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Contents
03 15 21 33
Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4
The Earth and the The Origin and The Earth’s Crust Distribution of
Universe Evolution of the and Interior Oceans and
Earth Continents
45 59 70 78
Volcanism and Geomorphic Minerals and Rocks Landforms and
Earthquakes Processes - their Evolution
Exogenic and
Endogenic
Processes
1
98 109 131 136

Climatology - Climatology: Cyclones and Koeppen’s Scheme
Weather Climate Associated of Classification
Features of Climate and
Climatic Region
152 165 170

Chapter 13 Chapter 14 Previous Year
Movements of Ocean Temperature Questions
Ocean Water and Salinity
2
CHAPTER - 1
THE EARTH AND THE UNIVERSE
Introduction billions of galaxies, solar systems, stars

etc.
• Our solar system lies in a spiral shaped
• In our solar system, the Earth is the
galaxy called the Milky Way. The nearest
third planet from the Sun. It is the only
galaxy to this is called Andromeda.
planet known, as of yet, to harbour life.
• Generally, there is a black hole in the
• According to radiometric dating (also
centre of most of the galaxies. The black
called radioactive dating is a method to
hole of Milky Way is called Sagittarius A.
determine the age of rocks or carbon)
and various other sources of evidence,
Earth was formed nearly before 4.5
billion years ago. The Solar System
• Earth’s gravity constantly interacts with
other objects in space, particularly the • The solar system comprises of the
Sun and the Moon. The Moon is the Sun, eight planets (developed from
only natural satellite of the Earth. condensation of gases and other lesser
bodies) and their satellites, asteroids,
• Earth revolves around the Sun in 365.26 comets, meteors and other dwarf
days, this period is known as an Earth planets.
year. During this time, Earth rotates
about its own axis about 366.26 times. • The Sun is at the centre of the solar
system and the planets revolve around
• When we look up from the Earth, we see the Sun in elliptical orbits. The planets
the sky studded with innumerous stars. shine only due to the light from Sun
These stars as we see are not scattered reflected from their surface.
uniformly across space. They occur
in clusters which are better known as • These eight planets have been classified
galaxies or nebulae. into Solid Planets or Inner Planets and
Gaseous Planets or Outer Planets.
• Each galaxy may contain up to 100
Million stars. • Solid Planet or Inner Planets: Mercury,
Venus, Earth and Mars are called
• Earth belongs to the Galaxy called the Solid Planets. They are composed of
Milky Way, of which the Solar System is mainly Silicates and metals. They are
just a part. also called as the terrestrial (Earth like)
• There are some major theories about planets.
the origin of the Universe and ultimately, • Important characteristics of these
the solar system. The most famous planets are:
among them is the Big Bang Theory.
• In this theory, Georges Lemaitre » They have dense and rocky
suggested that the universe evolved compositions.
from a small singularity and then » They are fair smaller in size, especially
expanded for over 13.8 billion years. when compared with the Outer Planets.
It is still believed to be expanding
» They possess no or small number of
continuously. It led to the formation of
Moons.
3
» They have no ring systems. of the external planets which are more
» They take a relatively short length of time gigantic and had the capacity to attract
to complete an orbit around the Sun. a lot of Hydrogen and Helium.
» In outer part of the solar system where
• Gaseous Planets or Outer Planets: it was cooler, different components like
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune are water and Methane didn't disintegrate
gaseous Planets. They are also called and had the option to shape the
as the Jovian (Jupiter like) planets. gigantic planets.
• Important characteristics of these » The earthly planets were framed in the
planets are: nearby region of the parent star where
it was excessively warm for gases on a
» They all are huge in comparison to the surface to consolidate to solid particles.
Inner Planets, so they are sometimes
known as the Gas Giants. » The solar winds was most exceptional
closer the Sun; thus, it brushed off loads
» They are mostly made up of gases so of gas and residue from the outside of
they do not have solid surfaces. the earthly planets.
» All four of them have rings spinning » The solar winds were not too extreme to
around them, with Saturn’s ring being cause comparative expulsion of gases
the most famous and noticeable one. from the Jovian planets.
» These four planets also have large
numbers of Moons (Natural satellites) • Recently, Pluto, Ceres, Charon and
orbiting around them. Eris were newly grouped as Dwarf
Planets. The dwarf planets also revolve
» They take a very long time to complete
around the Sun. But do not have all
an orbit around the Sun.
the properties of a planet and thus are
• Why inner planets are rocky while the called Dwarf planets.
outer planets mostly in gaseous form? • International Astronomical Union
(IAU) in 2006 adopted the definition
» Temperature of early solar system for dwarf planets. According to IAU,
explains why the inner planets are rocky a dwarf planet is, “a celestial body
and the outer ones are gaseous. orbiting a star that is massive enough
» In the inner solar system, temperatures to be rounded by its own gravity but
were pretty much as high as 2000 has not cleared its neighboring region
Kelvin, while in the outer solar system it of planetesimals and is not a satellite."
was just about as cool as 50 K.
» In the case of inner solar system,
substances having high melting points
Sun
would have stayed solid and all the rest
• Sun can be said as the heart of our solar
would have got converted into vapours.
system. It is the largest object within
Thus, the inner planets are made of Iron,
our solar system, comprising 99.8% of
Silicon, Magnesium, Sulfur, Aluminum,
the system’s mass.
Calcium and Nickel.
• The Sun has a surface temperature of
» The inner planets are a lot more smaller
6000°C and increases up to 20 Mn.°C
than the external planets and due to
in the interior.
this have generally low gravity and
couldn't pull or attract a lot of gases • It is made up of fiery gases on its surface
to their environments. This is opposite which leap up in whirls of glowing flame
like volcanoes in eruption.
4
• The Sun has 300,000 times more mass planet to the Sun. It completes its
than Earth. revolution around the Sun in only 88
• The Sun is the only star in our solar days. This planet is made up of Nitrogen,
system and is the powerhouse of the Hydrogen, Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide
solar system. but has no water.
• It is composed of Hydrogen (73%), • Venus is the hottest planet in entire solar

Helium (25%) and other elements. system with the surface temperature
reaching up to 478°C. Venus is often
• The light from the Sun takes an average called Earth’s twin because of their
of 8 minutes and 20 seconds to reach similarity in size, mass and density. It is
the Earth while light from Moon takes the brightest planet in the solar system
only a second. Sun's body comprises of and has earned itself the title of Evening
various regions. Star and Morning Star. Venus rotates
• Corona: It is the outer layers of the Sun, around Sun in a clockwise direction.
extending to thousands of km. above • Earth is third planet from the Sun
the disc (photosphere). after Mercury and Venus. This is the
• It has a temperature which exceed only planet in our solar system to have
1,000,000 Kelvin which is a lot higher presence of life in all its majestic forms.
than the solar disc temperature of It is also called the Blue Planet due to
around 6000K. How the outer layer the presence of water. Our Earth has
of Sun gets warmed to such high one natural satellite called the Moon.
temperatures is as yet an unanswered • Mars is called the Red Planet due to the
inquiry in solar physics. presence of Iron rich red soil. It is the
• The Sun's visible surface has dark second smallest planet after Mercury
Sunspots sometimes, which are regions and has dark patches on its surface.
of extraordinary magnetic activity Mars has a thin atmosphere and surface
which can prompt solar blasts. with valleys, craters, deserts and even
• Heliosphere: The electric flows in the ice-caps. Mars has two natural Moons
Sun create a complex magnetic field named Phobos and Deimos. After
that reaches out into space to form Earth, the only planet that has come
the interplanetary magnetic field. The close to the possibility of having life,
volume of space constrained by the is Mars. Mars has the largest known
Sun's magnetic field is known as the volcano and second tallest mountain in
heliosphere. the solar system called Olympus Mons.
• Solar Wind: These are the storms • Jupiter is the largest planet in entire
of electrically charged gas blowing solar system. It’s surface is made up of
outward from the Sun in every direction. Hydrogen, Helium and Methane. It is
The Sun's magnetic field is carried out differentiated from other planets by its
through the solar system by the solar circular dark and lighter bands. Jupiter
wind. has 53 named moons and another 26
awaiting official names encircle the
• The Sun's rotation causes the magnetic planet and has an unclear ring around
field streamlines to assume a spiral it. Largest Moon Ganymede was
shape, also known as the Parker spiral. discovered by Galileo Galilee in 1610.
Others are Lo, Callisto and Europa.
Planets • Saturn is second largest planet and is

entirely gaseous in nature. It is a very
• Mercury is the smallest and the nearest unique planet with its three concentric
5
rings which can be easily observed Moons. Miranda, Ariel, Titania are few
from Earth and nine satellites around it. larger ones.
Saturn takes 29.5 years (i.e. Earth years) • Neptune is the farthest planet from the
to complete its orbit. Saturn can float Sun. Neptune has bluish colour due to
on water since it has less density than the presence of Methane. Uranus and
water. It has 82 Moons, Titan being the Neptune (the ice giants) are called the
largest. twins of the outer solar system.
• Uranus also orbits around the Sun in • This planet was discovered by
clockwise direction like Venus. Through mathematical predictions and
telescope it is seen as greenish-bluish disturbances in Uranus’s orbit. Neptune
disc. Uranus is composed of Hydrogen has about 14 Moons, Triton being the
and Helium and contains water and largest.
ammonia. Uranus has at least 20
Distance from Sun Orbital Velocity Period of

Planet
(Million of km) (km. per second) Revolution
Mercury 58 48 88 days
Venus 108 35 225 days
Earth 150 30 1 years
Mars 228 24 2 years
Jupiter 778 13 12 years
Saturn 1429 10 29 years
Uranus 2875 7 84 years
Neptune 4504 6 165 years
Other Planetary Bodies: see one side of the Moon all the time.
• Asteroids:
• Moon:
» These are small rocky (mostly debris)
» The Moon is only natural satellite of
which revolve around the Sun. Mostly
Earth and the fifth largest Moon in the
they are found on the Asteroid belt
solar system. The Moon is considered
between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter.
to be formed after a Mars-sized body
They are also called Minor Planets.
collided with Earth.
Larger asteroids are also called
» It goes around the Earth at a distance Planetoids. Ceres, Vesta and Psyche are
of about 239,000 miles (385,000 km.). some of the most famous and biggest
» The Moon is a rocky, solid surface body asteroids.
with much of its surface cratered and
pitted from impacts. • Meteors and Meteorites:
» The Moon has extremely thin and weak » The sudden streak of light seen on a
atmosphere which is known as an starry night is called Meteors. They
exosphere. It is not breathable. are also called shooting stars. They
» The Earth and Moon are tidally-locked. are small rocky materials that are
Their rotations are so in sync we only formed due to an asteroid collision.
6
Meteorites are seen when the remains because matter has been squeezed
of the rocky parts of comets strike into a tiny space.
the Earth’s atmosphere and streaks • This can happen when a star is dying.
of lights are generated due to friction.
These meteors cannot reach the Earth’s • When a star burns through the last of
surface since they get burnt out in the its fuel, the object may collapse, or fall
atmosphere due to the friction. into itself which leads to the formation
of a black hole. In case of smaller stars
• Comets: the new core may become a neutron
star or a white dwarf. But when a larger
» They are made up of dust and ice. They star collapses, it continues to compress
are shiny, luminous and tailed stars. and creates a stellar black hole.
These rocky and metallic materials • In 1916, Albert Einstein with his general
are surrounded by frozen gases. Found theory of relativity first predicted the
in the Kuiper Belt, they travel towards existence of black holes.
the Sun. The long tail is seen when the
comet approaches the Sun and in turn • Black holes are invisible. As no light can
the ice melts and reflects the light of get out, so people can't see the black
Sun. hole. The scientists can locate the black
hole by observing the effects of strong
» Halley's Comet is the most famous gravity on the stars and gases around
comet. It is a "periodic" comet and the black hole
returns to Earth's vicinity about every
75 years. • Black holes can be as small as just one
atom. These black holes are very tiny
• Asteroids are distinguished from but have the mass of a large mountain.
On the other hand they can be 20
comets and meteoroids:
times more than the mass of the Sun.
» In case of comets, the difference is "Supermassive" black holes are the
one of compositions: asteroids are largest black holes. These black holes
mostly made up of minerals and rock, have masses that are more than 1 Million
comets are mainly composed of dust Suns together. Supermassive black
particles and ice. Moreover, asteroids holes may be the result of hundreds
formed closer to the Sun, preventing or thousands of tiny black holes that
the development of cometary ice. merge together. Large gas clouds
could also be responsible for collapsing
» Another noticeable difference between together and rapidly accreting mass.
asteroids and meteoroids is mainly of
size: meteoroids have a diameter of
The Shape of the

one meter or less than that, whereas
asteroids have a diameter greater than
one meter and can be even bigger.
» Lastly, meteoroids can be composed of
Earth
either cometary or asteroidal materials. • The Earth is spherical in shape; it is
an established fact, backed by several
evidences.
Black Hole:
• The equatorial circumference of the
• A black hole is a place in space with Earth is 24,897 miles, while its polar
very high gravity that even light can circumference is less than 83 miles than
not get out of it. The gravity is so strong that of the equatorial circumference.
7
Line of Line of
This shows the Earth is not a perfect hull mast sight
hull mast
sight
sphere. mast mast
• The Earth is flattened at both ends Spherical Earth Flat Earth

(poles) like an orange. This shape is
called Geoid (Earth like). Mast of the ship seen before Entire ship seen at
the whole ship once on a flat surface
• There are many ways to prove that the Image 1.2: Evidence of spherical earth
Earth is spherical. They are as follows:
» Sunrise and Sunset: The Sun rises and
» Circumnavigation of the Earth: The sets at different times at different places
first voyage by Sir Magellan around in the world. As the Earth rotates from
the world proved that the Earth, if not west direction to east direction, places
a sphere, for sure was not of a shape in the east see Sunrise before the places
which had abrupt edges. It was also in the west. Had the Earth been flat, the
discovered that once you start at one entire Earth would have had Sunrise
point, you are bound to reach that place and Sunset at the same time.
completing a circular path. Modern
day air routes and ocean navigations » The Lunar Eclipse: The shadow cast
are based on the assumption that the by the Earth on the Moon is always
Earth is a sphere. circular during the lunar eclipse. It takes
the shape of an arc of a circle on the
» The circular horizon: The distant Moon.
horizon as seen from a ship or a cliff or
a landmass is often seen as circular in » All planetary bodies are spherical:
shape. In fact, with increase in altitude, When looking through a telescope,
the circular horizon broadens. This is a all the planetary bodies like the Sun,
feature only of a spherical body. the Moon and other planets appear
circular or spherical in nature, no matter
X (VIEW POINT) X (VIEW POINT)
they are viewed from whichever angle.
Earth, by analogy, cannot be the only
Y (VIEW POINT) Y (VIEW POINT) exception.
» Aerial photographs: The pictures that
are taken by satellites always show the
H O RIZ O N
A B
curved edge of the Earth. This is the
A
HO
C D
B
C HORIZON D
most convincing and modern proof of
R IZ
ON Earth’s sphericity.
Sp
h e ri c a l E a rt h
Flat Earth » Driving Poles on Level Ground on a
INCRESING ALTITUDE WIDENS VISIBLE HORIZON REMAINS Curved Earth: Engineers when drive
THE CIRCULAR HORIZON SAME FROM & REGARDLESS
OF ALTITUDE
poles of equal length at regular intervals
on the ground find that they do not get
Image 1.1: Evidence of spherical earth
a perfect horizontal level. The centre
» Ship’s Visibility: When a ship appears pole normally projects slightly above
over a distant horizon, the mast of the poles on either side because of the
the ship is seen first followed by the earth's curvature.
hull. Similarly, when the ship leaves
the harbour, the disappearance of the
ship over the curved surface is gradual. The Earth’s Movement
This would not have happened had the
Earth been flat, the entire ship would be • The Earth moves in Space in two
visible or obscured from view. different ways: Rotation and Revolution.
8
• Earth rotates on her own axis from west Varying Lengths of Day and
to east direction once every 24 hours
(approx). This causes the phenomenon Night
of day and night. • The axis of the Earth is inclined at an
• Earth also revolves around the Sun angle of 66 1/2° to the plane of the
in its orbit once every 365 days. This ecliptic (the plane in which the Earth
revolution around the Earth constitutes orbits around the Sun). It gives rise to
a year. This revolution also causes the different lengths of days and nights at
seasonal variation. various places and results in different
seasons.
• In the northern hemisphere in winters,
Rotation - Day and Night as we go northwards, the time of night
increases.
• When the Earth rotates on her own
axis, only one portion of the Earth • At the Arctic Circle (66 1/2° N) the Sun
gets Sunlight from the Sun. That area never ‘rises’ and there is a constant
receiving Sunlight experiences daylight. state of darkness for the whole day in
The other side of the Earth, which mid winter on 22nd December (Winter
is away from the Sun, experiences Solstice).
darkness or night. • After the Arctic Circle, the number of
• Because of the west to east rotation of days with complete darkness increase
the Earth, every part of the Earth will as we move towards the poles at 90°N.
receive Sunlight sometime or the other. • This condition is reversed in summers.
• When the Earth emerges from darkness Daylight increases as we go towards
to gradual light, it is called Sunrise and poles.
later when the Sun’s rays give way to • At the Arctic Circle, the Sun never ‘sets’
darkness, that place experiences Sunset. in mid-summer (21st June) and there is
a complete 24 hours daylight.
• At the north pole, in summers there are
The Earth’s Revolution six months of continuous daylight.
• It is to be noted that the Sun is a • In Southern hemisphere, the seasons
stationary body. The Earth revolves are reversed but the same process
around the Sun. takes place. When there is summer
• The Earth spins on an elliptical orbit at in Northern hemisphere, it is winter
a speed of 18.5 miles per second. One in the Southern hemisphere. Thus, the
complete revolution around the Sun conditions are reversed but the same
takes 365 ¼ days. process takes place.
• Thus, a normal year is taken to be of • In Mid-summer (21st June) there is

