AS 7515:2014

Axles

Rolling Stock Standard

 AS 7515:2014 Axles

This Australian Railway Standard AS 7515 Axles was prepared by the RISSB Development Group. It was signed off
by the Development Group and the Rolling Stock Standing Committee in October, 2014 and subsequently by the
Development Advisory Board (DAB) in October, 2014. The DAB confirmed that the process used to develop the
standard was in accordance with the RISSB accredited development process. On November 10, 2014 the RISSB
Board approved the Standard for release.

Kevin Taylor
Chief Executive Officer
Rail Industry Safety and Standards Board

The following organisations were represented on the RISSB Development Group:

UGL Limited Gemco Rail Marais Consulting Engineers
Hardchrome Engineering Transport for NSW Downer
Bradken Public Transport Authority of Western Australia Bombardier Transportation
This standard was issued on two occasions for open review and was independently validated before being signed off
and the approvals granted.

RISSB wish to acknowledge the participation of the expert individuals that contributed to the development of this
Standard through their representation on the committees and through the open review periods.

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inaccuracies or ambiguities. Contact us via email at rissb@rissb.com.au or write to Rail Industry Safety and
Standards Board, PO Box 4608, Kingston, ACT 2604.

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 AS 7515:2014 Axles

AS 7515:2014
Axles
First published as AS 7515.1:2007, AS 7515.2:2007, AS 7515.3: 2007 and AS 7515.4:2007.

Copyright
©RISSB
All rights are reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or copied in any form or by any means, electronic or
mechanical, including photocopying, without the written permission of RISSB, unless otherwise permitted under the
Copyright Act 1968.
Published by Rail Industry Safety and Standards Board (RISSB) ABN: 58 105 001 465
P O Box 4608, Kingston, ACT, Australia 2604.
ISBN 978-1-76035-028-4

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 AS 7515:2014 Axles

Notice to Users
This RISSB product has been developed using input from rail experts from across the Rail
Industry and represents good practice for the industry. The reliance upon or manner of use of
this RISSB product is the sole responsibility of the user who is to assess whether it meets their
organisation’s operational environment and risk profile.

Document Control

Identification
Document Title Date

AS 7515:2014 Axles 10 November 2014

Document History
Publication Published Date Page(s) Reason for and Extent of
Version Affected Change(s)

2014 10/11/2014 All Review & four documents

consolidated into one.

2007 14/12/2007 All First published

Approval
Name Date

Development Advisory Board (DAB) 30/10/2014

Rail Industry Safety and Standards Board (RISSB) 10/11/2014

Standard Change Procedures

RISSB maintains the master for this document and publishes the current version on the RISSB
website.
Any changes to the content of this publication require the version number to be updated.
Changes to this publication must be approved according to the procedure for developing
management system documents.
RISSB will identify and communicate changes to this publication.

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Contents
1 Introduction................................................................................................................... 5
1.1 Purpose .......................................................................................................... 5
1.2 Scope ............................................................................................................. 5
1.3 Compliance ..................................................................................................... 5
1.4 Referenced documents ................................................................................... 6
1.5 Definitions ....................................................................................................... 7
2 Design standard ........................................................................................................... 8
3 Manufacturing process ................................................................................................. 9
4 Material ........................................................................................................................ 9
5 Identification and records............................................................................................ 10
5.1 New axles ..................................................................................................... 10
5.2 Existing axles ................................................................................................ 11
6 Protection of axles ...................................................................................................... 11
7 Inspection ................................................................................................................... 11
8 In-service defects ....................................................................................................... 12
9 Action following derailments ....................................................................................... 12
10 Repair......................................................................................................................... 13
11 Remanufacture ........................................................................................................... 13
12 Service life of existing axles ........................................................................................ 13

Appendix Contents
Appendix A Hazard register ............................................................................................. 14

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1 Introduction

1.1 Purpose
This document describes requirements for rolling stock axles.
The main purpose of the requirements is to reduce the risk of derailment arising from axle
failure.

1.2 Scope
Sections 2, 3 and 4 of this document apply to new rolling stock axles, all other sections apply to
new and existing rolling stock axles.
New axles are considered to be new axle designs, and axles modified to be used in new
applications.
The document covers the design, manufacture and maintenance of rolling stock axles.
Operation of rolling stock is not covered. 1
Rolling stock axles used on light rail, cane railway and monorail networks are not covered. 2
This standard applies to axles designed for operating speeds up to and including 200 km/hr.

