CONDUCTIVITY IN CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS

A crystalline solid is a type of solid whose fundamental three-dimensional

structure consists of a highly regular pattern of atoms or molecules, forming a
crystal lattice. The majority of solids are crystalline solids, and the different
arrangements of atoms and molecules within them can change their properties and
appearance.

Being composed of atoms rather than ions, they do not conduct electricity in
any state e.g. Diamond is a network solid and consists of carbon atoms covalently
bonded to one another in a repeating three-dimensional pattern. Ordinarily, a
crystal does not conduct electricity. But when the crystal strontium titanate is
heated under the right conductions, it is altered so light will make it conductive.
The phenomenon, called “persistent photoconductivity,” also occurs at room
temperature. The metallic crystalline solids have atoms held together by metallic
bonds. They are strong conductors of heat and electricity. Thus, the crystalline
solids which are good conductor of heat and electricity are: Ionic crystalline solids.
And are good conductors, Graphite is an exceptional example, composed of planar
sheets of covalent crystals that are held together in layers by monovalent forces.
Unlike typical covalent solids, graphite is very soft and electrically conductive.

 In a crystalline solid each atomic level 'splits' into n levels (n = number of

atoms in the system). When the number of atoms is large each level becomes
replaced by a band of closely spaced levels.

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In a semi-conductor we have an empty "conduction band" and a fully occupied
"valance band". Conductivity arises because electrons get excited to the conduction
band.

What Is a Solid?

A solid is a state of matter in which the substance keeps its shape and maintains a
consistent volume. This makes a solid distinct from liquids or gases; liquids
maintain a consistent volume but take the shape of their container, and gases take
the shape and volume of their container.

The atoms and molecules in a solid can either be arranged in a regular pattern,
making it a crystalline solid, or be arranged without a pattern, making it an
amorphous solid.

Crystalline Structure

Atoms or molecules in a crystal form a periodic, or repeating, pattern in all three

dimensions. This makes the internal structure of a crystal highly organized. The
crystal's constituent atoms or molecules are held together through bonds. The type
of bond holding them together, ionic, covalent, molecular or metallic, depends on
what the crystal is made of.

The smallest unit of the structural pattern is called a unit cell. A crystal is made up
of these identical unit cells repeated over and over in all three dimensions. This cell
is the most fundamental component of the crystal's structure, and determines some
of its properties. It also determines the pattern a scientist sees when they look at the
crystal using X-ray diffraction, which can help them identify the crystal's structure
and composition.

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The positions of the atoms or molecules that make up the unit cell are called lattice
points.

Crystallization and Phase Changes

When a liquid cools to its freezing point, it becomes a solid in a process called
precipitation. When a substance precipitates into a regular crystalline structure, it is
called crystallization.

Crystallization begins with a process called nucleation: Atoms or molecules cluster

together. When those clusters are stable enough and large enough, crystal growth
begins. Nucleation can sometimes be more easily jump-started by using seed
crystals (pre-made clumps) or a rough surface, which encourages the formation of
clusters.

A given atomic or molecular material may be able to form multiple crystal

structures. The structure that the material crystallizes into will depend on certain
parameters during the crystallization process, including temperature, pressure and
the presence of impurities.

Types of Crystalline Solids

There are four main types of crystalline solids: ionic, covalent network, metallic
and molecular. They are distinguished from each other based on what atoms or
molecules they are made of, and how those atoms or molecules are bonded to each
other.

The repeating pattern in the structure of ionic crystals is made up of alternating

positively-charged cations with negatively-charged anions. These ions can be
atoms or molecules. Ionic crystals are usually brittle, with high melting points.
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As solids, they do not conduct electricity, but they can conduct electricity as
liquids. They can be made up of either atoms or molecules, as long as they are
charged. A common example of an ionic solid would be sodium chloride (NaCl),
known as table salt.

Covalent network crystals, sometimes simply called network crystals, are held
together by covalent bonds between their constituent atoms. (Note that covalent
network crystals are atomic solids, meaning they cannot be made out of
molecules.) They are very hard solids, have high melting points and do not conduct
electricity well. Common examples of covalent network solids are diamond and
quartz.

Metallic crystals are also atomic solids, made of metal atoms held together by
metallic bonds. These metallic bonds are what give metals their malleability and
ductility, as they allow the metal atoms to roll and slide past each other without
breaking the material. The metallic bonds also allow valence electrons to move
freely throughout the metal in an "electron sea," which makes them great
conductors of electricity. Their hardness and melting points vary widely.

Molecular crystals are made up of bonded molecules, unlike metallic and network
crystals, which are made up of bonded atoms. Molecular bonds are relatively weak
compared to atomic bonds and can be caused by a variety of intermolecular forces
including dispersion forces and dipole-dipole forces.

Weak hydrogen bonds hold some molecular crystals, such as ice, together. Because
molecular crystals are held together by such weak bonds, their melting points tend
to be much lower, they are worse conductors of heat and electricity, and they are
softer. Common examples of molecular crystals include ice, dry ice and caffeine.

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The solids formed by the noble gases are also considered molecular crystals
despite being made of singular atoms; the noble gas atoms are bonded by similar
forces as the ones weakly binding molecules together in a molecular crystal, which
gives them very similar properties.

A polycrystal is a solid that is composed of multiple types of crystal structures, that

are themselves combined in a non-periodic pattern. Water ice is an example of a
polycrystal, as are most metals, many ceramics and rocks. The larger unit
consisting of a singular pattern is called a grain, and a grain may contain many unit
cells.

Conductivity in Crystalline Solids

An electron in a crystalline solid is limited in how much energy it can have. The
possible values of energy it can have make up a pseudo-continuous "band" of
energy, called an energy band. An electron can take any value of energy within
the band, as long as the band is unfilled (there is a limit to how many electrons a
given band can contain).

These bands, while considered continuous, are technically discrete; they just
contain too many energy levels that are too close together to resolve separately.

The most important bands are called the conduction band and valence band: The
valence band is the range of highest energy levels of the material in which
electrons are present at absolute zero temperature, while the conduction band is the
lowest range of levels that contain unfilled states.

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In semiconductors and insulators these bands are separated by an energy gap,
called the band gap. In semimetals, they overlap. In metals, there is essentially no
distinction between them.

When an electron is in the conduction band, it has enough energy to move about
the material freely. This is how these materials conduct electricity: through the
movement of electrons in their conduction bands. Since the valence band and
conduction band have no gap between them in metals, it's easy for metals to
conduct electricity. Materials with a larger band gap tend to be insulators; it's
difficult to get an electron enough energy to jump the gap and go into the
conduction band.

Amorphous Solids

Another type of solid is an amorphous solid, which does not have a periodic
pattern. The atoms and molecules within amorphous solids are largely
disorganized. Because of this, they share many similarities to liquids, and in fact
have no set melting point.

Instead, because the distances between neighboring atoms or molecules in the

structure vary, thermal energy passes through the material unevenly. The material
melts slowly over a large range of temperatures.

Examples of amorphous solids include rubber, glass and plastic. Obsidian and
cotton candy are also examples of amorphous solids.

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