365 days. The ¼th of the day is added complete daylight in the Northern
to the year once every 4 years to form hemisphere (Arctic Circle) corresponds
one whole new day. to complete darkness at mid-winter
(21st June) in the Antarctic Circle in the
• This added day every four years is Southern hemisphere.
called as the Leap Year.
9
overhead Sun. Beyond the tropics, the

Sun is never overhead at any time of
the year.
• These regions, where the Sun is never
directly overhead, are marked by four
distinguishable seasons: summer,
autumn, winter and spring.
• The areas above the Arctic and Antarctic
circles are marked by continuous six
months of darkness and remaining six
Image 1.3: The Revolution of the earth & its months of daylight. These regions are
effects on length of the day & season changes
inherently very cold since the Sun’s
direct rays never reach these areas.
Here the Sun is never high in the sky
The Altitude of the Midday Sun (even during the summer months).
• Due to the inclined axis at an angle of • The regions within the tropics, the
66 1/2°, causes apparent changes in the midday Sun varies very little from the
altitude of the midday Sun. overhead vertical position at noon.
• Sun is vertically over the head at the Thus, there are no distinguishable
equator on two days a year: 21st March seasons in this region.
and 21st September. These two dates
are called equinoxes. On these days, all
parts of the world have equal day and Seasonal Changes and Their
night. Effects On Temperature
• After the Spring equinox on March 21st,
the Sun begins its apparent northward • During the summer season, the Sun is
shift, such that the Sun is directly over directly overhead. The Sun is higher in
the head at the Tropic of Cancer (23 the sky.
1/2°N) on June 21. This is known as • When the Sun is over the head, the Sun’s
the Summer Solstice. The northern rays fall almost vertically on the Earth’s
hemisphere on this day has the longest surface thereby concentrating the heat
day and the shortest night. on a small area and thus intensifying
• The Sun begins it apparent southward the heat.
shift after this day and reaches the • Thus, summers are warm and the
equator directly overhead on 21st temperature rises.
September (Autumn Equinox). • The days are also longer in summer than
• Thereafter, it continues with its the night time. This allows more time to
southward shift till the Sun is directly heat up the Earth. Nights are short and
overhead on the Tropic of Capricorn thus, there is less time to lose the heat.
(23 1/2°S) on 22 December. This is called Thus, there is a net gain in the total
the Winter Solstice when the southern heat received and thus temperature
hemisphere will have its longest day increases.
and shortest night. The northern • In the winter, the Sun’s rays fall obliquely
hemisphere will experience just the or slanted on the surface of the Earth.
opposite and have the longest night The rays are longer and much of its heat
and shortest day. is absorbed by the Earth’s atmosphere
• The tropics thus mark the limit of the (water vapour and dust particles).
10
• The slanted rays spread over a larger can be determined by the intersection
area and thus, the effect of heat is also of latitude and longitude.
less. • Latitudes and longitudes both are
• The days are shorter. Thus, the heat measured in degrees.
absorbed is much less than the heat
lost during the long winter nights.
Here there is net loss in the total heat Latitude
received and lost.
• It can be defined as an angular distance
of a point on the surface of Earth from
Dawn and Dusk the centre of the Earth. Latitudes
are parallel to the equator which lies
• The brief period between Sunrise and halfway between the two poles.
full daylight is called Dawn. • The latitudes become smaller towards
• The short span of time period between the poles, following the shape of a sphere.
Sunset and complete darkness is called • The equator represents 0° whereas the
Twilight or Dusk. North and the South poles are at 90°N
• Dusk and dawn is caused by the fact and 90°S respectively.
that during this period, the Earth • North of the equator, latitudes are
receives diffused or say refracted light assigned North degree. The south of
from the Sun while it is still below the the equator, the latitudes are assigned
horizon. South degrees.
• In the equator region, the Sun rises and • Between the equator and the poles the
sets in a vertical path and therefore the lines or parallels of latitude are drawn
period during which the refracted light at an interval of 1°.
is received is short. But in temperate
latitudes, the Sun rises and sets in an • For precision of location mapping,
oblique way and therefore the period of each degree of latitude is divided into
refracted light is longer. 60 minutes and each minute into 60
seconds.
• In fact, it is so much higher in the poles
that the winter darkness is actually the • The most important latitudes are
twilight of refracted light, most of the Equator at 0°, Tropic of Cancer (23
times. 1/2° N), Arctic Circle (66 1/2° N), Tropic
of Capricorn (23 1/2° S) and Antarctic
Circle (66 1/2° S).
Latitude and • Because of the spherical shape of

Earth, the physical distance between
Longitude the latitudes increases very gradually
from the equator to the poles. For
• The latitudes and longitudes are example, at the equator at 0°, the
essentially imaginary lines drawn on the distance between two latitudes are
globe to locate any place accurately. 68.704 miles, the difference between
two latitudes at 45°N are 69.054 miles
• The latitudes run from east to west, and the same difference between two
parallel to the equator. The longitude latitudes near the pole at 90°N is 69.407
runs from north to south and passes miles. However, for ease of purpose, the
through the poles. average distance between two latitudes
• The location of any place on the Earth are taken as 69 miles.
11
90° N
Longitude
85° N
75° N
30° N
• It is the angular distance, measured EQUATOR
0° 25°W 0° 25°E
in degrees, along the equator, west or 20° S

45°W 10°W 10°E 45°E
PRIME
east of the Prime Meridian. 60° S
MERIDIAN
• In the globe, longitudes are series of 90° S

semi circles that run from north to south Image 1.4: latitude, parallel to the equator (left) and Longitude,
from one pole to the other. runs east and west of the Prime Meridian.
• Each longitude cuts through the

equator.
Longitude and Time
• Longitudes are also called Meridians.
• Any longitude could have been • Rotation of the Earth around the
Sun means that at any point in time,
taken as the prime meridian for the
different places on Earth will experience
purpose of numbering. But in 1884,
a different time of the day.
by an International Agreement, it was
decided that the zero meridian will • Since the Earth makes one complete
be the one that passes through the round of 360° in one day or 24 hours,
Royal Astronomical Observatory at it means that in one hour, it covers a
Greenwich, near London. distance of 15° or 1° in four minutes.
• The 0° Longitude is called the Prime • As the Earth rotates from west to east,
Meridian and all the other meridians so for every 15° eastwards if we go, we
fall to the left or right of the prime will gain an hour. That means the local
meridian. time is advanced by an hour for every
15° eastward move.
• The longitudes are divided into 180° to
the east and west of the Prime Meridian. • Conversely, if we go westwards, we will
lose an hour in the sense that for every
• The distance between two longitude at
15° westward move, the time will be
the equator is calculated by the length
reduced by an hour.
of the circumference divided by 360°
(25000 miles ÷ 360 = 69.1 miles) • Places to the east of Greenwich thus
see Sunrise earlier. A person travelling
• However, the longitudes all converge
from Greenwich to east will gain time
at the poles, so the linear distance
on reaching the eastern destination as
between two longitude narrows.
compared to a person travelling to the
• The degree of longitude thus decreases west of Greenwich, who will lose time.
in length pole wards. At the equator, The places west of Greenwich sees
the distance between two longitudes Sunrise later than Sunrise in Greenwich.
is the largest at 69.1 miles, at 45°N it is
only 49 miles, while at 75°N it is only 18
• Generally time is determined by
longitude of the place. It is compared
miles and at the poles its 0 miles.
with the local time of Greenwich
• The longitudes are extremely important and then adding or subtracting time,
for determination of time. depending on the longitude.
12
0° time zones. Each of them differs in 1

hour and 15° in longitude.
WEST-LOSE SUBTRACT • Large Countries like USA, Russia,
(-5hrs) EASR GAIN ADD
(+5h 30mins) Canada etc which have a huge east-
C A B west stretch have more than one
NEW YORK LONDON & DELHI (82.5° E)
standard time for those countries, for
(74° W)
7A M
GREENWICH
12 PM
5.30 PM
(Evening)
practical purposes. USA and Canada
(Morning) (noon) both have 5 time zones - Atlantic,
Eastern, Central, Mountain and Pacific
Time Zones. The difference between
the Atlantic and Pacific time zones is 5
Image 1.5: Longitude & time comparison hours.
with Greenwich mean time.
International Date Line

Standard Time and
• This concept becomes very interesting
Time Zones here.
• A traveller going eastward from
• Now for each city or a place to keep Greenwich gains time till he/she reaches
individual time based on its longitudinal 180°E longitude. At 180°E meridian he is
position would complicate matters, 12 hours ahead of GMT.
especially in cases of medium to big
countries. • Similarly, a traveller going westward
from Greenwich, at 180°W meridian, he
• Since for each degree change in loses 12 hours.
longitude, there is a time difference of
four minutes, people travelling from one • Thus, there is a difference of 24 hours or
part to other part of a country would one whole day, on two sides of the 180°
continuously have to keep changing meridian.
and adjusting time. • This is called the International Date
• To avoid such confusion and Line where the date changes by exactly
impracticability, a system of standard one day, once it is crossed. The traveller
time is observed by all countries. crossing the International Date Line
from west to east, gains a whole day
• Each country has their own central and the traveller crossing from east to
meridian and the standard time if the west loses a day.
country is calculated as per in relation
to the Prime meridian at Greenwich • Suppose, on the Asia side of the
with the central meridian of the country. International Date line it is midnight on
Friday, 13th September, on the American
• In case of India, the meridian of 82.5°E side of the International Date Line, it
is taken as the Central Meridian. The is actually midnight on Thursday, 12th
Indian Standard Time is calculated with September. A whole day is thus gained
respect to the time difference between by travelling from east to west of the
Greenwich and Indian Central Meridian. International Date Line.
• Indian Standard Time (IST) is 5 hours • The International Date Line in the
30 minutes ahead of Greenwich Mean mid-Pacific curves from the normal
Time. 180° meridian at the Bering Strait, Fiji,
• Whole world is divided into 24 standard Tonga and few other islands to prevent
13
confusion of date and time as few of the islands falls on both sides of the International
Date Line.
Image 1.6: International Date Line
14
CHAPTER - 2
THE ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF THE

EARTH
Introduction Binary Theories:

• In 1900, Chamberlain and Moulton
• The universe is almost 13 billion years refined the Nebular theory analysis.
old. Huge clusters of galaxies comprise • They considered that when a wandering
the universe. star approached the Sun, a cigar
• There have been many theories shaped extension came out of the solar
proposed by various experts which surface.
attempt to explain the origin and • And when the passing star moved away,
evolution of the Universe. the material separated from the solar
• Different scientists and philosophers surface (as the extension) continued to
have put forward many hypotheses revolve around the Sun and slowly those
and theories regarding the evolution of materials condensed into planets.
the Earth and Universe. • Later, scientists Sir James Jeans and
• There have been many early theories Harold Jaffrey also supported this
propounded by philosophers, but they theory arguments which were called
had lacked proper scientific backing. Binary Theories.
That led to the formation of new
modern theories.
Revised Nebular Hypothesis:
Early Theories: • Revised Nebular Hypothesis was given
by Otto Schmidt of Russia and Carl
Origin of the Earth Weizascar of Germany in 1950.
• They regarded that the Sun was
Nebular Hypothesis: encircled by solar nebula comprising
of mostly Hydrogen and Helium along
• This theory is proposed by German
with dust particles.
philosopher Immanuel Kant and revised
by mathematician Laplace in 1796. • The friction and collision of particles
helped in the creation of a disk shaped
• Kant argued that gaseous clouds—
cloud and the planets formed by the
nebulae, which slowly rotate, gradually
process of accretion.
collapse and flatten due to gravity and
eventually form stars and planets.
• As the nebula shrank, it flattened and • (Note: -In astrophysics, accretion is the
shed eight angular momentum rings of accumulation of particles into a massive
material, which later collapsed into the object by gravitationally attracting
planets. more matter, typically gaseous matter.)
• Sun was regarded as young and slowly • These theories only attempted to
rotating body. Planets were considered explain the formation of our solar
to be formed out of a cloud like system and did not quite explain the
substance associated with Sun. genesis or origin of the entire Universe.
15
Modern Theories sought to explain the And an alternative was provided to this
origin and evolution of the Universe and theory by Hoyle’s concept of Steady
therefore automatically in the process State.
explained the formation of our Earth.
Steady State Theory

Modern Theories:
• The standard model of cosmology is
Evolution of the the Big Bang Theory of how things
Universe
came to be; however, there have been
a few different theories for the universe.
Big Bang Theory • Steady State Hypothesis proposes the
possibility that the universe looks a
• This is the most popular theory of the similar regardless of the perspective
Origin of the Universe and it is called and that the universe has consistently
as the Big Bang Theory or Expanding resembled this. Basically, the hypothesis
Universe Hypothesis. expresses that the universe is uniform
• On witnessing that the galaxies move all through both existence.
far away from each other and the • The favorable position of Steady State
distance between them increasing, hypothesis over some different theories
Universal expansion is proved by Sir is its basic and stylish clarifications of
Edwin Hubble in 1920. certain irksome subjects.
• Big bang theory can be explained in • For instance, since the universe is
three developmental stages: perpetual all through time, the universe
needs no tangled clarification of its
» At first, all matter forming the universe start. Likewise, to represent the decline
existed in one place in the form of a tiny in density that would result from
ball (this tiny ball called as ‘Singularity’) expansion, steady state hypothesis
with small volume as an atom, having asserts new matter continually should
infinite mass (density) and temperature. be made to keep a constant density
» A violent explosion (bang) of tiny ball (and hence a static appearance).
happened which resulted in huge • The steady State hypothesis offered
expansion. As the ball continued to straightforward answers for the manner
expand, there were changes of some in which the universe worked, yet the
particles into energy form. That means, astronomers found that the universe
some energy was converted into matter. really develops over the long haul.
There was a particularly rapid expansion
within fractions of seconds after the • The end of the steady State hypothesis
bang. Thereafter the expansion slowed came in the last part of the 1960's with
down. This happened about 13.7 billion the discovery of the Cosmic Microwave
years ago and continues till today. Background.
» Then the temperature dropped to • Steady State Hypothesis could offer no
4,500K (Kelvin) after 300,000 years of persuading clarification for the CMB
explosion, atomic matter is formed and and thus this hypothesis was dismissed
the universe became transparent. on grounds to an excessive amount of
straightforwardness.
• The expansion of the universe meant
increase in space between the galaxies.
16
Cosmic microwave background (CMB):

Formation of
• It is thought to be leftover
electromagnetic radiation from Planets
the Big Bang, or the time when the
universe began. • The formation of planets started after
• These this radiation are invisible. the formation of the stars.
But using optical telescopes, radio • The stars are restricted piece of gases
telescopes they can be detected. found in nebula.
• The gravitational power prompted the
development of the center.
Formation of Stars • A gigantic turning gas plate and residue
develops around the gas center.
• The dissemination of matter and energy
was lopsided in the universe. • In the following stage the gas cloud
begins getting dense and the matter
• The density difference offered ascend around the center forms into little
to differences in gravitational powers. rounded items.
It made the matter get drawn together
and lead to formation of galaxies. • The little rounded items formed into
Planetesimals because of the procedure
• Galaxy contains enormous number of of cohesion.
stars. It begins shaping by collection
of Hydrogen gas as cloud. The denser • Larger bodies began forming because
gases were consolidated into stars. The of impact and attraction making the
distance between the stars is measured materials remain together. At the
with light years. last stage, the small planetesimals
accumulate to form large bodies in the
• One light year can be defined as the form of planets.
distance covered by light in one year
(the speed of light is 3 lakh km. per
OUR SOLAR
second). It should be remembered that
it is a measure of distance and not of
time.
• The average diameter of the stars is
SYSTEM
80,000 to 1, 50,000 light years.
• A galaxy starts forming by accumulation
of Hydrogen gas in the form of a large
cloud called Nebula.
• The Nebula develops localised clumps
of gas. These clumps continue to grow
into denser gaseous bodies.
• The denser gases were condensed
into stars. The formation of stars are
believed to have formed 5-6 billion Image 2.1: Solar system
years ago.
• Our solar system consists of eight
• The mean distance from the Sun to planets
Earth is 8.311 minutes in terms of light
• Nebula of our solar system started
year.
collapsing about 5-5.6 billion years ago.
17
• The planets were formed around 4.6 • Until recently (2006), Pluto was
billion years ago. considered a planet. However, in
• Our solar system comprises of eight a meeting by the International
planets, 146 Moons, millions of asteroids Astronomical Union, Pluto was declared
comets, huge quantity of gas and dust. a dwarf planet.
• There are in general two types of planets