1.3 Compliance
There are two types of control contained within RISSB Standards:
(a) mandatory requirements
(b) recommended requirements
Each of these types of control address hazards that are deemed to require controls on the basis
of existing Australian and international Codes of Practice and Standards.
A mandatory requirement is a requirement that the standard provides as the only way of
treating the hazard.
Mandatory requirements are identified within the text by the term shall.
A recommended requirement is one where the standard recognises that there are limitations to
the universal application of the requirement and that there may be circumstances where the
control cannot be applied or that other controls may be appropriate or satisfactory, subject to
agreement with the Rolling Stock Operator, Rail Infrastructure Manager and/or Rail Safety
Regulator.
Recommended requirements are to be considered when compliance with the standards is being
assessed.
Recommended requirements are identified within the text by the term should.
Hazards addressed by this standard are included in an appendix. Refer to the RISSB website
for the latest Hazard Register Guideline: www.rissb.com.au

1
Operation of rolling stock is covered in the Operations section of the Code.
2
Currently excluded.

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1.4 Referenced documents

The following documents are referred to in this Standard:
(a) AS 1171 Non-destructive testing - Magnetic Particle testing of ferromagnetic
products, components and structures
(b) AS 1403 Design of rotating steel shafts
(c) AS 1442 Carbon steels and carbon-manganese steels - Hot-rolled bars and
semi-finished products
(d) AS 1444 Wrought alloy steels - Standard and hardenability (H) series
(e) AS 1448 Carbon steels and carbon-manganese steels - Forgings (ruling
section 300 mm maximum)
(f) AS 4292 Railway safety management
(g) AS 7501 Railway rolling stock - Rolling stock compliance certification
(h) AS 7517.1 Railway rolling stock - Wheelsets - Part 1: Locomotive rolling stock
(i) AS7659 - Type Approval
(j) AAR Manual of Standards & Recommended Practices – Sections G and G-II
(k) EN 13103 Railway applications. Wheelsets and bogies. Non-powered axles.
Design method
(l) EN 13104 Railway applications. Wheelsets and bogies. Powered axles.
Design method
(m) EN 13261 Railway applications. Wheelsets and bogies. Axles. Product
requirements
(n) JIS E4501 Railway rolling stock – Design method for strength of axles
(o) JIS E4502-1 Axles for railway rolling stock – Quality requirements
(p) JIS E4502-2 Axles for railway rolling stock – Dimensional requirements
(q) ISO 1005/3 Railway rolling stock material - Part 3: Axles for tractive and
trailing stock - Quality requirements
(r) ISO 1005/9 Railway rolling stock material - Part 9: Axles for tractive and
trailing stock - Dimensional requirements
(s) US Code of Federal Regulations 49 CFR 215.105
(t) Journal of Rail and Rapid Transit, Vol.218 No.F4, December 2004
(u) K. Hirakawa et al “The analysis and prevention of failure in railway axles”,
pages 135-144, Int. J. Fatigue, Vol.20 No.2, 1998
(v) R. Byrne "Railroad axle design factors", pages 33-42, Transactions of the
ASME, February 1968
The most current version of referenced documents and their amendments are applicable as
they become available.

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 AS 7515:2014 Axles

1.5 Definitions
AAR: Association of American Railroads. 3
Cane Railway Network: A railway system dedicated to hauling harvested sugar cane from
farms to a raw sugar factory. Typically 610mm gauge.
Conventional wheelset: A wheelset having two wheels interference fitted to the axle and two
outboard bearings.
Fatigue Limit: The maximum stress below which a cyclically applied load will not result in
fatigue failure. Also known as the endurance limit.
Freight Vehicle: Hauled vehicles designed and used for carrying payloads which do not include
people.
Gross mass: Nominal total mass of rolling stock including maximum
payload, provisioning, maximum service capacity of crew and passengers.
Generic Shaft Design Method: A non-rolling stock specific design method for rotating shafts
e.g.. AS 1403. The design methods given in 2.2 are all specifically for rolling stock axles.
Infinite life: No fatigue or fretting failure is permissible for the design at expected operating
conditions. A component designed for infinite life will have a maximum design stress below the
material's fatigue limit. 4
Infrastructure Maintenance Rolling Stock: Track Machines and Road-Rail Vehicles. Also
known as On Track Vehicles.
Interference fit: A method of mechanical fastening induced by friction as a result of the
compressive forces generated between mating components of dissimilar diameters.
Light Rail Network: A passenger-carrying railway system operating with trams or other similar
shorter length, lower speed and lower axle-load self-propelled vehicles. Typically used in urban
areas and often having a shared right-of-way with road traffic.
Locomotive Rolling Stock: Self-propelled, non-passenger-carrying railway vehicles used for
hauling other (typically freight or passenger) rolling stock.
Monorail Network: A passenger-carrying system in which vehicles travel over a single broad
beam (rather than two narrow rails connected by sleepers as with conventional railway rolling
stock).
Passenger Rolling Stock: Rolling stock carrying people and facilities for these people.
Excludes locomotive and infrastructure maintenance rolling stock.
Rolling Stock Operator: The person or body responsible by reason of ownership, control or
management, for the provision, maintenance or operation of trains, or a combination of these, or
a person or body acting on its behalf.
Regulator: A government body responsible for ensuring compliance with particular laws, acts,
regulations etc., e.g.. rail safety regulator.
Shall: The word "shall" indicates that a statement is mandatory for the applicable vehicles.
Should: The word "should" indicates that a statement is a recommendation for the applicable
vehicles.

