-
ture deterioration of VGSs. Ensuring the suitability of
plants and the quality VGS materials and components
will eventually lead to a lesser frequency of maintenance
interventions whilst reducing costs. The considerations
for maintenance, specifically the provision of mainten-
ance access, will enable the required inspection, cleaning,
repairing and maintenance works. Safe access provisions
for maintenance personnel will also help eliminate prob-
able risks. Since there are some issues that were not dealt
with in any existing VGS guidelines, only the most rel-
evant and essential guidelines that address the identified
critical VGS defects found in the case studies were pre-
sented in the DfM guidelines; and where some of the
derived guidelines are based from the experts’ own
experiences.
Conclusions
This research study provides decisive experiences on
maintenance aspects and the derived design, safety and
material aspects to enhance the quality of VGSs to ensure
their sustainability and long-term functioning. The
research is timely since there is a growing trend in
designing green infrastructure and planning for its
long-term performance. The findings refer to a Singa-
porean setting and, therefore, may not be applicable to
countries outside tropical regions.
The research findings have shown that although the pro-
blems encountered are often classified as ‘technical’, many
are actually caused or exacerbated by professional boundary
and agency issues. Moreover, the insufficient information,
lack of foresight and LCC for long-term maintenance issues
(e.g. the replacement of dying plants, lack of drainage and
faulty VGS components) as well as lack of collaboration
among various stakeholders have resulted in numerous
VGS issues and defects which cost millions of S$ throughout
its life cycle. Thus, ensuring the maintainability of VGS from
the design stage will contribute to quality design and con-
struction as well as maintenance best practices.
Building design and construction processes need rig-
orous thought and planning to create VGSs. The
research findings represent valuable input for prac-
titioners, particularly for the inclusion of proactive main-
tenance considerations.
This research validated and established the critical
VGS issues encountered in 12 case studies and the
important design parameters as selected by experts,
which forms the basis for the proposed DfM guidelines.
The proposed DfM guidelines, which were derived from
best practices and lessons learnt, should not be taken as a
prescriptive approach but rather as a guide to balance
architectural creativity, biodiversity and maintainability
when designing high-rise VGS facades.
466 M. Y. CHEW ET AL.
This research will also provide significant
information for the scientific community, since
VGSs need further improvement and research-based
advancement.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
ORCID
Michael Y. L. Chew http://orcid.org/0000-0001-7936-5157
Sheila Conejos http://orcid.org/0000-0001-6430-7042
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