- inner planets and outer planets.
• Among the eight planets the first four
The Moon
planets are Inner planets, which are also
called rocky or terrestrial planets. The
Formation
rest of the planets are outer planets and • The Moon is the solitary natural satellite
are called gaseous or Jovian planets. of the Earth.
Planetesimal Hypothesis: • In 1838, Sir George Darwin proposed
A planetesimal is an object formed from that at first the earth and the Moon
dust, rock and other materials. The word becomes a single quickly rotating body.
has its roots in the concept infinitesimal, • The entire mass turned into a body
which indicates an object too small to having dumb-bell shape and ultimately
see or measure. Planetesimals can be it broke.
anywhere in size from several meters to • The material isolated from the Earth
hundreds of km. The term refers to small became Moon and the spot turned
celestial bodies formed during the creation into the present-day depression of the
of planets. According to the planetesimal Pacific ocean.
hypothesis, when a planetary system is
forming, there is a protoplanetary disk • This hypothesis anyway isn't
(A protoplanetary disk is a rotating disk acknowledged at this point. The
of dense gas and dust surrounding a current hypothesis is the Giant Impact
young newly formed star) with materials hypothesis/Big splat hypothesis.
from the nebulae from which the system • An enormous body, which is one to
came. This material is gradually pulled thrice the size of Mars slammed into the
together by gravity to form small chunks. Earth not long after its development
These chunks get larger and larger until and shot a huge bit of the Earth into
they form planetesimals. space. (That segment was isolated from
The rocky planets were formed in the the earth).
close vicinity of the parent star or the Sun • The same segment became a Moon
where it was too warm for the gases to which spins around the earth. The
condense to solid particles. The gaseous Moon is believed to have been formed
or the Jovian planets were formed at about 4.4 billion years ago.
quite a distant location from the Sun. The
solar wind being quite intense near the
Sun, blew off lots of gases and dust from
the terrestrial
Evolution of the
• The rocky planets cannot hold the Earth
gases hence it blew off due to the Sun’s
gravity. But the gaseous planets cannot • Initially our earth was an infertile, rough
strip off their gases hence holds large and hot body. A long time later the earth
amount of gases resulted in larger began to cool off. This in the long run
radius and low density. made the Atmosphere and lithosphere.
18
• Earth has concentric layers from surface • Due to gradual increase in density, its
to the central part of earth, such as temperature increased.
Crust, Mantle and the Core. • The material started getting separated
• Atmosphere is made from the depending on their density. Lighter
phenomena called Degassing (ejection material came outside and heavy
of gases from inside earth) and material went inside the earth.
Photosynthesis. • As the time passed, it cooled further and
• The vapour of water began to solidified and then condensed into a
consolidate which dissolved further smaller size. This led to the development
more CO2. This brought hefty rain. of the outer surface in the form of crust,
Hydrosphere made of seas and water which is called the lithosphere.
bodies was shaped 4000 million years • At the time of Moon formation, due
back. to the giant impact, the earth again
• Life on earth began under chemical became hot. Due to the phenomena
conditions of early Earth. Life started as of differentiation, the earth forming
unicellular creatures, 3800 million years material got separated and different
prior. layers were formed.
• The earth, which was initially infertile, • Starting from the surface to the central
rugged and hot, was composed of part, we have the layers like crust,
Hydrogen and Helium, which formed a mantle and the outer and the inner
thin atmosphere. core.
• The atmospheric matter has the least • From crust to the core, the density of
density. the materials increases.
• From the farthest end of the atmosphere
to the centre of the earth, the material
that is present is not uniform.
• The Earth has a layered design. Lighter
layer is framed at the external surface. Evolution of
So, the thickness of Earth increases
towards the center.
Atmosphere and
• From the surface to more profound Hydrosphere
depths, the inside of the Earth has
various zones and each of these • There are three stages of the formation
zones contain materials with different of the atmosphere.
qualities. • In 1st Stage: The early atmosphere
• Earth was shaped about 4.6 billion consists of Hydrogen and Helium.
years prior. There is loss of primordial atmosphere
due to solar winds.
• In 2nd Stage: The hot inside of the
Evolution of Earth added to the advancement of the
atmosphere. Gases were released from
Lithosphere the interior solid earth, for example,
water vapour and different gases like
• The earth was mostly in a volatile form Nitrogen, Carbon Dioxide, Methane,
during its formation stage (during its ammonia and minimal free Oxygen.
creation). The procedure of overflowing the gases
19
from the inside of the earth is called

degassing. This started the evolution of Origin of Life
the present atmosphere.
• The last phase of the evolution of Earth
• As the earth cooled, the water vapour stands towards the origin and evolution
released started getting condensed.
of life on it.
The carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
got dissolved in rainwater and the • It is very much clear that at the start
temperature further decreased causing the earth or even the atmosphere
more condensation and more rains. of the earth was not suitable for the
Downpour water gathered into the development of life.
deep pits( depressions) called as • Modern scientist believes that the origin
oceans. The oceans were formed about of life is a kind of chemical reaction,
4000 million years ago and life began which generated complex organic
to evolve about 3800 million years ago. molecules and it happened in oceans.
The photosynthesis evolved about 2500
• Because of lightning, the complex
to 3000 million years ago.
organic molecules got combined into
• Oceans started to contribute Oxygen a certain form which were then able to
to the atmosphere through the process duplicate themselves. They are known
of photosynthesis. Oceans were as first single celled animals. They were
eventually saturated with Oxygen and able to convert inanimate things into
2000 million years ago, Oxygen began animate things.
to flood into the atmosphere.
• The earliest form of life, which were
• In 3rd Stage: Living organisms changed microscopic structures closely related
the composition of the atmosphere to blue algae, have been found in
through the process of photosynthesis. geological formations which existed
about 3000 million years ago.
20
CHAPTER - 3
THE EARTH’S CRUST AND INTERIOR
• The life on Earth first began about 3800 Drilling Project’. The deepest drill is at
million years ago. Kola, in the Arctic Ocean, which has so
• The radius of Earth is 6,370 km. So, it far reached a depth of 12 km.
is an almost impossible for humans to • Volcanic eruption delivers information
reach till Earth’s centre. by means of molten magma that comes
• It is preposterous to think about the out of Earth’s interior. But it’s tough to
inside of the Earth by direct observation determine the depth of the origin of
in view of the enormous size and the such magma.
changing nature of its interior. • Surface rocks are indeed readily
• Through mining and drilling processes, available material of Earth.
we can notice the inside of Earth • Gold mines go to a depth of around
directly simply up to a depth of few km. 5 km. These mines provide good
The fast rise in temperature beneath opportunities to study earth's interior to
the Earth's surface is primarily liable a limited extent.
for setting a limit to direct perceptions • However, these direct sources can only
inside the earth. ascertain the information about the
• Nature of the surface of the earth is a earth’s interior only to a small extent.
product of exogenic (forces originating
on or above the surface of the earth)
and endogenic (forces originating Indirect Sources
within or beneath the surface of the
earth) processes on Earth. It is the only • Temperature and pressure: An
endogenic (inside forces) processes that increment in temperature and pressure
determine the interior configuration of with depth implies an increment in
earth. density too. Subsequently it gets
conceivable to decide the rate of
• By means of some direct and indirect change of characteristics of the material
sources, the scientists have a fair idea
of the earth. This has prompted the
about how the earth’s interior looks like.
information on the layers of earth.
• Meteors: These are extra-terrestrial
Sources of the masses arriving at the Earth's surface.
They have material and design like
Interior of the Earth that of our Earth and give information
about the materials of which the Earth
Direct Sources is framed of.
• Gravitation force (g): The force applied
• Deep Ocean drilling shows humongous by the Earth on everything in its
information through analysis of
reach isn't equal along all latitudes;
materials collected at different depths.
it is variable over different places.
• Scientists from whole world are working Observations shows that gravitational
on two projects named, ‘Deep Ocean power is relatively more at the poles
Drilling Project’ and ‘Integrated Ocean and less at the equator. This is due to
21
increased distance from the center. This waves from quakes as they travel
difference in gravity (also called gravity through the Earth. The inner core of
anomaly) is likewise ascribed to the the Earth looks to be solid while the
lopsided material mass distribution. external core is in liquid form (S-waves
• Magnetic Surveys: The dissemination don't travel through liquid). The Mantle
of magnetic materials gives the idea is principally solid because it is under
of the magnetic field of Earth which tremendous pressure. We realize that
indicates density and type of material the Mantle rocks are under lot of
present in the interior of the earth. pressure, diamond is made up of carbon
stores and is made in rocks that come
• Seismic Activity: This gives the most from depths of 150-300 km which have
important evidence of the interior of been crushed under huge pressure.
the earth. Earthquakes give a fair idea
of the interior of the earth. The study • The Earth is a circle with diameter of
of seismic waves or the earthquake around 12,700 Km. As we go further
waves provides a complete picture of and more deeper into the earth the
the layered interior. temperature and pressure rise. The
temperature at the core is believed to
be an enormous 5000-6000°c.
Structure of the • The outside layer i.e. Crust is extremely

thin (average 20Km). The most
Interior of the Earth thin parts are under the oceans
(Oceanic crust) and go to a depth of
• The most profound anybody has bored approximately 10 km. The thickest parts
into the earth is around 12 km. How are the Continents (Continental Crust)
would we understand what's happening which reach out down to 35 km on an
in deep underground? There are bunch average. The continental crust in the
of pieces of information: Himalayas is nearly 75 km deep.
• The density of the Earth is a lot higher • The Mantle is the layer underneath the
than the density of the rocks we find in crust which reaches out about halfway
the crust. This reveals to us that inside to the centre. It's made of solid rock
should be made of something a lot and have characteristics like that of a
denser than rock. very viscous liquid. The convection of
the heat from the centre point of the
• Meteorites (made simultaneously as Earth is the thing that ultimately drives
the Earth, 4.6 billion years back) have the movement of tectonic plates and
been analysed. The commonest type is cause mountains to rise.
known as a contrite and they contain
Iron, Silicon, Magnesium and Oxygen • The outer core is the layer underneath
(Others contain Iron and nickel). A the Mantle. It is made of liquified Iron
meteorite has generally a similar and nickel. Complex convection flows
density as the entire earth. A meteorite offer rise to a dynamo effect which is
minus its Iron has a density generally responsible for the Earth's magnetic
equivalent to Mantle rock (for example field. The inner core is made of strong
the mineral called olivine). Iron and nickel. Temperatures in the
center are believed to be in the range
• Iron and Nickel are both dense and of 5000-6000°C and still it is in solid
magnetic. form because of the huge pressure.
• Scientists can follow the way of seismic
22
The Crust in Earth's surface cools, it becomes

young oceanic crust.
• It is the peripheral solid part of the • It is destroyed in subduction zones.
earth. It is brittle or weak in nature.
Subduction is the significant geologic
• The thickness of the crust changes interaction wherein a tectonic plate
under the maritime and continental made up of dense lithospheric material
zones. Maritime or oceanic crust is melts or falls below a plate which is
more thin when compared with the made out of less-dense lithosphere at a
continental crust. convergent plate boundary.
• Oceanic crust has a mean thickness
of 5 km while that of the continental is
around 30 km. Continental Crust:
• The continental crust is thicker in the • Continental crust is generally made out
territories of major mountain ranges. of various kinds of granites.
Ex: It is just about as much as 70 km • Major constituent components of crust
thick in the Himalayan locale. are Silica (Si) and Aluminum (Al) and
• The crust of the Earth includes almost in this way, it is frequently named as
1% of the Earth's volume and 0.5% of SIAL (sometimes SIAL is utilized to
earth's mass. However, it contains all allude Lithosphere, which is the locale
known life in the universe. comprising the crust and uppermost
solid Mantle).
• Earth's crust is broke by a discontinuity
into Upper and lower continental crust. • Continental crust is quite often a
lot more older than oceanic crust.
• The zone of transition between these
Since continental crust is infrequently
two sorts of crust is called the Conrad
destroyed and reused during the
discontinuity.
process of subduction, some sections of
• Silicates (generally compounds made continental crust are close to as old as
of Silicon and Oxygen) are the most the actual Earth.
bountiful rocks and minerals in both
oceanic and continental crust.
• The mean density of material in
continental crust is little bit less than
oceanic crust.
Oceanic Crust: • Cratons are the most seasoned and
most stable piece of the continental
• It broadens 5-10 km underneath the lithosphere.
ocean depths and is generally made
out of various kinds of basalts. • The discontinuity between the
continental crust at which the seismic
• Silicate and Magnesium, the most wave velocity increases in a spasmodic
plentiful minerals in oceanic crust and
manner. This boundary can be found in
consequently, it is often termed as
various continental regions at depths
SIMA.
ranging from 15 to 20 km; however,
• The mean density of material in it is not found in oceanic regions.
oceanic crust is 2.7 g/cm3 (gram/cubic
centimeter).
• Oceanic crust is continually formed at
mid-ocean ridges, where tectonic plates
are tearing apart from one another. As
magma that comes from these cracks
23
CONTINENTAL AREA
deforming area of the upper Mantle
NEAR SURFACE which exists just below the lithosphere.
ROCKS
UPPER CRUST
• It is the main source of magma which
OCEANIC AREA finds its exit to the surface during
volcanic eruptions. Its density is higher
than the crust’s (3.4 g/cm3).
CONRAD
LOWER CRUST
MOHO • It is the layer on which the lithospheric
DISCONTINUITY DISCONTINUITY
plates/ continental plates moves (plate
tectonics).
MANTLE • The area of discontinuity between the
upper Mantle and the lower Mantle is
known by Repetti Discontinuity.
Image 3.1: Crust of the Earth
• The portion of the Mantle which
exists just below the lithosphere and
asthenosphere, but above the core of
The Mantle Earth is called as Mesosphere.
• The portion of the interior of the Earth
beyond the region of Crust is called the
Mantle. CRUST
(30 - 80 km)
• The mantle has reach from Moho’s LITHOSPHERE
(CRUST & UPPER
discontinuity to a depth of 2,900 km. MOST MANTLE) MANTLE
• The discontinuity in between the crust

and Mantle is called the Mohorovicic LIQ
UI
D
CORE
Discontinuity or Moho discontinuity.
LID
• Around 84% of the earth’s volume and SO
67% of the earth’s mass is occupied by 6378 Km

the Mantle of Earth’s interior.
Image 3.2: Cross Section of the
• The temperature of the mantle varies Earth Interior
from about 1000° Celsius near its
boundary with the crust, to 3700°
Celsius near its boundary with the core.
The Core
• In the mantle, heat and pressure
generally increase with depth. The • It is the deepest layer encompassing
geothermal gradient (which measures the Earth's centre.
the increase of heat and pressure in • It represents almost 15% of earth's
Earth’s interior) is a measurement of volume and 32.5% of earth's mass.
this increase.
• The most dense strata of the interior
• The density of this layer is greater than of the earth is the Core. The material
the crust and varies from 3.3–5.4 g/cm3. density at the mantle core boundary is
• Lithosphere consists of uppermost solid around 5 g/cm3 and the density value
part of the Mantle and the entire crust. is around 13 g/cm3 at the center of the
Its thickness ranges from 10-200 km. earth at 6,300 km.
• The Asthenosphere (which lies in • The core is comprised of extremely
between 80-200km) is highly viscous, heavy material generally established
mechanically weak and ductile, by nickel and Iron. It is called as the
NIFE layer.
24
• The core is isolated from the mantle by p he

re SEA UPPER CRUST
os SIAL
Guttenberg's Discontinuity. Lit
h LOWER CRUST
MOHO DISCONTINUITY
• The Core comprises of two sub-layers: ASTHENOSPHERE
the outer core and the inner core. UPPER MANTLE
MA
e
h er
o sp REPETTI DISCONTINUITY
Outer Core: M
es
SI
LOWER MANTLE
• The outer core is in liquid state and GUTTEN BURG DISCONTINUITY
around 2,200 km (1,367 miles) thick. OUTER CORE
FE
• It borders the mantle and the inner he
re LEHMANN DISCONTINUITY
sp
core. ar
y
NI
B
INNER CORE
• The liquid metal of the outer core

has exceptionally low viscosity, which
means it can be easily deformed and Image 3.3: Cross-Section of the
malleable. Interior of the Earth
• Earth's magnetic field is made in the
whirling outer core. Magnetism in the
outer core is around fifty times more Temperature of the Earth’s
stronger than it is on a surface.
Interior
• The rise in temperature with rise in
Inner Core: depth is observed in various mines and
• The inner core is in solid state and has wells which are deep enough.
a radius of around 1,220 km. (758 miles). • These observations along with molten
• The discontinuity between the upper lava erupted from the interior of earth
core and lower core is called as supports that the temperature rises
"Lehmann-Bullen discontinuity." towards earth’s centre.
• The temperature of the inner core is • Different observations show that the
far over the melting point of Iron. In rate of rise of temperature is not uniform
any case, in contrast to the outer core, from the surface towards the earth’s
the inward core isn't liquified nor even centre. It is slower at some places and
molten. This is on the grounds that the faster at other places.
inner core's intense pressure keeps the • At beginning, this rate of increase of
Iron from melting. temperature is at average rate of 10°C
• Sometimes, barysphere is used to allude for every 32 meters increase in depth.
to the core of the earth or sometimes • While in the upper 100 km, the increase
the entire interior. in temperature is at the rate of 120°C /
km and in the next 300 km, it is 200°C/
km. But if we go further deep, this rate
reduces to a mere 100°C /km.
• Hence it is assumed that the rate of
increase of temperature underneath
the surface is decreasing towards the
centre or the core ( not to be confused
rate of increase of temperature with
that of increase of temperature.
Temperature is always increasing from
25
the surface of Earth towards the centre

or core). Earth Movements
• The temperature at the center is
estimated to be between 30000°C and
and Major
50000°C, but it could be much higher
due to chemical reactions under such
Landforms
high-pressure conditions. • The earth movements are caused
• Even in such a high temperature too, by two types of processes or forces:
the materials at the earth’s centre are in Exogenic and Endogenic processes.
solid state due to the extreme pressure • Exogenic processes are those which
of the overlying materials. generate on or above the surface of
the earth. The mechanism and agents
of denudation—running water, wind,
Pressure of the Earth’s glaciers, waves and so on—constantly
Interior alter the face of the earth, resulting in
the variety of existing landforms.
• Similar to the temperature, the pressure • Endogenic processes are those which
is also increasing from the surface
generate within or inside the surface of
towards the centre of the earth. It is
the earth.
because of the huge weight of the
overlying materials like rocks. • Deep within Earth's mantle and
lower crust, heat is generated by the
• It is approximated that in the deeper radioactive decay of elements like
portions, the pressure is tremendously
uranium, thorium and potassium. The
high which will be nearly three to four
heat is transferred upward to warm the
million times greater than the pressure
mantle causing it to slowly circulate
of the atmosphere at sea level.
and tug on the plates above.
• At extreme temperature, the materials • The force of these processes causes
underneath will melt towards the
the earth movements which ultimately
centre part of the earth but due to
result in mountain building and plateau
heavy pressure, these molten materials
building and creation of plains.
acquire the properties of a solid and
are probably in a plastic state. This • Since the inception of time, there
is the reason why the inner core is in have been nine orogenic or mountain
solid-state and the outer core is in the building movements where folding
semi-liquid/liquid state. and fracturing of the Earth’s surface
has taken place. Some of them are as
follow:
Density of the Earth's Interior • Oldest mountain building activities
took place in the Pre-Cambrian Period
• Due to the rise in pressure and the (600-3500 million years ago).
presence of heavier materials like Iron
and Nickel towards the centre, the • Caledonian Orogeny (320 million years
density of earth’s layers also goes on ago) - Mountains of Scandinavia and
increasing towards the centre of Earth. Scotland, some mountains in North
America. These ancient mountains
• The average density of the layers goes have now been worn down and eroded.
on increasing from crust to core and it
is nearly 14.5g/cm3 at the very centre. • Hercynian Orogeny (240 million
years ago) - Ural Mountains, Pennies
26
and Welsh mountains in Britain, » When a body of sedimentary rock

