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Earth Structure
Earth Structure
1.Crust/Lithosphere
i) It is made up of two layers:
a) Continental crust- upper part of the crust made up of granitic rocks
-made up of silica and alumina (SIAL)
-It is lighter/ density of 2.7
b) Oceanic crust – lower part made up of basaltic rocks
- made up of silica and magnesium (SIMA)
-It is heavier/ density of 3.0
iii) It varies in thickness (between 5km and 48km in thickness)
iv) It is brittle (easily breakable by earth movements)
2. Mantle/ Mesosphere
i) It’s a thick layer under the crust (2900km). The boundary between the crust and the mantle is called
MOHOROVICIC or M. DISCONTINUITY. Heat waves from the mantle travel faster when they pass this
boundary making the crust to vibrate hence experiencing earthquakes.
ii) It is made up of very dense rocks rich in iron and magnesium.
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iii) It is in a semi- molten state with extremely high temperatures
3. Core/ Barysphere
i) Has a thickness of about 3476km radius
ii) It is divided into two parts:
a)Outer core (liquid) – consists mainly of iron and nickel
b) Inner core (solid) – consists mainly of iron
The combination of the two minerals is called Nife.
iii) Has extremely high temperatures (1927⁰C) and subjected to extreme pressure.
EARTH MOVEMENTS
The earth’s crust is always moving due to the mantle underneath the crust. This causes crustal plates to
move either sideways, towards each other or slide past each other due to convection. Plate movement
and features formed after such movements is referred to as PLATE TECTONICS.
The theory of plate tectonics led to a German meteorologist called Alfred Wegener to come up with the
CONTINENTAL DRIFT theory. In this theory, he explained that continents were once a large continent he
termed PANGEA. Due to earth movements which started about 200 million years ago in the Mesozoic
era, the Pangaea broke into two major continents namely Gondwanaland (south) and Laurasia (north)
which later broke into several continents as we see today.
The following are some of the points used to support the theory of Continental drift:
i)Similar animals and plants are found on continents far from each other
ii)The jig-saw fit of South America and Africa
iii)Similar rock types can be seen in West Africa and Brazil (South America)
iv)Glacial deposits in Brazil match those in West Africa in age
v)The reversal of magnetic particles are similar in rocks either side of mid oceanic ridges eg. Mid
Atlantic ridge
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FEATURES OF EARTH MOVEMENTS
Horizontal (lateral) earth movements cause compressional and tensional movements in the earth’s
crust. Compressional forces cause FOLDING and FAULTING while tensional forces cause FAULTING only.
The direction of movement determines the type of feature/ landform that will result or form and these
landforms are formed near or along Tectonic plate boundaries/margins. There are three types of plate
boundaries:
a) DESTRUCTIVE PLATE MARGIN/ BOUNDARY : A place where two rock plates move towards
each other and collide due to compressional forces eg. Nazca plate ( oceanic plate) colliding
with South American plate(continental plate), also Indo-Australian plate converging with
Eurasian plate(both continental plates). The major landforms formed here are fold mountains
and trenches along zone of subduction.
b) CONSTRUCTIVE PLATE BOUNDARY : A place where two rock plates moving away from each
other or diverge due to tensional forces eg. North American plate moving away from Eurasian
plate and African plate to form deep sea mountains called mid oceanic ridges. eg Mid Atlantic
Ridge.
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c) CONSERVATIVE PLATE BOUNDARY : A place where two rock plates tend to move alongside
each other. Neither of the plates are destroyed but the movement triggers earthquakes and
faults. eg. Pacific plate moving alongside the North American plate to form San Andreas Fault
in California(USA).
FOLDING
This is the bending of sedimentary rock layers by forces of compression as tectonic plates converge. The
part that bends up is the ANTICLINE or UPFOLD, the part that bends down is the SYNCLINE or
DOWNFOLD. The sides of a fold are called LIMBS and the top of an anticline is called CREST.
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2.ASSYMMETRICAL FOLD
-formed due to unequal forces of compression causing one limb to be steeper than the other.
3.OVERFOLD
-formed due to unequal forces of compression where one limb is pushed over the other.