3
http://www.aar.org/
4
K. Hirakawa et al “The analysis and prevention of failure in railway axles”, pages 135-144, Int. J. Fatigue, Vol.20 No.2, 1998
indicates that testing to greater than 100 million cycles is necessary for determining fretting fatigue strength.

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Rail Infrastructure Manager: The person or body responsible by reason of ownership, control
or management, for the construction and maintenance of track, civil and electric traction
infrastructure, or the construction, operation or maintenance of train control and communication
systems, or a combination of these; or a person or body acting on its behalf.
Wheelset: An assembly consisting of axle, wheels, bearings,
and where applicable associated components such as brake discs, traction gears, traction
motor support bearings, gearbox etc.

2 Design standard
Axles shall be designed for infinite life. 5
Suitable design methods for conventional wheelsets include the following:
(a) EN 13103 6
(b) EN 13104 7
(c) JIS E 4501 8
(d) AAR Modified Reuleaux method. 9
Axle design analysis should allow for the following:
(a) Dynamic vertical and lateral loads, 10
(b) Braking and traction loads. 11
(c) Stress concentration due to axle geometry,
(d) Stress concentration due to interference fitted components,
(e) Material properties,
(f) Size effects on material properties, 12
(g) Surface finish, including in-service damage and corrosion effects, 13
(h) Specifications for axle manufacture surface finish limits can be found in AAR
RP-633, ISO 1005/9, EN 13261 and JIS E 4502-2.
When using a generic shaft design method, in the absence of more appropriate design criteria,
an axle shall be designed for the loading condition of the wheelset vertical load equal to 1.26 W
combined with a horizontal force acting at the vehicle centre of gravity equal to (W.m)/(2.h),
where W is the wheelset static vertical load at gross mass, m is the distance between the two
wheel-rail contact points and h is the vehicle centre of gravity height above rail. 14

5
This requirement effectively mandates the use of a material with a fatigue limit i.e. ferrous materials.
6
European standard for non-powered axle design.
7
European standard for powered axle design.
8
Japanese standard for rolling stock axle design.
9
Refer to paper by R. Byrne "Railroad axle design factors", pages 33-42, Transactions of the ASME, February 1968.
10
The methods given in 2.2 are based on the Reuleaux method but have differing applied loads.
11
Refer to EN 13103 and EN 13104.
12
Refer to Figure 1 of AS 1403 (for example) for size factor applied to the calculated stress, where the fatigue limit is based on small
diameter test specimens.
13
The EN standards assume the axles are protected against corrosion throughout their life, whereas the British Rail T72 & BASS
standards used a surface finish/corrosion factor of 0.67 applied to the fatigue limit - refer paper by J. R. Snell "Key issues in the
application of unified railway axle standards", pages 279 to 282, Journal of Rail and Rapid Transit, Vol.218 No.F4, December 2004.
14
Effectively the basic Reuleaux method where the horizontal load is that sufficient to just unload one wheel - refer paper by R.
Byrne.

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Recommended geometric features for new axle designs are listed below:-
(a) Raised seats should be provided for mounting of interference fitted
components (e.g.. wheels, gears, brake discs, traction motor support
bearings).
(b) The raised seats, in new condition, should be of a diameter not less than 1.15
times the diameter of the adjacent axle body.
(c) The raised seats should have generous compound transition curves of a
minimum 15 mm radius into a 75 mm radius. 15
(d) A 3° taper 5 mm long should be provided on the outer side of raised seats. 16
(e) Adjacent seats should be separated by a 16 mm minimum radius stress
relieving groove, the minimum depth of which is slightly greater than the seat
wear limits.
(f) The flange side of wheel hubs and the hubs of gears and axle mounted brake
discs should overhang the ends of the raised seats on the axle with an overlap
of between 2 and 7 mm. 17
(g) Axle journal sizing should be in accordance with the bearing supplier
specifications.