Harz Mountains in Germany, the is squeezed from both sides due to
Appalachians in America and the high tectonic forces, it results in folding of
plateau of China and Siberia. These the rock body (creating a wave-like
highlands too have been reduced in structure on the original level surface).
size due to various sculpturing forces. » The upfold waves are called anticlines
• Alpine Orogeny (30 million years ago) - while the troughs or the downfolds are
the Alps, Himalayas, Rockies and Andes called synclines.
mountains. » Whenever the crest of a fold is pushed
too far, an overfold is formed. If pushed
further still, it then takes the form of a
Types of Mountains recumbent fold.
• According to their mode of formation, » In extreme cases, fractures can occur
four main types of mountains can in the crust, so that the upper part of
be distinguished: Structural (fold the recumbent fold gets slide in forward
and block), volcanic and residual or direction over the lower part along the
dissected mountains. thrust plane, forming an overthrust fold.
The overriding portion of the thrust fold
is termed as nappe.
Fold Mountains
COMPRESSION
• These mountains are formed by large
scale earth movements caused due
to internal stress. These stresses are (a)
caused by the increased load of the
overlying rocks, magnetic intrusions
into the crust, flow movements in the SYNCLINE
ANTICLINE
mantle, or the expansion or contraction

of some part of the earth.
• When such stresses are initiated, rocks (b)
are subjected to compressive forces
which result in folding along the zone SHORTENNED
CRUST
of weakness.
• When an area of sea separates two Image 3.4: (a) Horizontal style of crust
plates, sediments settle on the seafloor in before compression
those depressions known as geosynclines. (b) after compression
These sediments slowly gets compressed
into sedimentary rocks. ASYMMETRIC
OVER
• When these two plates move towards ANTICLINE FOLD
FOLD RECUMBENT
SYNCLINE FOLD
each other again, the layers of NAPPE
sedimentary rock on the seafloor gets

crumpled and folded up.
• Eventually,
THRUST PLANE
the sedimentary rock (FAULT LINE)
appears above sea level as a range of Image 3.5: Type of Folding

Fold Mountains.
• It is important here to understand the
process of Folding. • Since the rock strata may have
been elevated to great heights, fold
27
mountains are also called mountains of • On its cooling and solidifying

elevation. underneath the surface, it contracts
• Some new fold mountains are the Alps and the overlying stone may break into
in Europe, the Rockies of North America, enormous squares going up or down.
the Andes of South America, the • An exceptional folding of rocks is in
Himalayas of Asia and Atlas of North general followed by faulting of layers
Africa. These young fold mountains are because of the horizontal force of
still rising under the influence of the tension.
earth's tectonic forces. They are known • Faulting is brought about by tension or
for a variety of rock structures, deep compression, forces which extend or
gorges and the high pyramidal peaks. abbreviate the Earth's crust, making a
• Not every fold mountains have soaring part of it to subside or to transcend the
peaks. The Appalachians, which adjacent level.
extends along east coast of North • The area of land between the two
America, are generally low-lying and parallel faults either rises shaping block
have gentler slopes. Millions of years mountains or horsts or subsides into
back, the Appalachian mountains were a depression named as a rift valley or
taller than the Himalayas. But millions graben.
of years of erosion have taken their toll.
• An old fold mountain may likewise
• Granitic core of such mountains are be left as block mountains because
surrounded by metamorphic rocks, of consistent denudation. These
merging with sedimentary layers along mountains have flat tops, steep fault
the margins. scarps and the subsided bits between
parallel faults are flat-bottomed.
SEDIMENTS &
SOME MAGMA FOLLD
• The Vosges in France, Dark Timberland
FORCED UPWARDS MOUNTAINS mountains in Germany and the Salt
Range in Pakistan are referred to as
typical instances of block mountains.
PLATE
MOVEMENT Sierra Nevada of California (USA);
Wasatch range in the Utah area are
likewise instances of Block mountains.
MAGMA DEEP
MOUNTAIN ROOTS
• River Rhine in Europe moves from a Rift
valley.
Image 3.6: Formation of fold mountains • The Great Rift Valley runs for around
6,000 km from East Africa to Syria
through the Red Sea.
Block Mountains
HORST
• These mountains are shaped when GRABEN GRABEN

incredible blocks of the Earth's crust
might be raised or brought down
during the late phases of mountain
development.
• During the rise of structural mountains,
sometimes magma streams upward NORMAL
into the crust. FAULT
Image 3.7: Development of block mountains
28
Volcanic Mountains existing elevated regions of the land.
• Because they are produced by the • Hills like the Parasnath, Nilgiris, Girnar
accumulation of volcanic material, and Rajmahal in India are some of the
they are also called as mountains of instances of this type.
accumulation. • However, Nilgiris got their present
• The matter is thrown out of earth and height as a result of subsequent uplift.
deposited around the crater to form • Almost each and every mountain of the
a mountain. If the lava is thin (or less Peninsular India with the exception of
viscous) and basic in its composition, the Aravallis are relict mountains
it spreads a long-distance forming a • Mt. Monadnock in the USA is another
flatter cone which is of gentler slope example of residual mountains.
and of low elevation. If the lava is
thick and of acid composition, a small • Residual mountains may also evolve
volcanic cone is the result at the end. from plateaus which have been
dissected by rivers. E.g.: Deccan Plateau,
• Lava is sometimes blown out along with Highlands of Scotland.
ash and cinders. Such a volcanic cone
is called as ash and cinder cone.
ORIGINAL ALMOST DOWN CUTTING BY
• Hawaii island have Mount Mauna Loa FLAT PLATEAU SURFACE RIVERS & GLACIER
which is an example of the former
type (Shield Volcano- gentle slope, low
elevation).
• Japan’s Fuji Yoma and Mt Popa in
Central Myanmar are examples of the
latter one (volcanic cone). MOUNTAINS RESIDUAL
VENT
LAVA
Image 3.9: Residual Mountains
ASH
Types of Plateaus
• A plateau is a flat-topped tableland.
• Plateaus are present in every continent
and take up a third of the Earth’s
landmass.
Image 3.8: Volcanie Mountains
• Plateaus are one of the four major
landforms, along with plains, mountains
and hills.
Dissected or Residual Mountains
• Plateaus, similar to those of mountains,
• They got their present form due may be young or old. India’s Deccan
to erosion by different agents of plateau is one of the oldest plateaus in
denudation. the world.
• This is the reason why they are also • Valleys gets developed as the river
known as relict mountains or mountains water cuts the plateau and flows
of circum-denudation. through it. The Columbia Plateau,
• They were worn down from previously which exist between the Cascade and
29
Rocky mountains in the northwestern Volcanic Plateaus

United States of America, is cut through
by the Columbia River. • It is a plateau produced due to volcanic
activities. There are two main types of
• Sometimes, a plateau is so eroded volcanic Plateaus: lava plateaus and
that it is broken up into smaller raised pyroclastic plateaus.
sections called Outlier Plateaus. They
are basically composed of very old, • Lava plateaus are developed by highly
dense rock formations. Iron ore and coal fluid basaltic lava during numerous
are often found in outliers of plateau. successive eruptions through numerous
vents without violent explosions. They
• They are very useful as they are rich form successive sheets of basaltic lava
in deposits of minerals. As such, many and then solidify to form lava plateau.
of the mining areas in the world are
located in the areas of plateau. • Antrim Plateau of Northern Ireland and
northwestern part of Deccan plateau
• According to the way the form and their are classic examples.
physical appearance, plateaus may be
divided into the following types. • Pyroclastic volcanic plateaus are
developed by massive pyroclastic flows
and they are underlain by pyroclastic
Tectonic Plateaus rocks.
• These plateaus are formed by the uplift • A pyroclastic flow is a basically a dense,
of the earth’s movement and are of fast-moving flow of solidified lava,
considerable size and have uniform volcanic ash and hot gases. It happens
altitude in general. as part of certain volcanic eruptions.
A pyroclastic flow is extremely hot,
• These include continental blocks like burning anything in its path and moves
the Deccan plateau in India or they at a very high speed.
may be tilted like Meseta Plateau of
central Iberia or faulted plateaus like
Harz of Germany. Dissected Plateau
• The plateaus which are bordered by • Through continuous processes of
the mountain ranges (fold mountains weathering and erosion by running
mostly) or are partly or completely water, ice and winds, high and extensive
enclosed within them are the plateaus are worn down and their
intermontane plateaus. surfaces become irregular.
• The word ‘intermontane’ means • It is basically a plateau area that has
‘between mountains’. been severely eroded so that the relief
• Intermontane plateaus are the highest is sharp. Such an area may appear as
and extensive plateaus in the whole mountainous.
world. • Dissected plateaus are distinguishable
• They have almost nearly horizontal rock from orogenic mountain belts by
layers which are raised to great heights the lack of folding, metamorphism,
by vertical movements of the earth. extensive faulting, or magmatic activity
• Ex: The Tibetan Plateau between the that accompanies orogeny (mountain
Himalayas and the Kunlun and the building).
Bolivian plateau between ranges of • Scottish Highlands is an example of a
Andes. dissected plateau.
• In drier areas, vertical erosion by rivers
30
and abrasion by winds, the plateaus Earth.

get dissected into steep-sided tabular • They are developed from horizontally
masses which are termed as Mesas bedded rocks which are comparatively
and Buttes. Such plateaus are found in undisturbed by the movements of crust
Southwestern USA and Spain. of earth.
• It includes The Great Plains of the USA,
The Great Plains of the Russian Platform
Types of Plains and the Central Lowlands of Australia.
• A Plain is a territory of lowland, either
level or undulating. It rarely rises in
excess of a couple hundred feet over Depositional Plains
the sea level. • There are plains developed by the
• A plain is a flat, clearing landmass that deposition of materials brought together
by and large doesn't change much in by various agents of transportation.
height. • They are comparatively flat but rise
• Plains normally are best types of land gently towards adjacent highlands.
and are regularly intensively cultivated • Some of the largest depositional
on the grounds that where the soils plains are because of deposition by
gets deposited as sediments they might huge rivers. They are termed as flood
be fertile and deep and the levelness plains,alluvial plains and deltaic plains.
encourages automation of crop
production; or on the grounds that they • These plains are the most productive
support grasslands which give great agricultural plains of the world,
grazing to domesticated animals. intensively tilled and very densely
populated.
• Plains are normally densely populated
and when they are crossed by rivers, • Nile delta of Egypt is remarked for rice
as a substantial portion of them are, and cotton cultivation, the delta of
their economic significance increases Ganga river for rice and jute cultivation
significantly. while the Plain of North China, where
the Hwang Ho river has spread out a
• The plain of Ganga river, The huge amount of alluvium, supports a
Mississippi Plain and The Yangtze wide range of crops.
Plain are instances of broad flood
fields. The absolute most extensive • Ice-sheets and glaciers might deposit
temperate plains are Grasslands like a widespread mantle of unsupported
Russian Steppes, The North American fluvioglacial sands and gravels in the
Grasslands and Argentina's Pampa. outwash plain or may drop boulder
clay, which is a mixture of various sizes
• Plains are mainly categorised into three of boulders and clay, which forms a
types dependent on their methods of drift plain or a till plain.
development:
• Outwash plains are mostly the barren
lands, for instance, some parts of
Structural Plains Holland and northern Germany, but
boulder clay might be very valuable
• These are structurally depressed zones, for farming land, the Mid-West of the
which make up the absolute most U.S.A. and East Anglia in England are
extensive natural lowlands on the some of the examples.
Earth's surface. They are comparatively
undisturbed horizontal surfaces of the
• In coastal area, waves and winds often
31
move beach materials like sand or are called peneplains (practically

shingle, mud landwards and deposit almost plain) while plains formed from
them on the coastal plain to form wind activity are called pediplains.
marine swamps, mud-flats, tidal and • Rivers, during their course from their
estuarine lowlands. source to the ocean, extends the
• Winds may blow Aeolian deposits- very valleys and augments their banks.
fine particles known as Loess from The projecting spikes are scaled back
interior deserts, or barren surfaces with the goal that the level ground
and deposit them upon hills, valleys lining the river is continually widened.
or plains forming a loess plateau as in Simultaneously, the higher land between
north-west China; or loess plain, as in the waterways is slowly brought down.
the Pampas of Argentina. This helps to These plains are called peneplains.
level an undulating plain by filling up • In glaciated regions, glaciers and ice
grooves and depressions. sheets scour and level the land to form
ice-scoured plains. There are extensive
ice-scoured plains in northern Europe
Erosional Plains and Canada.
• Erosional plains have been levelled • In semi-arid and arid regions, winds
by different agents of denudation, for sweeps away a lot of eroded desert
example, running water, waterways, materials, which lowers the level of land
wind and glaciers which destroy the and forms extensive plains. Mechanical
tough surface and smoothens them. weathering in arid region wears down
• Plain coming about because of the the mountain slope resulting in a
activity of these agents of denudation pediplain or sloping pediments.
32
CHAPTER - 4
DISTRIBUTION OF OCEAN AND

CONTINENTS
CONTINENTAL period in which a super-continent

Pangea was encircled by mega ocean,
DRIFT THEORY Panthalassa.

• Second stage: Around 200 million years
• This theory was basically proposed by back, flight of continents occurred,
Alfred Wegener in the year 1912. continents started to float steadily and
broke into pieces, Laurasia (Angaraland)
• The hypothesis tells about the and Gondwanaland. (India was a part
distribution of the oceans and the of Gondwanaland.)
continents.
• Third stage: During the Mesozoic
• According to Wegener's Continental time, the space among Laurasia and
Drift hypothesis, all the landmasses Gondwanaland got loaded up with
were a solitary continental mass. This Tethys sea and it progressively got
Super Continent was called Pangaea enlarged.
and a Super Sea encompassed theis
landmass. This Super Sea was called • Fourth stage: around 100 million years
the Panthalassa. back the westward drift of North
America and South America prompted
• According to this hypothesis, the the launch of the Atlantic ocean.
supercontinent, Pangaea, started to
split about 200 million years ago. • Fifth stage: It is the Orogenic Stage
in which mountain building action
• Pangaea initially broke into started to occur. While Himalayas and
two enormous land masses as Alps were shaped with the folding of
Gondwanaland and Laurasia framing sediment of Tethys sea, westward drift
the southern and northern components of North and South America prompted
correspondingly. to folded edges and development of
• A sea called Tethys partitioned the Rockies and Andes.
the Pangaea into two tremendous
landmasses: Laurasia toward the north
and Gondwanaland toward the south LAURASI A
of Tethys. PA
NG
EA
GOND
• Drift began around 200 million years WANA
LAND
prior (Mesozoic Era) and the landmasses

started to separate and float away from Earth - 225 million Years AgoE arth - 150 million Years Ago
each other. NORT H ASIA NORT H
• Later, Gondwanaland and Laurasia

AMERIC A AMERIC A
EUROPE
EUROPE ASIA
INDI A
kept on breaking into a few more SOUT H

AMERIC A
AFRICA INDI A
SOUT H
AMERIC A
AFRICA
smaller continents which exist today. ANTARCTIC A

AUSTRAL IA AUSTRAL IA
ANTARCTIC A
Earth - 100 million Years Ago Earth - Today
Stages of Mainland Float Image 4.1: Continental Drift of plates
• First stage: During the Carboniferous
33
Argument for the Continental of these three land masses being

connected in the past, hypothetically
Drift Theory named “Lemuria'”. Also, Mesosaurus (a
• Exact matching of Continents in a small reptile living in brackish water)
skeleton have been found only in two
Jig-Saw-Fit: The shorelines of Africa localities, South Africa and Iraver
continent and South America continent
formation of Brazil, which are 4,800 km.
towards each other show a remarkable
apart presently.
match. If observed carefully, then they
can be seen exactly fitting into a jig-
saw puzzle. Greenland looks a perfect
fit with Ellesmere and Baffin islands. Forces Which Caused Drifting
The west coast of India, Madagascar • Wegener proposed that the movement
and Africa seem to have been joined. accountable for the drifting of the
North and South America on one side continents was instigated by tidal force
and Africa and Europe on the other fit and pole-fleeing force.
along the mid-Atlantic ridge.
• The drift was in two directions:
• Same age rocks across the
oceans: It is established by radiometric » Towards equator because of the
dating methods that the earliest interaction of forces of gravity, pole-
marine deposits on the coastline of fleeing force and buoyancy
South America and Africa continents » Westwards because of the tidal currents
are of Jurassic age, this suggest that because of the earth’s motion (As earth
ocean did not occur prior to that. A belt rotates from west to east on her own
of ancient rocks of 2,000 million years axis, so tidal currents act from east to
from Brazil coast matches with those west direction.)
from Western Africa.
• The polar fleeing force relates to the
• Placer deposits: Occurrences of rich rotation of earth. The shape of the earth
placer deposits of gold in Ghana coast is not a perfect sphere. Earth bulges at
and the absolute absence of source the equator because of the rotation of
rock in the region. Also, the presence of the earth. Centrifugal force increases as
gold bearing veins in Brazil show that we move from the poles to the equator.
obviously gold deposits of Ghana are This rise in centrifugal force has led to
derived from Brazilian plateau when pole fleeing.
they were together.
• The second force which was proposed
• Tillite: It is a sedimentary rock formed by Wegener, the tidal force which is due
out of deposits of glaciers found in the to the force of attraction of the Moon
Gondwanaland system of sediments. and the Sun that develops tides in the
Thick tilliation at base shows prolonged oceanic waters.
glaciation. Counterparts of this are
• Wegener believed that these forces
found in Africa, Falkland island,
would become effective when applied
Madagascar, Antarctica and Australia
over millions of years.
besides India. It proves paleoclimates
and drifting of continents. These • But, later on, these two forces were
landmasses have similar histories. found not enough for drifting of the
continents. This as such is counted as
• Distribution of fossils: Lemurs occur the criticism of Wegener's theory.
in India, Madagascar and Africa, this
information leads to consideration
34
Criticisms of the Continental geological literature.