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LANDFORMS OF FOLDING
Fold Mountains formation
-Two rigid plates(oceanic plate and continental plate) at destructive plate margin
-convection within the mantle,
-Earth/plate movements due to compression
-Plates converge collide
-Continental plate which is lighter, overrides the heavier oceanic plate. Oceanic is subducted/submerged
into the mantle along the subduction zone.
-Scraping of sediments
- As compression continues
-Trench/ geosynclines are formed
-Accumulation of sediments, sedimentary rocks form,
-Sedimentary rocks uplift/ crumple/squeeze/buckle/fold to form fold mountains eg. Andes, Rockies
mountains
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DISTRIBUTION OF FOLD MOUNTAINS
OLD FOLD MOUNTAINS
Formed during the Hercynian time/era, about 240 million years ago.
-Cape Ranges in SA
-Appalachian Mountains in USA
-Ural mountains in Britain
-Welsh in Britain
-Pennines in Britain
-Harz Mountains in Germany
There are no young fold mountains in Southern Africa because of the following;
-Area is stable
-It is far away from plate boundaries/ plate margins
-The area is an ancient rocks/brittle rocks or ancient plates
FAULTING
This is the cracking or breaking of earth’s crust by both forces of compression and also tension.
-There are three types of faults namely; Normal, Reverse and Tear faults.
i)Normal Fault
It is caused by tensional forces stretching and breaking the earth’s crust. One side of the crustal block
slips downwards leaving the upstanding side as a fault scarp.
ii)Reverse Fault
It results from forces of compression which cause one crustal block to override the other side and the
other remaining down.
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LANDFORMS OF FAULTING
RIFT VALLEYS
-These can be formed by compressional and tensional forces as both movements produce faults in the
earth’s crust.
-There are two theories used to explain the formation of rift valleys.
a)Compressional Theory
-Earth movements occur
-crustal compression
-Parallel, reversed faults develop due to increased compression
-Outer or side blocks rise up until they override the central block which remains lower to form a rift
valley
b)Tensional Theory
-Earth movement occurs
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-Crustal tension
-Parallel, normal faults develop due to increased tension
-Middle block sinks forming a rift valley
NB: The Great East African Rift Valley is said to have been formed due to tensional forces
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BLOCK MOUNTAINS/HORSTS
Two theories are used to describe formation of block mountains/ horsts.
Tension Compression
-Earth movements occur -Earth movements occur
-Tension -Compression
-Two parallel faults develop -Two parallel faults develop
-Block enclosed by faults subsides/sinks -Block enclosed by faults is raised up
-Upstanding block forms horst/block mountain -Raised block forms horst/ block mountain
VOLCANIC ACTIVITY
VOLCANICITY; refers to the various ways by which molten rocks [magma]and gases are forced into the
earth’s crust and onto earth’s surface. It includes volcanic eruptions [forming volcanoes, plateaus and
geysers] and the formation of intrusive features such as [batholiths, sills, dykes etc]
Volcanoes occur in zones of instability within the crust or at certain points of weakness in the crust,
generally where folding and faulting have taken place. The type of volcanic cones formed depend on the
type of lava and types of eruptions [ie. vent/fissure eruptions]
TYPES OF LAVA
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INTRUSIVE FEATURES/LANDFORMS OF VOLCANIC ERUPTION
Intrusive features are those formed by magma cooling and solidifying within the earth’s crust before
reaching the surface [indogeneous features]
1.VOLCANOES
A volcano is a cone-shaped hill or mountain formed by explosion of hot molten rocks on the crust
through a pipe or vent.
FORMATION OF VOLCANOES
-Earth movements occur along plate boundary/ compression/ tensional movements
-Build up of pressure due to convection currents within the mantle
-Fissures/ faulting occurs in the crust and pressure is reduced.
-Magma/hot molten rocks and gases under intense pressure from the mantle rise through the
faults/fissures/pipe/vent.
-Explosive eruptions occur releasing ashes, cinders/broken rocks and lava
-Lava flows/accumulates on the earth’s surface forming conelets/subsidiary or parasitic cones.
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There are 3 types of volcanic cones;
It is formed from small fragments of lava and volcanic ash after they are blown up in an eruption eg.
