Chapter 2 - Reading and Evaluating Scientific Research

September 14, 2020 11:16 AM

2.1 Principles of Scientific Research

- Objectivity assumes that certain facts (of the world) can be observed and tested independently by whom
describes them (e.g. scientist); everyone should agree on these facts given the same tools, methods and context
- Subjective means that the knowledge of the event is shaped by prior beliefs, expectations, and experiences
- The five characteristics of quality scientific research are:
1. It's based on measurements that are objective, valid, and reliable
2. It can be generalized
3. Uses techniques that reduce bias
4. It is made public
5. It can be replicated
- Objective measurements: the measure of an entity that is consistent across instruments and observers and is within
a margin of error
- Variable: the object, concept, or event being controlled, manipulated, or measured by a scientist.
o Any method used to measure a variable needs to include operational definitions
- Operational definitions are statements that describe procedures (operations) and specific measures to
record observations

- Validity refers the degree of which an instrument or procedure actually measures what it claims to measure
- Reliability is when a measure is consistent and stable answers across multiple observations and points in time
o Test-test reliability examines whether scores on a given measure behaviour are consistent across test sessions
o Alternate-/orms reliability examines if different forms of the same test produce the same results
o 3rd type of reliability is when observers score or rate a behaviour or response (e.g. count # of touches
that happened during nonverbal behaviour experiment)
■ More than one person has to do the rating so it allows you to have inter-rater reliability
■ Inter-rater reliability: see if the raters arrived at the similar conclusions (so you know the responses
are accurately measured)
- Generalizability refers to the degree of a set of results can be applied to other situations, events, or individuals
o E.g. if 100 people took a memory improvement course and they all had good outcomes, if u take it u
will probably benefit it as well
- Population is a group that researchers want to generalize about
- Sample is a select group of population members
o Results of a sample may be generalized to the entire population
- Random sample a sampling technique where each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected
in the sample
- Convenience sample are samples of individuals who are the most readily available
- Ecological validity meaning that the results of a laboratory study can be applied to or repeated in the
natural environment
o E.g. computer-based studies testing your ability to pay attention to different stimuli on the screen can
assess common abilities that are found in very common situations like driving or finding a friend in a
crowded class
- Good to have generalizability and ecological validity but shouldn't over-generalize
o E.g. results of convenience sample from Uni students might not apply to a sample of elderly people
- Researcher bias is bias introduced by researchers
- Participant/subject bias participants, including animals, introduce their own bias
■ E.g. Participant trying to figure out what the experimenters are testing or trying to predict the
responses that researchers are hoping to find
- Bias can also be introduced by the act of observation itself
o Hawthorne effect is a behaviour change that occurs as a result of being observed
- Social desirability (or social desirable responding) happens when a participant respond in ways that increases
the chance that they will be viewed favourably from researchers/participants
- Psychologist need to limit the effect they have on the results of their own study so that the results are due to
the variables are being studied
- Participant anxiety towards the experiment can also change how they respond to questions (which is no good)
 - A way to reduce subject bias is to provide anonymity and confidentiality
o Anonymity is where participants response are recorded without any name or personal info attached to them
o Con/identiality is where the results are only seen by the researcher
o Ensuring anonymity and confidentiality, the participant will be more honest with their answers
- Single-blind study is where the participants don't know the true purpose of the study, or do not know
which treatment they are receiving (e.g. placebo or a drug)
o Researchers can still introduce bias (e.g. Treating the participant who took placebo differently from
the participant who didn't); these biases can be eliminated through double-blind study
- Double-blind study is where the participants AND the researchers don't know the exact treatment for the individual
- Before research findings are published they must go through peer-review
o First the editor who receives the manuscript must determine if its appropriate for the journal
o Second the editor send it out to other peer-reviewers (in the same field) who that critique the research
and make recommendations
- Research should be able to be replicated
- Replication is the process of repeating a study and finding a similar outcome each time
o Lots of publication bias -> publishing studies that have successful/novel outcomes and not publishing
studies that do not have any effects; this is why we need replication to see if these studies are a fluke or
not
- There are 5 characteristics of poor research:
1. It produces untestable hypothesis
2. It relies on anecdotes and personal experiences
3. It includes a biased selection of data
4. It makes appeals to authority rather than facts
5. It makes appeals to common sense
- Hypothesis must be falsifiable in order to be testable
o Falsifiable means that the hypothesis is precise enough that it could be proven false
■ E.g. Chimpanzee do not have the ability to recognize themselves in the mirror is a falsifiable hypothesis
There are intelligent and human-like species on other planets is not falsifiable hypothesis since we
could never thoroughly search every planet until we find a species
- Anecdotal evidence is an individual's story or testimony about an observation or event that is used to make a claim
as evidence
o If they aren't backed up with peer reviewed scientific study, we should view these anecdotal claims with caution
- Even if a scientific claim is backed up with published data, they're might be data selection bias
o E.g. Politicians only presenting data that support their views
- Appeals to authority is the belief in an "expert's" claim even when no supporting data or scientific data is present
o Expertise is not an evidence, more of an opinion
- Appeal to common sense is a claim that appears to be sound, but lacking scientific evidence
o E.g. Many years ago people thought that the earth is the stationary center of the universe