3 Manufacturing process
The axle manufacturing process shall produce axles having:
(a) The material properties as required by Section 4
(b) The dimensions as required by the axle design
(c) The surface finish and corrosion protection as required by the axle design
(d) The internal and surface defects within the limits as prescribed by AAR
Specification M-101, or EN 13261, or other equivalent standard.
Specifications for axle manufacture geometrical and dimensional tolerance limits can be found
in AAR RP-633, ISO 1005/9, EN 13261 and JIS E 4502-2.

4 Material
Axles shall be produced from one of the following grades of steel.
Australian Standard grades of steel suitable for axles are:
(a) AS 1448/K5 (fine grain size) 18
(b) AS 1442/5FG 19
(c) AS 1444/4340 FG 20
AS 1444/4340 will exhibit the following properties:

15
Refer to Figure 8 in EN 13103 or Figure 9 in EN 13104.
16
To assist the mounting of the wheels, gears and brake discs.
17
To prevent cracking due to fretting. Refer to Figure 7 in EN 13103 or Figure 8 in EN 13104.
18
Forged axle bars
19
Rolled axle bars
20
Low alloy quenched and tempered axle steel

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 AS 7515:2014 Axles

(a) Min. Yield Strength 770 MPa

(b) Min. Tensile Strength 980 MPa
(c) Min. Elongation 14%
(d) Min. Reduction in Area 40%
(e) Izod Impact Value (20ºC) 40 J
Overseas grades of steel suitable for axles are prescribed in AAR Specification M-101, ISO
1005/3, EN 13261 and JIS E 4502-1.

5 Identification and records

5.1 New axles

Operators shall ensure that each of their Locomotive, Freight, Passenger and infrastructure
maintenance rolling stock axles has a unique identification. 21
After machining of the ends, axles should be distinctly branded at one end with the
manufacturer’s name or initials and the heat number.
A unique serial number should be stamped at both ends of the axle.
The marking arrangements shown in Figure 1 is a suitable examples for both solid and hollow
axles.

Figure 1 - Axle markings

The height of all lettering is to be between 5 mm and 8 mm

The Operator should keep records of chemical and physical test results for each batch of steel
used in axle manufacture. 22

21
Unique identification within an organisation.
22
There may be more than one batch from each heat of steel.

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The axle steel batch records should be retained until axle disposal.
The axle steel batch test results should be traceable to the serial numbers marked on the axles.

5.2 Existing axles

Operators shall ensure that each of their Locomotive, Freight and Passenger rolling stock axles
has a unique identification. 23
All existing axles should be clearly branded on the axle ends with the following information:
(a) Unique serial number
(b) Manufacturer’s name or initials (if known)
(c) Heat number (if known)

6 Protection of axles
Axles shall be protected during handling, transportation, maintenance and storage to prevent
damage prior to installation in a vehicle.
Protection of axles is typically provided by:
(a) Preventing hard objects or surfaces coming into contact with the axle
(b) Preventing corrosion on exposed machined seat surfaces

7 Inspection
Magnetic particle inspection of axle wheel seats and bearing journals, including transition radii,
shall be performed whenever the wheels are removed from the axle.
In the case of an infrastructure vehicle having a bolted on wheel, perform a magnetic particle
inspection when the wheel assembly is removed from the axle.
Magnetic particle inspections are to be performed to a relevant standard such as AS1171-1998
or an equivalent international standard.
More frequent visual and ultrasonic inspection shall be carried out if required by a risk
assessment
Elements to be considered in the axle risk assessment include:
(a) Previous failures
(b) Service conditions
(c) High failure consequences
(d) Axle designer recommendations
Exposed areas of axle barrels shall be visually inspected for signs of damage as part of vehicle
inspection. 24
Whenever bearings are removed from axles, the axle journals shall be checked as follows:
(a) Journal fillets shall be visually inspected for corrosion, dents and cracking.