Drift Theory • A number of post drift discoveries
provided considerable information
• Wegener discusses the role of powers that was not available during the time
like buoyancy, tidal currents and gravity. Wegener put forward his Continental
In any case, these were not sufficiently Drift Theory. These discoveries led
able to float mainlands. to rejuvenated interest in the study
• He advocates directional development of the distribution of the oceans and
either toward the west or equatorward, continents.
However, developments have occurred • Specially the information collected from
every way. the ocean floor mapping provided new
• Alfred Wegener failed to clarify the dimensions for the study of distribution
Pre-carboniferous history. He didn't of continents and oceans.
clarify why the float started distinctly in
Mesozoic-time and not previously.
• The hypothesis didn't take oceans into Convectional Current Theory
account. • Arthur Holmes postulated his thermal
• Proofs intensely rely upon suppositions Convectional Current hypothesis in
and are general in nature. the year 1928-1929 to explain the basic
issues associated with the origin of
• The hypothesis didn't clarify the
major relief features of the surface o
development of oceanic ridges and
the Earth.
Island arcs.
• Crust of Earth is accepted to be too rigid • His main objective was to find the
scientific clarification of the origin of
to even consider allowing enormous
continents and oceans.
scope movements. Wegener's thoughts Direction of plate movement due
have not offered an appropriate system to movement of convection current below
defending the dislodging of bigger

masses for long excursions. lt
ck s
en ro ove pla
ds o
te
ut
prea with it
i-mo ab
• Modern hypotheses like Plate Tectonics

Sem ing the
y
carr
acknowledge the presence of Pangaea

Rising limb of convection current
Heated rock in mantle rises
as less dense
and related land masses yet give a Cools and rink back
down to be reheated
totally different clarification to the Mantle

reasons for drift. Temp:1200°C
Heat source - radioactive decay
POST DRIFT
in the core
Image 4.2: Convection Currents in the Mantle
LEARNINGS • The driving force of mountain building

as suggested by Arthur Holmes is
given by thermal convection currents
• Here is noteworthy to point out that
having their origin deep inside the
for continental drift; most of the proofs
earth. Prime source of the origin of
were collected from the continental
convective currents is excess heat in
regions in the form of distribution of
the substratum where disintegration of
fauna and flora or deposits like tillite.
radio
active elements generates heat
• Lots of discoveries during the post regularly. Actually the whole theory
war period added new information to depends exclusively on the mechanism
35
of thermal convective currents. different topography below the water.

• Due to difference in the temperature, We can categorise the ocean floors into
currents are formed due to disintegration four major divisions:
of radioactive materials inside the
» Continental Shelf
earth, causing thermal differences in
the mantle region. » Continental Slope
• The convective currents starting under » The Deep Sea Plain
the continental crust are more powerful » The Trenches
than the convective currents starting
under the oceanic crust. • An oceanic basin is the land surface
which is divided into minor features like:
» Mid-Oceanic Ridges
The Ocean Floor Mapping
» Guyots
• In depth examination of the sea depths
demonstrated that it isn't only a huge » Trenches
plain but is loaded with reliefs which » The Seamounts
is very indistinguishable from the » The Canyons
mainland surface. CONTINENTAL SHELF
• Movements to plan the floor of seas CONTINENTAL SLOPE

in the post war time frame gave gritty CONTINENTAL RISE
image of the sea alleviation and Continental OCEAN
Crust FLOOR
connoted the presence of submerged
OCEANIC CRUST
mountain ranges and deep channels,
a large portion of which were settled
Image 4.3: Broad Relief of Ocean Bottom
nearer to the margins of continent.
• The mid oceanic ridges were discovered
to be generally dynamic in the matter Continental Shelf:
of volcanic eruptive activities.
• The dating of the stones from the • It is basically the stretched margin
of all continents which is occupied by
oceanic crust uncovered the way that
comparatively shallow gulfs and seas. It
the oceanic crust rocks are much
is the shallowest piece of ocean.
younger than the continental areas.
• Rocks which are equidistant from the
• The shelf normally ends at a steep slope
which is known as the shelf break.
crest of oceanic ridges on either sides
showed almost same qualities in terms • The average width of continental shelf
of their age, constituents, chemical is around 80 km.
composition and magnetic properties. • The Continental shelves are sometimes
And sediments on the ocean floor near extremely narrow or almost absent
the ridge have been found to be thinner. along certain margins where Fold
Mountains run parallel or close to the
coast like the Coasts of Chile, the west
Ocean Floor Configuration coast of Sumatra etc.
• The relief features found on the ocean • The largest shelf in the world is Siberian
floor are called Submarine Relief. shelf in the Arctic Ocean.
• An oceanic basin is the surface of • Lots of sedimentary deposits received
land under an ocean which includes over a long time by the continental
36
shelves, turn out to be the source of • These are the flattest and most
fossil fuels. featureless areas in the ocean. They
• The shallow water on the shelf allows are the levelest places on the Earth’s
Sunlight to penetrate through the water surface.
to the bottom and as such give rise to • They cover most of the part of the
the growth of microscopic plants and ocean floors between the depths of
animals called plankton, which are the 3000m to 6000m.
food for fish. • Abyssal plains are as irregular as the
• As such Continental shelves are of very continental plains with submarine
great importance to man. They are plateaus, hills, guyots and seamounts.
the sources of fish and also minerals • These plains are totally covered with
including sand and gravel, etc. fine-grained deposits like silt and clay.
• One of the important features of the The sediments which are developed
continental shelf is the presence of the from the remains of living things are
submarine canyons which reaches to known as Oozes.
the continental slope inside the ocean. • These oozes can be seen in those seas
• These canyons are actually the ‘steep- which favours an abundant growth of
sided valleys’ cut into the floor of the living organisms.
seas. They are very much similar to the • Another type of sediment is red clay
gorges found on the continents. which have volcanic origin or made up
of tiny particles brought by wind and
Continental Slope rivers.
• The continental slope connects the

continental shelf to the ocean basin. Trenches or Oceanic Deeps
• It starts at a point where bottom of the • Trenches are indeed the deepest parts
continental shelf abruptly falls off into of the oceans.
a steep slope inside the sea. • Trenches are relatively steep sided and
• Trenches and Canyons and are present having narrow basins.
in this region. • They are some 3 to 5 km deeper than
• It extends between the depths of 180m– the adjacent ocean floor.
3600 meters. • They are formed due to tectonic
• They have very meager deposits of activities like ocean-ocean plates
sediments on them due to the steepness convergence or ocean-continent
and increasing distance from the land. convergence.
• Aquatic life is also much lesser here • They are formed at the fringes of
than in the Continental shelves. the deep sea plains at the bases of
• The base of the continental slope has continental slopes and along the island
some deposits of sediments. This belt arc.
of sediment is called Continental Rise. • They are related with active forms of
volcanoes and strong and frequent
earthquakes.
Deep Sea Plain
• This is one of the prime reason why
• Deep sea plain (Abyssal plain) is they are such important landforms in
gently sloping areas found after the the study of movements of plates.
continental slope.
37
• They are very common in the Pacific Submarine Canyons

Ocean and form an almost continuous
ring along the western and eastern
• Submarine Canyons are a sort of narrow
steep-sided valleys.
margins of the Pacific.
• The Mariana Trench off Guam Islands in • It starts either within continental slopes
or on a continental shelf.
the Pacific Ocean is the deepest trench
with a depth of more than 11 km. • Small gorges which start at the edge
of the continental shelf and reach
out down the slope to extraordinary
Mid-Oceanic Ridges depths, e.g., Oceanographer Canyons
• A mid-oceanic ridge is a submerged close to New England.
mountain range, framed by plate • They have a dendritic looks and are
tectonics. deeply cut into the edge of shelf and
• It is made out of two chains of mountains the slope similar to the canyons on the
separated by a large depression. southern Californian coast.
• The mountain ranges can have tops as • Congo Canyon is considered as the
high as 2,500 m and some even reach largest river canyon.
over and above the sea's surface.
• Running for a complete length of 75,000 Guyots
km, these ridges forms the biggest • It is a flat-topped seamount.
mountain system on earth.
• Table mount is its another name.
• These ridges are either wide, similar to
a plateau, gently sloping or as steep- • Estimations show that more than
sided like narrow mountains. 10,000 guyots and seamounts occur in
the Pacific Ocean.
• These oceanic ridge systems are of
tectonic origin and provide proof on
the support of the hypothesis of Plate Atoll
Tectonics. Ex: Mid-Atlantic Ridge
(Atlantic Ocean), East Pacific Rise,
• Atoll is a ring-shaped coral reef
containing a coral rim which
Pacific-Antarctic Ridge.
encompasses a lagoon completely
or incompletely. It can be a part of
Seamount the sea (lagoon), or occasionally form
encircling a body of brackish, fresh, or
• They are mountains having pointed highly saline water.
peaks, mounting from the seafloor and
which do not reach the surface of the • They are basically low islands found in
ocean. the tropical oceans.
CONTINENTAL
GUYOTS SLOPE
• Occasionally
CONTINENTAL MARGIN
they rise above the CONTINENTAL SHELF
CONTINENTAL SLOPE
RIFT VALLEY SEA MOUNTS SHELF BREAK
seawater as isolated islands.

• They are of volcanic origin.
• Generally seamounts are 3,000-4,500 RISE OF MAGMA
meter tall.
Image 4.4: Bottom Relief of Ocean Floor
• Example: extension of the Hawaiian
Islands in the Pacific Ocean which is
known as The Emperor seamount.
38
Sea Floor Spreading proposed the presence of a magma-

driven conveyor belt which ceaselessly
added new ocean bottom, gradually
• This is a part of plate tectonics. Its over the long run, widening the Atlantic
discovery provided a mechanism for ocean basin and pushing apart the
continental drift that Alfred Wegener continents to both sides.
could not explain.
• So, as opposed to plowing through
• In 1912, when Alfred Wegener suggested ocean bottom rocks, Hess suggested
that the continents had once been that it was simply the seafloor that
combined and later separated, the was pushing the continents apart.
greatest shortcoming in his speculation Especially, the mapping of the ocean
was the absence of a mechanism that floor and paleomagnetic studies of
would allow continents to move through rocks from oceanic regions revealed
ocean basins. the following facts:
• At the time, everybody accepted the
oceans were perpetual features and, » It was understood that all along the
at the time of Wegener, there was mid-oceanic ridges, volcanic eruptions
no sound clarification for a way the are generalized phenomena and they
continents might have pushed through brought lots of lava to the surface in
the rocks of the ocean bottom. that particular area.
• But in 1962, a geologist and U.S. Naval » Rocks which are equidistant on either
Reserve Rear Admiral named Harry sides of the crest of mid oceanic ridges
Hess thought of an answer. showcased remarkable similarities in
terms of period of formation, magnetic
• Rather than crashing through ocean properties and chemical compositions.
bottom rocks, Hess recommended Rocks closer to the mid-oceanic ridges
that it was simply the ocean bottom are having normal polarity and are the
that was pushing the continents apart. youngest ones.
He accepted that the location and
topography of the Mid-Atlantic ridge » The ocean crust rocks are comparatively
was not co-incidence. much younger if we compare with the
continental rock.
• The Mid-Atlantic ridge is a ocean ridge MID OCEANIC RIDGE
found along the Atlantic Sea floor. NEWER

CRUST
NEWER
CRUST
• The ridge, he thought, was the place OLDER OLDER

OCEANIC CRUST OCEANIC CRUST
where new ocean bottom was being CONTINETAL

CRUST CONTINETAL
CRUST
added to the Earth's lithosphere, which MAGMA
thus pushed the continents apart. Hess LITHOSPERE LITHOSPERE
called it seafloor spreading. ASTHENOPHERE
• Hess contended that the Mid-Atlantic

ridge was a boundary where two Image 4.5: Sea Floor Sprending
lithospheric plates were rifting (being
pulled apart). As that occurred, rising
magma from the upper part of the Evidence for Seafloor Spreading
mantle filled in the cracks which formed
in the earth's crust. • Most important evidence is the
• Magma solidified into basalt and paleomagnetic rocks. The orientation
igneous rock, extra rifting pulled those or polarity of Iron grains on older rocks
rocks apart, as well. As a result, Hess shows polarity which points to the
39
existence of the South Pole, somewhere the process new crust is created at mid-
between the present-day Africa and oceanic ridges (spreading centers) and
Antarctica (Paleomagnetism). old crust is consumed at convergent
• Older rocks forms the continents while plate boundaries (subduction zones).
the younger ones are present on ocean • The theory proposed that Earth’s outer
bed. Rocks of 3.5 billion years old are shell is divided into various plates which
found on continents and the oldest glide over the mantle, the rocky inner
rocks found on ocean floor is not more layer lying above the core. The plates
than 200 million years old. behaves like a hard and rigid shell
• As we move, towards ridges, more compared to Earth’s mantle. This strong
younger rocks appear. This points to outer layer is called the lithosphere.
an effective spread of sea floor along • In 1967, McKenzie and Parker proposed
oceanic ridges which are also the plate the theory of plate tectonics. It later
margins. outlined by Morgan in 1968.
• The normal temperature gradient • Upto this time, the ‘continental drift
on the seafloor is 9.4°C/300 meter theory’ was completely discarded with
However, close to the edges it gets the emergence of ‘convectional current
higher, demonstrating an upwelling of theory’ and ‘seafloor spreading theory’.
magmatic material from the mantle. • Both ‘convectional current theory’ and
• In trenches, where subduction has ‘seafloor spreading’ paved the way for
occurred (convergent edge), the value the Plate Tectonics theory.
of the gravitational constant 'g' is less. • Lithosphere includes the crust and top
This demonstrates a loss of material. For mantle.
example, gravity estimations around
the Indonesian islands have shown that • The oceanic plates mostly contains the
enormous gravity anomalies are related Simatic crust and are comparatively
with the oceanic trench bordering thinner. However, the continental plates
Indonesia. containing Sialic material are relatively
thicker.
• The certainty that all plate boundary
regions are territories of earthquakes • Plates of lithospheric origin (sometimes
and volcanic disturbances goes to called crustal plates, tectonic plates)
prove the theory of seafloor spreading. varies from minor plates to major
plates, continental plates (Arabian
plate) to oceanic plates (Pacific
Theory of Plate plate), sometimes a mixture of both

continental as well as oceanic plates
Tectonics (Indo-Australian plate).
• These crustal plate movement causes
• The theory of plate tectonics is todays the formation of various landforms
most universally accepted theory by and is the principal cause of all earth
geologists. movements.
• Basic thought is that instead of being • Plate tectonics affects human life in
permanent fixtures of the earth's many important ways.
surface, the continents and ocean
» Earthquakes are caused by them.
basins undergo continuous change.
» Volcanism is product of them.
• Both are parts of lithospheric plates
that move against each other and in » It promotes and cause recycling of
40
elements within the biosphere and America and Pacific plate

between the geosphere and biosphere. • Juan de Fuca plate : Which lies between
» It causes mountain-building. Pacific and North American plates
• Rates of Plate Movement

» The East Pacific Rise in the region of
South Pacific (around 3,400 km. west of
Chile), has the fastest rate (more than
15 cm per year) and Arctic Ridge has
the slowest rate (less than 2.5 cm/yr).
» Indian plate’s movement during its
journey from the south to the equator
was one of the fastest plate movements.
I m a g e 4.6: D i s t r i b u t i o n of P l at e B o u n d a r i e s
Major Tectonic Plates