2.2 Scientific Research Design

- Research design is a set of methods that allow a hypothesis to be tested

o All designs have variables, operational definitions, and data
o Research design influences how investigators:
1. Organize stimuli used to test hypothesis
2. Make observations and measurements
3. Evaluate results
- Qualitative research involves examining an issue/behaviour without taking numerical measurements of variables
- Quantitative research involves examining an issue/behaviour by using numerical measurements and/or statistics
- Case study is a in-depth report regarding details of a specific case
o Psychologists describe an individual behaviour and history in great detail (there's no hypothesis or anything
like that)
- Naturalistic observation is when you unobtrusively observe and record behaviour as it record's in a subject enviro
o Has to be unobtrusive; subject shouldn't know that they are being observed or they may change their behaviour
o Scientist make systematic observations of specific variables according to operational def, so results are objective
- Self-reporting is a method where responses are directly provided by people being studied (by
interviews, questionnaire, etc.)
o Allows researchers to asses attitudes, opinions, and beliefs
o Careful of not making biased questions and important to develop questions that touch on issue without
being off-putting (can't just say how depressed are you)
o Clinical questions are valid if results are similar to participant diagnosis, for other they calculate the norm, or
avg patterns of data (large of amount of pretesting needed in order to calculate norms)
- Correlational research is measuring the degree of association between 2 or more variables
o E.g. What's the avg income of people above 30? What's the avg education level of people above 30?
■ These are 2 different questions but may be related to one another
o Correlations presented in a scatterplot

Positive correlation is when both variables change values in same direction (if one increases,
other increases, if one decreases, the other decreases)

Negative correlation is when one value of a variable decreases the other increases
 Positive correlation is when both variables change values in same direction (if one increases,
other increases, if one decreases, the other decreases)

Negative correlation is when one value of a variable decreases the other increases

Zero correlation is when there is no relationship between both variables

Magnitude refers to how closely the changes in one variable are linked to changes in another
variable (e.g. if variable A goes up one unit, will variable B go up one unit?), this is often a
o mathematical measure called correlation coefficient

Correlation coefficient: +1.0 is the most positive correlation possible, -1.0 is the most negative
correlation possible and 0 is no correlation.

Correlation DOES NOT equal causation , correlation only gives an impression that one variable
causes the other

- Third variable problem is the possibility that a third, unmeasured variable is actually responsible for a well-
established correlation between two variables
- 2 key differences between correlational research and experiments
1. Random assignment of participants
2. Researcher's experimental control over the variables being studied
- Random assignment a technique for dividing samples into 2 or more groups in which participants are equally likely
to be placed in any condition of the experiment
- Confounded variable is a variable outside of the researcher's control that might affect or provide an
alternative explanation for the results
- Independent variable is the variable that the experimenter manipulates to distinguish between 2+ groups
o This variable cannot be altered by participants, as it is controlled by the researcher
- Dependent variable is the observation/measurement recorded during the experiment and compared across all groups
o The levels of the variable is dependent upon the participant responses/performance
o E.g. The type of images viewed is the independent variable and participant's stress response is the
dependent variable
- Between-subjects design is an experimental design in which we compare the performance of participants who are
in different groups
- Experimental group is the group in the experiment that receives a treatment or the stimuli targeting a
specific behaviour
- Control group is the group that does not receive the treatment or stimuli targeting a specific behaviour
o this group therefore serves as a baseline to which the experimental group is compared
- Quasi-experimental research is a research technique in which 2+ groups are compared are selected based
on predetermined characteristics, rather than random assignment
o Quasi-experiments are correlational, that can point out relationships among pre-existing groups but
cannot determine what it is about those groups that leads to the differences
- Using a particular research technique has its pros and cons, but using a variety of designs - a perspective known as
converging operations - we can be more confident of its accuracy