23
Unique identification within an organisation.
24
TSA NO40

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(b) Journal fillets shall be checked to ensure proper seating of bearing backing
rings.
(c) The diameter and roundness of the journals shall be checked to ensure that
the required fit to the bearings is maintained.
(d) Axle ends shall be checked to ensure no swelling has occurred.
The staff carrying out ultrasonic or magnetic particle inspection shall be trained to be competent
in identifying the formation of fatigue cracks in the axles.
Evidence that axles are inspected on a systematic basis and that records are kept for each axle
shall be maintained.
Axles should be visually inspected following incidents that could cause damage to the axles,
such as draw gear failures or collisions with objects on the track.

8 In-service defects
Axle defects include scoring, grooves, scratches, flame cutting marks, welding, grinding, chisel
marks or similar indentations.
Operators shall develop and comply with criteria that define when a vehicle has to be removed
from service due to axle defects.
In the absence of specific axle defect criteria the following axle defects shall require the vehicle
to be removed from service:
(a) Any vehicle with an isolated axle defect such as nicks, gouges and deep
scratches deeper than the axle design defect criteria.
(b) For AAR-based axle designs the depth limit for isolated axle defects is 3
mm. 25
(c) Any vehicle with visible cracks in an axle.
(d) Any vehicle with an axle which is bent, damaged due to overheating or
bearing failure, or otherwise distorted.
(e) Any defects with sharp edges or points 26
(f) Sharp edges and points can be defined as any imperfections with no radius
visible on either side of or at the base of the imperfection, or an imperfection
with a pronounced raised surface, such as a lip, adjacent to the defect. 27
(g) Any vehicle with a visible circumferential groove

9 Action following derailments

Operators shall develop and comply with criteria that define when an axle should be checked
following a derailment.
In the absence of specific criteria, axles which have been involved in a derailment where a
wheelset is derailed for more than 60 metres, or at greater than 15 km/h, or other abnormal
conditions, shall be checked.

25
1/8" - refer to AAR Standard S-659 Rule 1.1.11 and US Federal Regulation 49 CFR 215.105.
26
TSA NO40. These points and edges can result in fatigue cracks initiating
27
ESR-0331 clause 6.2.2.2

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Refer to AS 7517 for methods and tolerance requirements for post derailment axle
bending/distortion checks.
Post-derailment axle checks shall involve a detailed inspection for surface damage and
cracking.

10 Repair
Operators shall develop and comply with criteria that define when an axle should be
condemned.
No axles shall be permitted to enter service if the axle size falls below the condemning diameter
specified for that part of the axle.
Under no circumstances shall a welding process that has not been type approved by the asset
operator under the relevant type approval standard be used on any part of any axle.
For type approval standard refer to AS7659.
All nicks, scratches or stampings on the axle due to in-service damage, which are less than the
defect limit criteria developed in 8.2, shall be machined or ground to a smooth contour.

11 Remanufacture
Reclamation or modification of AAR-based axles shall be in accordance with AAR Specification
S-659 Rules 1.1, 1.2 and Recommended Practice RP-631 Section 2.1.

12 Service life of existing axles

Operators shall develop and implement auditable assessments regarding whether existing axles
are safe to remain in service.
The use of an existing axle shall be based on an assessment of the risk of failure for that axle.
Elements that are to be considered in the axle risk assessment include:
(a) available manufacturing information,
(b) proposed service duty,
(c) service history of the particular axle,
(d) non-destructive testing information, and
(e) history of axle failure with this or similar axle designs.

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Appendix A Hazard register

Hazard
reference Applicable
number Hazard description section
5.5.1.62 Unable to trace component properties 5, 7

5.26.1.6 Gross overloading e.g.. derailment causing a bent axle (Axle failure) 2, 9

Fretting at wheels, brake discs or gear seats causing a cracked axle (Axle
5.26.1.14 failure) 2

Axle shape creating high stress concentration causing a cracked axle( Axle
5.26.1.15 failure) 2

5.26.1.16 Axle material has low fracture toughness causing a cracked axle (Axle failure) 2, 3, 4, 5

5.26.1.19 Excessive cycles causing a cracked axle (Axle failure) 2, 7, 12

5.26.1.20 Defects in axle material causing a cracked axle (Axle failure) 2, 3, 5, 7, 8

2, 3, 6, 7, 9,
5.26.1.21 Axles scored, damaged or corroded causing a cracked axle (Axle failure) 10

5.26.1.25 Axle material not being strong enough causing a bent axle (Axle failure) 3. 4

5.26.1.26 Axle material not being strong enough causing a twisted axle (Axle failure) 3. 4

5.26.1.27 Axles below design minimum size causing a cracked axle (Axle failure) 3. 10. 11

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