Forces for Movement of Plates
• Antarctica and the surrounding oceanic
plate • The slow movement of hot, softened
mantle which lies below the rigid plates
• North American plate
is the driving force behind the plate
• South American plate movement.
• Pacific plate • The hot material rises to the surface,
• India-Australia-New Zealand plate spreads and starts to cool off and
then sinks again into deeper depths.
• Africa with the eastern Atlantic floor This cycle is continued over and over
plate to generate a convective flow or
• Eurasia and the adjacent oceanic plate convection cell.
Minor Tectonic Plates • Heat inside the earth comes from
two main sources: residual heat and
• Aegean plate (Mediterranean region). radioactive decay.
• Philippine plate: Which lies Between
the Asiatic and Pacific plate.
• Iranian plate. PLATES INTERACTION
• Arabian plate: Mostly the Saudi Arabian • Major geomorphological features such
landmass as fold and block/fold mountains,
• Turkish plate trenches,mid-oceanic ridges,
volcanism, earthquakes etc. are a direct
• Caroline plate: Which lies Between the consequence of interaction between
Philippine and Indian plate (North of various lithospheric plates.
New Guinea)
• There are three ways in which the plates
• Fuji plate: In the North-east of Australia. interact with each other.
• Cocos plate: Which lies Between
Central America and Pacific plate » Divergent plate boundaries
• Caribbean plate » Convergent plate boundaries
• Nazca plate: Which lies Between South » Transform fault boundaries
41
Divergence Forming the Convergence Forming Convergent

Constructive Edge or Divergent Edge or Destructive Edge
Edge • In this type of interaction, two
• As the name suggests, in this kind of lithospheric plates collides with each
interaction, the plates diverge (move other.
away from each other). • The zone of collision might undergo
• On Oceanic crust, Mid-oceanic ridges crumpling and folding and folded
are formed because of this kind of mountains may emerge.
interaction. Here, the basaltic magma • Suppose one of the plates is an
erupts and spread apart. oceanic plate, it gets subducted in the
• These types of edges are sites of earth comparatively softer asthenosphere
crust formation (hence constructive. of the continental plate and as such,
The volcanic activities are very common trenches are developed at the point of
along these kind of edges. subduction.
• Earthquakes with mostly having • Subducted material becomes hot and
shallow focus are very common across is thrown out forming volcanic islands
divergent edges. and at last dynamic equilibrium is
accomplished.
• The sites at which the plates move
away from one another are called as • There are mainly 3 ways in which
the spreading sites. convergence can occur.
• The best-known example of divergent » Between two continental plates.
boundaries is the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.
At the mid-oceanic ridge in the Atlantic » Between two oceanic plates; and
ocean, the American Plate is separated » Between an oceanic and continental
from the Eurasian and African Plates. plate;
Transcurrent Edge or Conservative
MID OCEANIC RIDGE
Edge Or Transform Fault
• This situation happens when two plates
OCEAN
move past each other.
• In this kind of event, two plates grind
OCEANIC
against each other but there is no
LITHOSPHERE
CRUST
MAGMA creation nor destruction of landform
but just deformation of the existing
ASTHENOSPHERE landform.
• Crust is not produced neither destroyed
Image 4.7: Divergent Boundary as the plates slide horizontally past
each other.
• In oceans, transform faults are the planes
of separation generally perpendicular
to the mid oceanic ridges.
• San Andreas Fault along the western
coast of the USA is the best example of
a transcurrent edge on continents.
42
C C
AR ANI
CH
LC
H NIC
EA
EN
NC
VO
TRE OC LATE
TR
P OCEANIC
CRUST CONTINENTAL
CRUST
LITHOSPHERE
LITHOSPHERE ASTHENOSPHERE
Image 4.8: Convergent Plate Boundaries
margins.
• The normal temperature gradient
on the seafloor is 9.4°C/300 meter.
However, close to the edges it gets
higher, demonstrating an upwelling of
magmatic material from the mantle.
PLA PLA
TE TE
• In trenches, where subduction has
occurred (convergent edge), the value
Image 4.9: Transcurrent Fault of the gravitational constant 'g' is less.
This demonstrates a loss of material. For
example, gravity estimations around
the Indonesian islands have shown that
Evidence in Support of Plate enormous gravity anomalies are related
Tectonics with the oceanic trench bordering
Indonesia.
• Evidence for both Seafloor Spreading
and Plate tectonics are complementary
• The certainty that all plate boundary
regions are territories of earthquakes
(almost the same evidence).
and volcanic disturbances goes to
• Paleomagnetic rocks are the most prove the theory of plate tectonics.
prime proofs. The polarity of Iron grains
on older rocks shows an orientation
which points to the existence of the Significance of Plate Tectonics
South Pole, somewhere between the
present-day Africa and Antarctica • For the scientists, it is a fundamental
(Paleomagnetism). principle for study.
• Older rocks forms the continents while • Novel minerals are thrown up from
the younger ones are present on ocean the core with the volcanic eruptions.
bed. Rocks of 3.5 billion years old are Economically important minerals like
found on continents and the oldest copper and uranium are found more
rocks found on ocean floor is not more frequently closer to the boundaries of
than 200 million years old. plate.
• As we move, towards ridges, more • By using the present knowledge of plate
younger rocks appear. This points to movement, the shape of landmasses in
an effective spread of sea floor along future can be estimated. For example,
oceanic ridges which are also the plate if the present trends continues, South
43
and North America will get separated. • This line of dots coincides with the mid-
A land piece will separate from the oceanic ridges.
African east coast. Australia will move • The shaded belt showing another area
further nearer to Asia. of concentration coincides with the
Alpine-Himalayan system and the rim
of the Pacific Ocean.
DISTRIBUTION OF • In general, the focus of the earthquake
VOLCANOES AND in the areas of mid-oceanic ridges are
EARTHQUAKES at shallow depths whereas along the
Alpine-Himalayan belt as well as the
• A line of dots exist in the central parts rim of the Pacific, the earthquake are
of the Atlantic Ocean almost parallel to deep seated ones.
the coastline.
• The map of volcanoes also shows a
• It further stretches into the Indian similar pattern. The rim of the Pacific
Ocean. is also called rim of fire due to the
• It bifurcates south of the Indian existence of active volcanoes in this
subcontinent with one branch moving area.
into East Africa and the other meeting
a similar line from Myanmar to New
Guiana.
I m a g e 4.10: D i s t r i b u t i o n of Eart hqua ke & Volca no es.
44
CHAPTER - 5
VOLCANISM AND EARTHQUAKES
Introduction form of residual heat in interior of earth.

• There is a huge difference of
temperature between the inner layer
• Volcanic activities have a great
and the outer layers of the earth due
influence on the earth’s landforms.
to differential amounts of radioactivity.
• Volcanism is a term which is related to This temperature gradient gives rise to
all the phenomena associated with the convectional currents in the outer core
beginning and development of molten and the mantle.
rock. These wonders incorporate the
• At the divergent plate boundary,
notable explosive volcanic emissions
molten, semi-molten and sometimes
that are among the most staggering
gaseous material appears on earth at
and unnerving occasions taking all
the available opportunity emerges. The
things together in nature, alongside
earthquakes may expose fault zones by
substantially more tranquil occasions,
which magma may escape.
for example, the sluggish hardening
of molten material underneath the • At convergent boundary, the subduction
surface. of denser plate causes magma at high
pressure which escapes to the surface.
• The molten magma is mobile and forces
Due to high pressure, the magma and
its way into the planes of weakness of
gases escape with great velocity as the
the Earth's crust to escape unobtrusively
pressure is released through eruptions.
or violently to the surface.
• When magma is ousted onto Earth's
surface while still liquid, the movement VOLCANIC ASH CLOUD
is extrusive and is called volcanism; VOLCANO BOMB
when magma sets underneath the MAIN CRATER

surface it is alluded to as intrusive or
CHIMNEY
SECONDARY CONE OF THE VOLLAND

plutonic activity and results in intrusive CONE
SOLIDIFIED LAVA LAYER
igneous features. When it comes out INACTIVE
VOLCANO
explosively, it forms extrusive igneous LAVA FLOW

landforms.
MAGMA CHAMBER
Image 5.1: Structure of Volcano
The Origin of
Lava vs Magma:
Volcanoes
• Magma is the term utilized to denote
• Chemical reactions of radioactive the molten rocks and related materials
substances deep inside the interior of seen inside earth. A weaker zone of
earth creates tremendous heat. the mantle called the asthenosphere,
• Some heat is already available in the usually is the source of magma.
45
• Once this magma came out to the » Sometimes the lavas are so much
earth’s crust through the vent of a viscous that they form a spine or plug
volcano, it is termed as the Lava. at the crater like that of Mt. Pelee in
Therefore, Lava is none other than the Martinique.
magma on the surface of Earth. » Andesitic lava flow occurs mostly along
• The process through which solid, liquid the destructive boundaries (convergent
and gaseous material escape from the boundaries).
earth’s interior to surface of the earth is
called as Volcanism. • Shield lava Or Basic/ Basaltic Lava
» This is the most sweltering sort of
Types of Lava
magma, which have temperatures
around 1,000°C. (1830°F) and are
profoundly liquid.
• Andesitic or Acidic or Composite or » They have dark colour as like basalt,
Stratovolcano lava
which is rich in Iron and Magnesium
» These lavas are extremely viscous and poor in Silica.
having a high melting point. » They stream out of volcanic vent quietly
» They are light-colored, having low and are not explosive.
density and have a high percentage of » Due to their highly fluid nature, they
Silica. stream readily with a speed of 10 to 30
» They flow very slowly and seldom miles each hour.
travel far before getting solidified. The » They influence broad territories,
resultant cone is steep sided. extending out as thin sheets over
» Rapidly solidifying lava in the vent significant stretches before getting
obstructs the flow of the out-pouring solidified (This is the way Deccan Traps
lava, causing loud explosions, throwing were shaped).
away many volcanic bombs or » The resultant volcano is with gentle
pyroclasts. slope and a wide diameter and forms a
flattened shield or dome.
CRATER
EXTENSIVE HIGHLY FLUID STEEPLY STICKY VISCOUS
LAVA SHEETS LAVA SLOPING LAVA WHICH
SIDES CANNOT FLOW FAR
EARTH’S CRUST
Lava Dome or Shield volcano Acid Lava Cone

Image 5.2: Types of Lava
» In this kind of volcanic eruptions, Lava

Type of Volcanic comes out to the surface from the
Eruptions cracks of the rock layers and hence the

fissure eruptions are not explosive.
• Fissure type: Eruption of Lava to the » These eruptions are smooth and the
surface occurs either through Fissure Lava spreads over larger area, as such
eruption or through Central eruption. they form landscapes like plateaus.
46
• Central eruption: In the central volcanic them. Vesuvius (Bay of Naples near
emissions, the lava comes out to the Italy) & Mt. Krakatau (Sunda straits b/w
surface through narrow pipes and Java & Sumatra) were thought to be
accordingly causes a blast, during the extinct & yet both erupted violently.
discharge of magma onto the surface.
The explosive ejections prompts the
development of mountains which are
known as volcanic mountains. The
Landforms
distinctive volcanic Islands all through
the world are volcanic mountains
Associated with
shaped through Focal ejections. Volcanicity
Landforms of Igneous Intrusions
Types of Volcanoes • The landforms developed due to the
solidification of lava either inside or
• There are total 3 types of volcanoes: outside the earth's surface are termed
Active, Dormant and Extinct. as volcanic landforms.
• Geological processes controls the
characteristics of various volcanic
landforms. On the basis of cooling
of magma, volcanic landforms are
categorized into intrusive igneous and
extrusive igneous landforms.
ACTIVE DORMANT EXTINCT • Plutonic rocks are developed when the
magma cools within the earth's crust.
Image 5.3: Types of Volcano Different types of intrusive igneous
rocks are formed due to the intrusive
activity of volcanoes.
• Active Volcanoes frequently erupt
or have erupted in recent times. • Batholiths
That means such volcanoes keep on » Batholiths are intrusive igneous rocks
ejecting volcanic material at frequent masses formed due to the cooling and
intervals. For example, Mt Etna (Italy), condensation of Magma inside the
Stromboli (Sicily–largest island in the earths surface. These rocks appear on
Mediterranean Sea, near Italy). Mt the surface after the erosional process
Stromboli is also called the Lighthouse erodes the materials which exist above
of the Mediterranean these rocks.
• Dormant Volcanoes are those in » Batholiths forms the core of large
which eruption has not occurred for mountains and they get exposed to the
a long time but can occur any time in surface after the erosional activities.
future. Barren Island (Andaman, India), Batholiths are granitic intrusive igneous
Vesuvius (Italy). rocks.
• Extinct Volcanoes are those where » Example: Wicklow Mountains in Ireland,
no eruption has occurred in historic the uplands of Brittany, France and
times & possibility of future eruption Main Range of Malaysia.
is also remote. For example, Mt. Popa
(Myanmar), Mt. Fuji in Japan. However, • Laccoliths
we can never be thoroughly sure about
47
» Laccoliths are the large dome-shaped » For example, Corndon Hill in Shropshire,
(igneous mound) intrusive igneous England.
rocks that are connected by a pipe like
conduit with magma. • Sills
» These intrusive igneous rocks looks like
a composite volcano structure, but they
» Sills are intrusive igneous rocks which
are formed by the solidified and near
are found below the earth’s surface.
horizontal lava layers inside the earth.
» It arches up the overlying layer of
sedimentary rocks.
» Erosion of the overlying sedimentary
strata will expose the intrusion which
» For example, Henry Mountains in Utah, will resemble a lava flow or form an
USA and plateau of Karnataka. escarpment.
• Lopolith » The thin deposits of these rocks
are called sheets, while the thicker
» Lopolith is developed when the Magma horizontal deposits are known as sills.
moves upwards, further, a portion of this » For example, Great Whin Sill of N.E.
magma moves in a horizontal direction England.
where it gets a weak plane. When it
forms into saucer shape, it is known as • Dykes
Lopolith.
» For example, the Bushveld lopoliths of » If Magma moves upside through the
cracks and fissures and condense
Transvaal, South Africa
almost perpendicularly to the earth's
• Phacolith surface, developing a structure like a
wall, they are known as dykes. They
» If a wavy mass of intrusive igneous rocks are the most common type of intrusive
are developed at the base of synclines igneous rocks in Western Maharashtra
or on the top of anticlines having a and other parts of the Deccan traps.
definite opening with the magma » For example, Cleveland Dyke of
chambers below, they are termed as Yorkshire, England and Isles of Mull and
laccoliths. Arran, Scotland.
48
Landforms of Extrusive of a steep conical hill having loose

pyroclastic fragments which include
Igneous Rocks volcanic clinkers, volcanic ash (scoria)
• As the lava and other volcanic materials and cinder surrounding the vent.
are tossed out to the Earth's surface » Cinder cone volcanoes are completely
during volcanic emissions, the extrusive made out of the loose grainy cinders
igneous landforms are framed. and lacking lava. They usually have very
• It incorporates volcanic Lava, steep sides along with a small crater on
pyroclastic trash, ash, volcanic bombs its top. They are small volcanoes.
and gases, for example, sulfur dioxide,
Nitrogen compounds and different
• Composite Volcanoes
gases. » They are mainly cone shaped with
• The conical vent and fissure vent moderate steep sides.
» The narrow cylindrical vent through » The andesitic lava, together with the
pyroclastic materials and ashes which
which lava flows out to the crust during
find their exit into the ground gets
a volcanic activity is called as a conical
accumulated in the vicinity of openings
vent. These vents are more common
of vent. This forms layers, which
in the composite (or strato volcanic)
makes the volcanic mounts appear as
volcanoes.
composite volcanoes.
» The fissure is typically a narrow linear
vent through which lava comes out to
» Composite volcanoes are also known
as strato volcanoes.
the crust of earth during a volcanic
eruption. These types of vents are » Composite volcanoes are related with
generally found in the areas of basaltic the eruption of cooler and relatively
volcanism. higher viscous lava than the basaltic
lavas. They often cause explosive
• Shield Volcanoes volcanic eruptions.
» They are characterized by gentle upper » Example, Stromboli, the Lighthouse of
slopes and little steeper lower slopes. Mediterranean, Mt. Fuji etc.
» They are made up of comparatively • Caldera
fluid lava and mostly, the low viscosity
basaltic lava which is high in fluidity » The most explosive volcanoes on earth.
form Shield volcanoes. It leads to the » They are generally so explosive that
formation of extrusive igneous rocks. when they erupt they generally collapse
» They are non-explosive mostly, but they on themselves rather than building
can become explosive if water enters any tall structure. These collapsed
the vent. depressions are termed as calderas.
» Shield volcanoes are the largest » Explosiveness in them indicates that
volcanoes of the world. They spreads to its magma chamber is large and lies in
greater heights and distances. close vicinity.
» Mauna Loa volcanoes of Hawaii is an » Caldera differs from a crater: A caldera
example of Shield volcano. is a huge depression caused by a
collapse after a large-scale eruption,
• Cinder Cone whereas a crater is a small, steep side,
volcanic depression bored out by an
» A Cinder cone has the characteristics eruptive plume.
49
• Flood Basalt Provinces • Volcanoes of Mid Ocean Ridge

» These volcanoes outpour highly fluid » These volcanoes happens in the ocean
lava that flows for long distances. areas.
» The Deccan Traps in India, which covers » There is a system of mid ocean ridges
most of the Maharashtra plateau, is a more than 70,000 km long which
flood basalt province. stretches through all the ocean basins.
» The central portion of this ridge is a
prime site for frequent volcanoes.
ASH
CLOUD CRATER
VENT
SIDEVENT LAVA FLOW

SUMMIT THROAT
PARASITE
CONE
DYK
E
LAYERS OF
ASH & LAVA FLANK
SI
CONDUIT
LL
EMITTED BY
VOLCANO PIPE BRANCH
PIPE
MAGMA
CHAMBER
Image 5.5: Composite Volcano
OUTLINE OF
ORIGINAL
FORMER
CRATER CALDERA
VOLCANO
MAGMA
Image 5.6: caldera

50
• Volcanoes can be classified on the basis of frequency of eruption, mode of eruption

and characteristic of lava.
Based on Based on Mode Based on

Frequency of of Eruption Characteristics
Eruption of Lava
Fissure type Central

Active Extinct Volcanoes Volcanoes
Eruption type
Dormant of of
Basic Lava Acidic Lava
Image 5.7: Various Types of Volcanos
Destructive Effects Positive Effects of