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2.3 Ethics in Psychological Research

- All institutions that engage in research in humans are required to have a research ethics board (REB)
- Research ethic board is a committee of research and officials at an institution charged with the protection of
human research participants
o REB protects the individuals by:
1. Weighing potential risks to participants and benefits to research
2. Requires participants to give consent that they will participate in the research
- Research about trauma
o A participant revisiting a stressful experience can be difficult, but researchers learn how coping through
expression can help emotional adjustment and physical health (participants who write about stress are tend
to be healthier physically and mentally, than those who do not)
- Reporting sensitive/private information
o Individuals that want to keep their information to themselves (e.g. Criminal records, if they are alcoholic,
etc.) don't really wanna disclose this info (cuz family, friends, co-workers can find out, or some other reason)
■ Psychologist can get this info more easily if shared anonymous and confidential way
- Participants must give informed consent before the study begins
- Informed consent: a potential participant must be informed (purpose, tasks, risks of study) and give consent
without pressure.
o In a minimum, they must be told:
■ Topic of study
■ Nature of any stimuli which they will be exposed
■ Tasks they will complete
■ Approximate duration of the study
■ Physical, psychological, and social risks involved (if there is any)
■ Steps that the researchers will take to minimize these risks
- There is sometimes an ethical conflict for research when you need "blinded" volunteers (volunteers who do not
know what exactly the study is about)
o This issue is resolved by using deception
- Deception is misleading or partially informing participants of the true topic or hypothesis under investigation
o Once experiment is over participants are informed of true nature of the study and why deception was necessary
- If any treatment found in the experimental group will be given to the control group so everyone can benefit
- These following elements are required if full consent is given to participants:
o Freedom to choose - participants should not be at risk of financial and physical harm, as well as damage
to reputation if they don't participate (so no blackmailing)
o Equal opportunities - volunteers should have choices if they choose not to participate in a study (non-
research alternatives)
o Right to withdraw - volunteers have the right to withdraw from the study at any time without any penalty
o Right to withhold responses - volunteers are allowed to skip any questions that they do not want to answer
- If researchers are studying children, people with mental disabilities, people with psychiatric disorders, etc... , need
to have a third party to give consent on their behalf
- Participants must go through full debriefing
- Debriefing: researchers should explain the full nature of the study and any reason for deception
- Anonymity - any data collected during the research should not be connected to any participants
- Confidentiality - any data connected with an individual cannot be shared AND records must be kept secure
- Study of psychology is not only study of human behaviour but it also involves the study of behaviour of animals
- Able to do things to animals that could never be allowed to humans, such as
o Lesioning (damaging) specific areas of the brain to examine behavioural impairments
o Selective breeding allows researchers to study highly similar groups of subjects (helps control
individual differences based on genetic factors)
- Animal-based experimentation has helped us understand many areas of behaviour (most benefitted from
brain- related disease)
- There are 3 main areas of ethical treatment emphasized by researchers and animal welfare committees
 1. Basic care of laboratory animals (feeding, housing, sanitation)
2. Minimization of pain/discomfort for the animals
3. If required discomfort, it must be justified by the potential benefits of research
- Data should be preserved for 3-5 years after the publication of scientific journal (other researchers may want
to access it)
o If data is anonymous, then confidentiality wont be broken (nothing linked to the individual)
- Scientific misconduct arise when individuals manipulate or fabricate data
o You should always be honest with your finding
o Fraudulent research can be decreased with researchers acknowledging any potential conflicts of interest,
such as personal financial gain from a company/institution
■ Most published articles have a footnote indicating which company/institution funded the study
□ So general population know that the research may be influenced by the company/institution