Teleki and Likaiyu cones[Kenya]
2.LAVA CONES
Slopes of a lava cone depend on whether the lava is fluid or
viscous.
ii) Viscous lava produce steeply sloping cones called ACID LAVA CONE. Sometimes lava is so
viscous that it forms a PLUG DOME which may block the crater of a volcano [an opening of
the volcano] eg. Hoggar mountains in Algeria.
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HOW BASIC LAVA VOLCANOES DIFFER FROM VISCOUS LAVA VOLCANOES
Short height due to fluid lava Tall in height due to thick/ viscous lava
Shield cone formed due to fluid lava Conical shape as lava is viscous
3.COMPOSITE CONE
-It is formed by alternate layers of lava and ash. Lava streams may pour out from the sides of the
composite cones forming conelets or parasitic cones.
-It is formed from acidic lava and the cones are steep sided e.g Mt Cameroon ,Mt Kenya and Mt
Kilimanjaro.
CRATER
-This is the opening at the top of a volcanic cone
CALDERA
-This is a huge crater/depression formed by a violent explosion which will blow off the crater of a
volcanic cone or through subsidence.
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NB :Water may collect inside a Caldera to form Caldera lakes eg. L. Bosumtwi in Ghana and L. Eboga in
Cameroon.
STAGES OF VOLCANO
There are 3 stages of volcano in terms of its life cycle.
1.ACTIVE VOLANO; It is a volcano which erupts frequently or we can say it is where the eruption has
occured recently.
2.DORMANT VOLCANO; A volcano which erupts frequently or a volcano or which has been known to
erupt less frequently [sleeping volcano]
3.EXTINCT VOLCANO; A volcano which has not erupted in historic/prehistoric times but still retain
features of a volcano. It is also expected not to erupt in future.
DISTRIBUTION OF VOLCANOES
-along plate boundaries/ edges of plates
-areas of instability/lines of weakness/subduction zones
-Western coast of South America
-Western coast of North America
-Pacific Ring of Fire/ Pacific
-East African rift valley/ Eastern parts of East Africa
-Mid Atlantic Ridge
-South East Asia/ East of Asia
-Carribean Islands
NEGATIVE
-destroy buildings
-forces relocation of people
-loss of life/ risk of injuries
-Acidic soils or acidic rainfall destroy crops and natural vegetation
-destroys infrastructure
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POSITIVE
-source of water/ caldera lakes for fishing/irrigation/domestic use
-fertile volcanic soils for arable farming
-geothermal power from geysers
-settlement creation on gentle slopes
-forests for forestry/lumbering
- Attractive features (crater, conelets, caldera lakes) for tourism
-minerals for mining
-pastures for pastoral farming
-influence relief rainfall on windward slopes for water supply
WHY PEOPLE LIVE ON SLOPES OF SOME VOLCANOES WHILE OTHERS ARE FREE FROM SETTLEMENT
EARTHQUAKES
These are a series of rapid vibrations in the earth’s crust caused by sudden movement along major faults
at a great depth in the earth’s crust.
MEASUREMENT OF EARTHQUAKES
-INTENSITY: refers to the effect produced by an earthquake. It varies from place to place but lessens as
one moves away from the epicentre.
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THE NATURE OF EARTHQUAKES
-FOCUS : The origin of an earthquake/ The point in the earth’s crust where shockwaves originate.
-EPICENTRE : The point directly above the focus on the earth’s surface( where shockwaves first hit the
surface).
-There two types of shockwaves:
1.Body waves : travel through the crust from the focus and are of two types:
a)Primary waves-cause crustal rocks to move back and forth in wave movement direction.
b)Secondary waves- cause crustal rocks to move side to side(at right angle) to the wave
movement direction.
2.Surface waves : travel through surface rocks. They have two types:
a)Love waves- cause surface rocks to move side to side to the wave movement direction.
b)Rayleigh waves- cause surface rocks to have a vertical-circular movement( like sea waves).
DISTRIBUTION OF EARTHQUAKES
-occur along plate boundaries/plate margins
-Mid Atlantic ridge
-Western coast of South America
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-Western coast of North America
-Pacific Ring of Fire
-South East Asia/ East Asia
-North Africa
-Southern Europe
ENVIRONMENT
-Displacement of the crust/Raise or lower sea bed
-Cause landslides/mud flows
-Deep cracks on the crust/faulting
-Destruction of natural vegetation
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