Associated with Volcanoes
Volcanoes • It creates new landforms like islands,
plateaus and mountains etc.
• Volcanism can be a havoc creating • Volcanic ash and dust are indeed very
natural disaster.
much fertile for farming activities.
• The damage happens due to advancing • Steep volcano slopes prevent extensive
lava which engulfs entire cities.
agriculture, but forestry on them
• Violent earthquakes associated with provide valuable timber resources.
volcanic activity and mudflows of
• Mineral resources, especially the
volcanic ash saturated due to heavy
metallic ores are brought to the surface
rain can bury places in the vicinity.
by volcanoes.
• Ash can precipitate due to rain and • In the near regions of active volcanoes,
totally cover whole cities.
waters in the depths gets heated from
• In coastal areas, seismic sea waves contact with hot magma inside earth
or Tsunamis are an additional danger forming geysers and springs.
which is formed due to submarine earth
• The heat from the interior of earth in
faults where volcanism is in active form.
areas of volcanic activity can be utilized
• The volcanic gases which pose the to generate geothermal electricity.
greatest potential hazard to animals,
• Puga valley in Ladakh and Manikaran
agriculture, people, and property are
(Himachal Pradesh) are promising spots
Carbon Dioxide, sulfur dioxide and
in India for the formation of geothermal
Hydrogen fluoride. Sulfur dioxide gas
electricity.
can facilitate to the formation of acid
rain and air pollution downwind from a • It can also be utilized for space heating.
volcano. • As it is beautiful to see, it can attract
a heavy tourist trade, few landforms
outrank volcanoes.
51
• At several places, national parks have Aleutian Islands of Kamchatka,

been set up, centered around volcanoes. Indonesia, Solomon Islands, Tonga and
• As a source of crushed rock for concrete North Island, New Zealand, the Andes
aggregate or railroad ballast and other and Alaska are part of the Pacific rim
engineering purposes, lava rock is often of fire.
extensively used.
• Volcanoes Alongside the Atlantic
Coast
Distribution of » The Atlantic coast has relatively lower

number of active volcanoes.
Volcanoes in the » However, it has numerous dormant
World volcanoes such as Cape Verde islands,
Saint Helena etc.
• There are mainly three volcanic belts, » The volcanoes of Azores and Iceland
besides many volcanoes which are along the Atlantic coast are basically
outside these belts. active volcanoes.
• As of now, around 480 major active » Mount Cameroon is the only volcano
volcanoes have been found out of active in West Africa.
which about 400 are found around the
Pacific Ocean. Others are in the Alpine
• Volcanoes of Mediterranean Area
belt, Indian ocean,Atlantic Ocean, etc. » Alpine folds, like Vesuvius, Stromboli
Himalayas do not have any active (also known as the Lighthouse of
volcano. Mediterranean) and the Aegean Islands
• The converging plate margins and mid- are the areas of the Mediterranean
oceanic ridges are the regions of high region having active volcanoes.
volcanic activity and earthquakes.
• Volcanoes of Great Rift Region
• Volcanic zones and earthquake zones
are common around the converging » Mount Kenya and Mount Kilimanjaro
plate boundaries. of the East African Rift Valley have
• Circum-Pacific belt which is known as some extinct volcanoes.
Ring of fire & houses around 2/3rd of
world’s Volcanoes • Volcanoes in other parts of the world
• Mid-Continental belt has various » Other regions such as West Indian
volcanoes of the Alpine mountain Islands have experienced some volcanic
chain, Mediterranean Sea (Stromboli, activity in the recent past. Mount Pelee
Vesuvius, Etna etc.) of the Lesser Antilles is a volcanic Island
• Mid-Atlantic belt includes the volcanoes where the last eruption took place in
of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. 1929.
• Pacific Ring of Fire • Volcanoes in India
» Circum Pacific region or the Pacific Ring » The Barren Island of Andaman and
of Fire has the largest concentration of Nicobar Islands which is in the northeast
active volcanoes in the entire world. of Port Blair is a volcanic island. The
It has around two thirds of the active Barren Island volcano was the last
volcanoes. active recently in 2017 and in 1991 and
» Japan, the areas of the Philippines, 1995.
52
» Narcondam which is in the north-east • Geyser

of Barren Island is another volcanic
Island in India. Narcondam volcano » Water or steam at high pressure, along
has not been active in the recent past. its path, gets accumulated into small
Other parts of India do not have an reservoirs, fissures and fractures. Once
active volcano. the pressure goes beyond the threshold
limit, the steam bursts out to the surface
disrupting the water at the mouth.
Hence the name geyser.
» Silicate deposits at the mouth of the
geyser gives them their distinct colours.
» Found in very few regions. Iceland is
famous for its geysers.
» Yellowstone in USA is one of the most
famous geyser.
Image 5.8: Distribution of Volcanoes. Source: • Hot Water Spring

US Geological Survey
» Steam at high pressure seamlessly flows
to the top via the vent and condense at
Geysers and Hot

the surface creating a spring.
» Some springs are colorful because
Springs of the presence of cyanobacteria of
different colors.
• Almost all of the world’s geysers are » Found all across the world.
constricted to three major areas:
Iceland, Yellowstone Park of U.S.A. and GEYSER
New Zealand. STEAM & WATER

WATER
ERUP T TO
ERUPT TO
TO THE
• Iceland have thousands of hot springs. HOT SPRINGS
SUR
SURFFACE
• Geysers and Hot springs have become

tourist attractions like in Japan and BUBBLES
OF GAS
Hawaii. UNDERGROUND
PASSAGE
• Water which percolates into the porous CON TAINING
WATER
rock is subjected to intense heat by WATER HEATED
WATER HEATED
the hard rock underneath which is in DEPTH RISE
VICINITY TO SUR FACE BY CON TACT WITH DEPTH
contact with hot magma.

Image 5.9: Hot Springs & Geysers
• Due to the influence of intense heat,
the water in the capillaries and narrow
roots in the porous rock undergoes
extreme expansion and gets converted Earthquakes
to steam causing high pressure.
• An earthquake (also known as quake,
• As this steam or water at high pressure tremor or tremblor) is the shaking of
finds a way to the surface through
surface of the Earth, due to the sudden
narrow vents and weak zones, they
and spontaneous release of energy into
appear at the surface as geysers and
the Earth's lithosphere creating seismic
hot water springs.
waves.
53
• A fault is actually a sharp break in the Causes of Earthquakes

crustal rocks. The release of energy
happens along a fault. Rocks along a • Most of them are causally related to
fault moves in opposite directions. tensional or compressional stresses
built up at the margins of the huge
• As the overlying rock layer presses them,
moving lithospheric plates.
the friction locks them together. But
their tendency to move apart at some • The immediate cause of most shallow
point of time able to overcomes the earthquakes is the sudden release of
friction. Hence, the blocks get deformed stress along a fault, or fracture in the
and eventually, they slide across one earth’s crust.
another abruptly. This causes a release • Sudden slipping of rock formations
of energy and these energy waves along faults and fractures in the earth’s
travel in all the directions. crust happen due to constant change
• Point where the energy is released is in volume and density of rocks due to
known as the Focus or Hypocenter intense temperature and pressure in
of an earthquake. The energy waves the earth’s interior.
travel in different directions to reach • Volcanic activity can also cause an
the surface. earthquake but the earthquakes of
• Point on the surface of earth, which volcanic origin are usually less severe
is nearest to the focus is called the and more limited in extent than the
Epicenter. ones caused due to fracturing of the
earth’s crust.
• The intensity of the earthquake will be
highest in the epicenter and decreases as • Land slipping along the fault lines,
one moves away. All-natural earthquakes divergent,convergent and transform
take place in the lithosphere. boundaries causes earthquakes. E.g.:
San Andreas Fault is a transform fault
• Earthquakes are highly unpredictable
where Pacific plate and the North
and destructive among all the natural
American plate moves horizontally to
disasters.
each other causing earthquakes along
• Tectonic earthquakes are the most the fault lines.
destructive as compared to earthquakes
associated with volcanic eruptions, rock
falls, landslides, subsidence, and other
phenomena that have a small area of
impact and scale of damage. VONCANIC
ARC
Ecicenter TRENCH
CONTINENTAL
SUBDUCTING OCEANIC
Fa
X
LITHOSPHERE
ult LITHOSPHERE
X
W
XX
AD
EARTHQUAKES
AT
I-
XX
BE
Hypocenter
NI
O
(focus)
XX
FF
ZO
NE
Image 5.10: Hypocenter & Epicenter of Image 5.11: Subduction of Plate

Earthquake
54
Types of Earthquakes their foreshock. The mainshocks and

aftershocks are more common.
• Earthquakes can be formed due to a • Mainshocks are of the highest magnitude.
number of sources, most of which are
Aftershocks are basically smaller tremors
results of tectonic processes, usually
that occur in the same general geographic
caused due to the interaction between
area for days-and even years-after the
two lithospheric plates. Rest of the
larger mainshock event.
quakes can be generated by volcanoes
as magma is injected into the Earth’s
crust. For example, earthquakes on the
island of Hawaii are mostly volcanic Seismic or Earthquake Waves
earthquakes. Rest of the Earthquakes • Slipping of land creates seismic waves
are artificially generated due to nuclear and these waves travels in all directions.
explosions. Thus, there are several types
of Earthquakes like: • Seismic waves are developed when
some form of energy stored in Earth’s
» Tectonic Earthquakes: They are most crust is spontaneously released.
common ones and are generated due • These waves are basically of two types
to folding, faulting plate movement of -body waves and surface waves.
the Earth crust plates.
• Body waves are generated because
» Volcanic Earthquakes: They are of the release of energy at the focus
confined to areas of volcanoes and of quake and move in every direction
Pacific ring of fire is the best example passing through the body of the earth.
of it. As such the name is body waves.
» Collapse Earthquakes: They are evident • These body waves then interacts with
in areas of intense mining activity, the surface rocks and generates new
sometimes as the roofs of underground waves called as surface waves. These
mines collapses and cause minor waves moves along the surface.
tremors.
• The speed (velocity) of waves changes
» Explosion earthquakes: This is a minor as they travel through materials with
earthquake due to the explosion of the different elasticity (stiffness). The more
nuclear explosives. elastic the material is, the higher the
» Reservoir Induced Earthquakes: Large velocity.
water reservoirs may induce the seismic • There are basically two types of body
activity because of the large mass of waves. They are P and S waves.
the water. They are called reservoir
induced earthquakes. Ex: Reservoirs of » Primary waves or P waves (longitudinal
Koyna and Warna are responsible for waves and fastest ones).
the earthquakes in south Maharashtra » Secondary waves or S waves (transverse
region. waves and least destructive ones).
• Earthquakes come in three forms of • The third type of wave is called the
clusters named foreshocks, mainshock Surface waves or L waves (transverse).
and aftershocks. They are the most destructive ones.
• Foreshocks are quakes which occur
before a larger shock in the same
location; a quarter of almost all
mainshocks happens within an hour of
55
Image 5.12: Types of Seismic Waves
• Primary Waves (P-waves) • Surface Waves

» Fastest body waves(they are twice the » As body waves interact with surface
speed of S-waves). They are the first rocks, a new kind of wave is generated
ones to reach during an earthquake. known as surface waves.
» They are identical to sound waves, i.e., » They move along the earth's surface.
they are basically longitudinal waves. » Surface waves are basically transverse
Particle movement is in the similar waves.
direction of wave propagation in these
waves. » As such, they create crests and troughs
in the material through which they
» They can travel through all the three travel.
mediums i.e. solid, liquid and gaseous
materials. » Surface waves are basically the most
destructive waves.
» They create density differences in the
earth material leading to stretching • Two common surface waves are L-
and squeezing. waves and Rayleigh waves.
• Secondary waves (S-waves) • Love Waves
» They arrive at surface with some time » These are surface waves causing
lag after the primary waves. horizontal shifting of the earth during
an earthquake.
» Their speed is lower than primary waves
and can travels through solid materials » They move much slower than body
only. waves but are faster than Rayleigh
waves.
» This property of Secondary waves
helped seismologists to conclude that • Rayleigh Waves
the earth’s outer core is in a liquid state.
(Entire zone beyond 105° from the » They follows an elliptical motion.
epicenter do not receive S waves). » It rolls along the ground similar to a
» They are transverse waves i.e. directions wave rolls across a lake or an ocean.
of particle movement and wave » As it rolls, it moves ground up and down
propagation are perpendicular to one and side-to-side in the similar direction
another. in which the wave is moving.
56
» Feeling of shaking during an earthquake EPICENTRE
is due to the Rayleigh wave, which can

be much larger than the other waves.
P - Waves
Compressions
Expansions
SOLID
105˚ CORE 105˚
Undisturbed
P. W IRECT
NO . WAV
medium
AVE
P
DIR E
D
NO
EC
T
S - Waves
Wavelength CRUST
Image 5.14: Seismic Waves & Shadow Zone
» Accordingly, it is observed that the area

beyond 105° does not receive S-waves
Rayleigh Wave
and the area in between 105° to 140°
does not receive P-waves.
Measuring of Earthquakes
• Seismometers are the instruments
Love Wave
which are utilized to measure the
motion of the ground, including seismic
waves generated due to earthquakes,
volcanic eruptions and other sources.
• A Seismograph is another name given
Image 5.13: Earthquake Waves to seismometer.
• The recorded graphical output by a
• Shadow Regions of Waves seismometer/seismograph is called a
seismogram.
» Primary waves pass through all medium
while Secondary waves passes only • There are basically two main scales
through solid medium. used in the seismometers: Mercalli
Scale and the Richter Scale.
» With the help of these properties of
primary waves, seismologists have a • Mercalli Scale:
fair idea about the interior of the earth.
» The scale represents the intensity
» Even though P-waves pass through all of an earthquake by analyzing the
mediums, it causes refraction when it after effects. Ex: How many people
enters from one medium to another. experienced it, how much destruction
» The variations in the direction of waves caused etc. The range of intensity is
are inferred with the help of their record from 1-12.
on seismographs.
• Richter Scale:
» The area where the seismograph
records no waves is called as ‘shadow » This scale represents the magnitude of
zone’ of that wave. earthquake.
57
» Magnitude is expressed in numbers » Zone of young folded mountains and,

from 1-10. It is a logarithmic scale hence » Zone of active volcanoes.
each number increase in Richter scale
means tenfold increase in power of an • The pacific plate boundary is being
earthquake. subducted below American and
Eurasian plate boundaries. The coastal
margins of Asia and island arcs and
EARTHQUAKES festoons (Kamchatka, Sakhalin, Japan,
Philippines) experience both tectonic
DISTRIBUTION and volcanically induced earthquake in
substantial number.
• There are two well defined belts where • Mid-continental belt: This is Alpine-
earthquakes occurs frequently: the Himalayan belt which represents zone
Circum-Pacific Belt and the Mid- of plate convergence. The Indian and
Continental Mountain Belt. African plates are subducted below
• Circum-Pacific Belt: It includes the Eurasian plate causing isostatic and
epicenters of coastal margins of north fault induced earthquakes. About 21%
and South America and East Asia. of total seismic events of the earth
This belt accounts for 65% of the total occur in this belt.
earthquake of the world. It presents • Mid-Atlantic Belt: It includes epicenters
four ideal conditions for the occurrence located along mid-Atlantic ridge and
of the earthquakes viz. several islands near the ridge. This belt
records moderate and shallow focus
» Subduction zone of convergent plate earthquakes. The spreading of seafloor,
boundaries, fissure type of volcanic eruptions
» Junction of continents and ocean and transform faults are causes of
margins, earthquakes in the region.
Image 5.15: Major Earthquake zones
58
CHAPTER - 6
GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES - EXOGENIC

AND ENDOGENIC PROCESSES
• Weathering, mass wasting, deposition
Introduction and erosion are exogenic geomorphic
processes.
• Due to internal and external forces the
• Volcanism and Diastrophism are
earth is constantly changing its surface
endogenic geomorphic processes.
conditions.
• Any exogenic element of nature such
• The earth’s crust is always dynamic as it
that water, wind and ice; that are
moves both vertically and horizontally.
capable of collecting and carrying earth
• The variations in the internal forces materials are called as geomorphic
makes the surface uneven. agent.
• The wearing down of relief features is • If these elements in nature become
called gradation. portable because of gradients, the
• The endogenous or endogenic forces materials are removed and transported
always raise parts of the surface of the over slopes and deposited at a lower
earth and therefore the exogenous or level.
exogenic processes fail to even out the • Like other geomorphic processes
surface of the earth's relief variations. gravitational stresses also play vital
• Variations remain as long as there is role.
a difference between endogenic and • Gravity is the force that binds us with
exogenic forces. the surface and it is the force which
• The surface of the earth is sensitive. is responsible for the movement of all
Human beings however, are using the surface material on earth.
surface intensively and extensively and • It is the directional force stimulating
often very indiscriminately. all downward movements of matter
and it also causes stress on the earth’s
materials.
Geomorphic • Indirect gravitational stresses stimulate
Processes tide and wave induced winds and
currents.
• Geomorphological processes are

• Without gradient (slope) and gravity
there would be no movement and
natural erosion, weathering and
therefore no transportation, erosion and
deposition mechanisms that result in
deposition would have been possible.
the alteration of the earth's surface
materials and landforms. • All movements are due to gradients,
from high pressure to low pressure
• The endogenic and exogenic forces
zones, from higher levels to lower levels,
cause physical pressures and chemical
etc, either on the surface of the earth or
actions on earth materials.
inside the earth.
• This brings about changes in the shape
of the surface of the earth which are
• The movements of the Earth are
movements caused by endogenic or
called as geomorphic processes.
59
exogenic forces in the earth's crust. Such builders.

movements are sometimes referred to • These movements are primarily builders
as Tectonic movements. and have been responsible for building
• The term ‘Tectonic’ derived from the up of different types of landforms.
Greek word ‘Tekton’ which means
Image 6.1: Type of Geomorphic Processes
Endogenic Diastrophism
• All processes that involve elevating,
Processes moving or building up components of
the earth’s crust are categorised as
• These are processes originating from diastrophism.
the interior of the Earth and induce
• These processes are studied under
diastrophism and volcanism in the
following heads:
lithosphere.
• Endogenic forces are primarily land » Orogenic processes leads to Mountain
building forces. They arise from building by way of folding. It affects
rotational friction, radioactivity, tidal long and narrow stretch of the earth’s
friction and primordial heat from the crust. Crust is deformed in the form of
origin of the earth. Examples – continent folds.
building forces, mountain building » Epeirogenic processes leads to
forces, volcanism, earthquakes, etc. Continent building process. It involves
• The energy originating from the earth’s simple deformation of the crust. Under
interior is the main force behind this, uplift or warping of large parts of
endogenic geomorphic processes. the earth’s crust occurs.
• There are variations in geothermal » Earthquakes are sudden violent
gradients, heat flow from inside of earth, shaking of the earth’s crust and involve
crustal thickness and strength causes the relatively local and minor movements.
action of endogenic forces to be non- » Platetectonics involve horizontal
uniform. Thus, the tectonically controlled movements of crustal plates.
original crustal surface is uneven.
60
• All the above four processes exhibit

following characteristics which induce Exogenic Forces
metamorphism of rocks: Faulting and
fracturing of crust occurs and also • These forces derive their strength from
pressure, temperature and volume the earth’s exterior. That is they operate
(PVT) changes occur. outside and on the surface of the earth
like the forces of wind, waves, water,
glacier etc.
Volcanism • These are mainly land wearing forces.
• Volcanism is referred to as movement of • These can take the form of weathering,
molten rock towards the earth’s surface. erosion and deposition.
• It also leads to the formation of many • Weathering is the breaking of rocks on
intrusive (within the surface of the the earth’s surface by different agents
earth) and extrusive (outside or on the like rivers, wind, sea waves and glaciers.
surface of the earth) volcanic forms. Erosion is the carrying of broken rocks
from one place to another by natural
• Volcanism is the process through agents like wind, water and glaciers.
which volcanoes takes place. Volcanic
landforms like cinder cones, crater, • The actions of exogenic forces result
caldera etc. are formed due to such in filling up (aggradation) of basins/
volcanic process. depressions and wearing down
(degradation) of relief/elevations on the
earth’s surface. The process of wearing
down of relief variations of the surface
of the earth through erosion is known
as gradation.
DENUDATIONAL PROCESSES
ROCESS WEATHERING MASS MOVEMENT EROSION /

TRANSPORTATION
DRIVING GRAVITATIONAL / GRAVITATIONAL GRAVITY

FORCE / MOLECULAR STRESSES / FORCE SOLAR RADIATION/
ENERGY CHEMICAL ACTION KINETIC ENERGY/
POTENTIAL ENRGY
Image 6.2: Denudational Processes & Their Driving Forces
Geomorphic Processes Vs wind, etc.) that removes, transports and

deposits earth materials.
Geomorphic Agents
• Geomorphic Agents: Running water,
• Geomorphic process is a force applied groundwater, glaciers, wind, waves and
on earth materials affecting the same. currents, etc. can be called geomorphic
While geomorphic agent is a mobile agents.
medium (like running water, moving
ice masses, the waves and currents,
61
• The upper layers of the remaining

EXOGENIC FORCES: rock thus extend, contributing to the
WEATHERING disintegration of the masses of rock.

• Fractures form approximately parallel
• It is the action of elements of weather to the surface of the earth.
and climate over earth’s material. • Arched fractures tend to create large
• Weathering can be defined as sheets or exfoliated slabs in areas with
mechanical disintegration and curved ground surfaces.
chemical decomposition of rock • Exfoliation is not a process rather it is a
minerals through the actions of various result or outcome. Smooth and rounded
elements of weather and climate. surfaces result from flaking off more or
• Some minerals are extracted by less curved sheets of shells from above
chemical/physical leaching by ground rocks or bedrocks.
water as rocks undergo weathering, • Unloading and expansion therefore
thereby increasing the concentration of produce huge, smooth, rounded domes
remaining (valuable) minerals. called exfoliation domes.
• Weathering can be categorised as
physical, chemical and biological.
Temperature Changes and
Expansion
Physical / Mechanical • Each mineral expands and pushes
Weathering against its neighbor with an increase
in temperature and a subsequent
• Physical or mechanical weathering contraction takes place as the
processes depend on some of the temperature decreases.
following applied forces:
• Smooth rounded surfaces in rocks
» Gravitational forces which include result from differential heating and the
load, overlying pressure and shearing resulting expansion and contraction
stress. of surface layers and their subsequent
exfoliation from the surface.
» Water pressure governed by repeated
wetting and drying cycles. • Smoothly surfaced and rounded small
to large boulders called tors form in
» Expansion force due to temperature rocks such as granites due to such
changes, crystal growth or animal exfoliation.
activity.
• Causes this weathering: The physical Freezing, Thawing and Frost

weathering is caused by thermal
expansion and pressure. Wedging
The following are the different ways in • Freezing and thawing cycles (the
which physical weathering takes place. weather becomes warmer and triggers
melting of snow and ice) induce frost
weathering.
Unloading and Expansion
• It is most productive in mid-latitude
• Removal of overlying rock load due at high elevations where freezing and
to continued erosion causes vertical melting are frequently repeated.
release of pressure.
• Rapid water freezing induces its rapid
62
expansion and high pressure. The Solution

subsequent expansion affects joints,
cracks and makes slight intergranular • If something is dissolved in water or
fractures more wider before the rock acids, the resultant water or acid is
breaks apart. called as a solution.
• This involves the removal of solids from
the solution and depends on a mineral's
Salt Weathering solubility in water or weak acids.
• Salts in rocks expand due to • Many solids disintegrate and blend as
crystallization, thermal action and a suspension in water after coming into
hydration. contact with water.
• Many salts like sodium, calcium, • Soluble rock forming minerals like
Magnesium, barium and potassium potassium, sulphates, nitrates etc are
have a tendency to expand. affected by this process.
• This expansion relies on temperature • This kind of weathering mainly occurs
and its thermal characteristics. in a rainy region.
• Desert areas favours such salt • Minerals like Magnesium bicarbonate
expansions where high temperature and calcium carbonate present
ranges between 30-50°C of surface in limestone are soluble in water
temperatures. containing carbonic acid (formed with
• Salt crystallization is the most powerful the addition of Carbon Dioxide in
of all salt weathering processes. It is water) and are carried away in water as
favoured in areas of alternate wetting a solution.
and drying conditions. • Common salt is also a rock forming
mineral and is susceptible to this
process of solution.
Chemical Weathering
• A group of weathering processes such Carbonation
as solution, carbonation, hydration,
oxidation and reduction work on the • It is the reaction of bicarbonate and
rocks by chemical reactions of Oxygen, carbonate with minerals and is common
surface/soil water and other acids to process helping to break down of
decompose, dissolve or decrease them feldspar and carbonate minerals.
to a fine clastic state. • Carbon Dioxide is absorbed by water
• To speed up all chemical reactions, from the atmosphere and soil air to
water and air must be present, along form carbonic acid which acts as a
with heat. weak acid.
• The decomposition of plants and • Magnesium and Calcium carbonates

animals increases the amount of are dissolved in carbonic acid and
underground Carbon Dioxide. extracted in a solution without leaving
any residue that contributes to the
• These chemical reactions are identical formation of caves.
to the chemical reactions in a laboratory
for different minerals.
Hydration
• It is the chemical addition of water.
63
• After absorbing the water, minerals Some Special Effects Of

expand; this expansion results into an
increase in the volume of the material Weathering
itself or rock. • Exfoliation is a result or outcome but
• The process is reversible and this not a process. Rounded surfaces result
process induces fatigue in the rocks and from the removal of layers from curved
can contribute to their disintegration surfaces. This happens due to expansion
through long, continuous repetition. and contraction caused by changes in
temperature. Exfoliation domes occur
• E.g., calcium sulphate dissolves in water
because of unloading, while tors occur
and turns to gypsum, which is more
because of thermal expansion.
unstable than calcium sulphate.
Oxidation And Reduction Significance Of Weathering

• Oxidation means a reaction of Oxygen • Formation of soils and erosion and
an mineral to form oxides or hydroxides. deposition all these are dependent on
• Minerals most commonly involved in weathering. Without weathering these
this are Manganese, Iron, Sulphur, etc. processes cannot take place.
• The red colour of the Iron turns to brown • Soil biodiversity is basically dependent
and yellow upon oxidation. on the depth of weathering.
• In the process of oxidation, rock • Weathering helps in erosion, reduction
breakdowns due to the disturbance and mass wasting of relief and changes
aided by the addition of Oxygen. in landforms.
• Reduction takes place when oxidized • Rock weathering and deposition
minerals are put in an atmosphere help to enrich and concentrate such
where Oxygen is absent. precious ores of Iron Manganese,
copper, aluminum. It is an important
soil formation process.
Biological Weathering
• It is caused by several biological Enrichment
activities like growth or movements of
organisms. Removal or contribution
• Some materials are extracted by
chemical or physical leaching by ground
of minerals to the environment due to
water as rocks undergo weathering,
biological activity is called biological
thereby increasing the concentration of
weathering.
remaining materials. The concentration
• Grazing of animals, ploughing by human of the such valuable material may not
beings are some of the examples of be adequate and economically viable
biological weathering. to exploit, process and refine without
• Burrowing and wedging by organism like such weathering, which is what is called
earthworms, termites, rodents, bacteria enrichment.
exposes the new surfaces to chemical
attack and helps in the penetration of
moisture and air.
• With this weathering process conditions
become conducive for physical or
chemical weathering.
64
Exogenic Forces: observed over the log period of time.

• We can observe this when electric posts
Mass Wasting are installed on sloppy areas and these
post gets inclined to due continuous
Mass Movement deposition of soil at the base of these
posts.
• Mass movements transfer the rock
Solifluction
debris downslope under the direct
influence of gravity. • It is the process of slow flowing of
• Mass movements are visible and soil mass or fine-grained rock debris
very active over weathered slopes as downslope which is saturated or
compared to unweathered slopes. lubricated with water.
• Usual geographic agents like waves, • It can be considered as a type of creep
glaciers, wind, running water etc do not where lubricated water influences the
play much role in mass movements, soil movement.
rather it is the gravity, which is the • It primarily occurs in permafrost
main driving force responsible for mass regions as the layers of groundwater
movement. are occupied in between permanently
• Mass movements are categorised into frozen soil and rocks.
slow movements and rapid movements.
Rapid Movements
Types of Mass Movements • The conditions required for rapid mass
movements are
• They are creep, flow, slide or fall.
• Mass movements are aided by gravity » Humid climatic regions
and no other erosional agent play the » Gentle to steep slopes
role.
» Heavy rain
• Though there is shift of material
because of mass movement it does not
» Loose soils
come under erosion.
• Obviously, mass movement occurs when Mudflow
the force is greater than resistance. • With heavy rainfall and in the absence
Example: Weak unconsolidated of vegetation cover, huge amount of
material, thinly bedded rocks, faults, soil and other material get saturated
steeply dipping beds, steep slopes, with water and either slow or rapidly
vertical cliffs, torrential rains, abundant flow down along definite channels is
precipitation and scarcity of vegetation. called as mudflow.
Slow Movements Earthflow

Creep • Movement of water-saturated clayey or
• It occurs on moderate steep, soil- silty earth materials downward through
covered slopes. It doesn’t need to be low angle terraces or hillsides is called
lubricated with water like in solifluction. earthflow.
• Under this, the movement is extremely • It looks like channels of mud. When they
slow and less visible except when it is overflow the channels they spillover
65
from the channels and spread over the

roads and rail bridges. Erosion and
• Volcanic eruptions can also cause
mudflow. Volcanic ash dust and other
Deposition
fragments gets muddy due to heavy • The loosening and removal of topsoil
rains and flow down as tongues or particles from the ground is soil erosion.
streams of mud. Erosion includes rock debris collection
and transportation.
Debris Avalanche • Abrasion by rock debris carried by
geomorphic agents also aids erosion.
• In humid regions regardless of
vegetation, it is more natural. On Abrasion:
sleeping mountains, it occurs in narrow
Abrasion is a process of erosion which
tracks and is similar to snow avalanche.
occurs when material being transported
• Avalanche is a mass of material moving wears away at a surface over time. It is
rapidly down a slope. An avalanche is the process of friction caused by scuffing,
typically triggered when material on a scratching, wearing down, marring and
slope breaks loose from its surroundings; rubbing away of materials.
this material then quickly collects and
carries additional material down the • During erosion, relief degrades and
slope. the landscape is worn down. Erosion
is largely responsible for continuous
changes that the earth's surface is
Landslides undergoing.
• In landslides, the materials involved • Erosion, mass wasting and weathering
are comparatively dry, regardless of are degradational processes.
the rapid mass movements mentioned • Erosion and transportation are
above. governed by kinetic energy. Glacier
• Landslides can be classified into water and wind running are controlled
following categories: by climate.
» Slump: Slump moves materials as a • Erosion is the collection and

transportation of rock debris by
large block along a curved surface.
geomorphic agents like running water,
When a slope is undercut, with no
wind, waves, glaciers etc.
protection for the overlying materials,
or when too much weight is applied to • Though weathering helps in erosion, it
an unstable slope, slumps also happen. is not a precondition for erosion to take
place. It means erosion can take place
» Debris slide: In this, the fall is almost
in unweathered conditions also.
vertical and there is no backward
rotation. • Deposition is a consequence of erosion.
On gentle slopes, the erosion agents
» Rock slide: In this, individual rock
lose their velocity and energy and
masses gets slided over the underlying
materials carried by them start to settle.
surface. Rockslide is sliding of individual
rock masses down bedding joint or • Deposition is generally thought to
fault surfaces. It generally occurs at the be work of an agent but no agent is
steep slopes. Superficial layers of the responsible for deposition. Rather it is
rock generally fall. just the end result of erosion.
66
Energy of Erosion Detachment sometimes requires the

breaking of bonds that hold together
• There are several sources of energy particles.
which are responsible for erosion.
• The particle bonds found in rock
• Mountain building produces a materials are weakened by physical,
disequilibrium because of the chemical and biological weathering. As
development of relief within the Earth's a consequence, weathered materials
landscape. Gravity works to transfer are normally more susceptible to the
higher relief materials vertically to forces of detachment than unaltered
lower elevations to produce equilibrium. rock. Erosion agents can also exert their
Gravity also acts to cause the means of own detachment forces through the
erosion to flow to the base level. following mechanisms on surface rocks
• Another source of energy for erosion and soil.
is solar radiation and its effect over
atmospheric processes.
» Plucking: Ice, especially in cracks and
crevices, freezes on the surface and
• Rainwater, as it falls from the pulls out fragments from the rock's
atmosphere has a kinetic energy surface.
imparted to it.
» Cavitation: The surface collapse of
• When it is deposited in higher air bubbles found in rapid water flows
elevations, snow has potential energy. causes extreme erosion. A micro-jet of
When the snow is transformed into water is formed in the implosion of the
flowing glacial ice, this potential energy bubble that travels with high velocities
can be converted into the energy of and high pressure, creating intense
motion. Similarly, due to variations in stress on a very small area of the earth.
atmospheric pressure, air movement Cavitation occurs only when water has
can erode surface material when a very high velocity and its effects in
velocities are high enough to induce nature are therefore limited to events
particle entrainment. such as high water.
» Raindrop impact: In order to sever the
weaker particle bonds, the force of a
The Erosion Sequence raindrop falling on the soil or weathered
• Erosion goes through following rock surface is often sufficient. The
events: detachment, entrainment and amount of force that a raindrop exerts
transport. is a function of the raindrop's terminal
velocity and mass.
• Above three processes are often closely
related and sometimes can not be » Abrasion: Abrasion is called the
easily distinguished from each other. excavation of surface particles by
material brought by the erosion causing
• Even a single particle may undergo
agent. The effectiveness of this process
detachment, entrainment and transport
is depends on the, mass, velocity and
number of times.
concentration of the moving particles
on the eroding surface. Abrasion is very
Detachment active in glaciers where ice keeps the
particles tightly. Abrasion may also
• Erosion starts with the detachment of occur from the particles found in wind
a particle from the material around it. and water erosion media.
67
Entrainment configuration and medium type are the

main factors that determine which of
• Entrainment is the process of raising these processes operate.
particles by erosion agents. It is difficult
to differentiate between entrainment Deposition
and detachment in many conditions. • Erosion transport relies on a satisfactory
• There are several forces that provide balance of forces within the transport
resistance to this process. medium. A decrease in the velocity
• The most significant force is resistance of the medium, or an increase in the
to friction. Frictional resistance arises resistance of the particles, may disrupt
from the particle's contact with its this equilibrium and cause deposition.
surroundings. • For wind, speed reductions can be
• Factors responsible for frictional correlated with variations in spatial
resistance: gravity, particle slope angle heating and cooling that produces
relative to the flow direction of eroding pressure gradients and wind. Lower
medium, particle mass and surface velocities in water can be caused by
roughness. discharge reductions or by a change in
the gradient of the drain. If precipitation
input is decreased or when the ice
Transport experiences melting, glacial flows of ice
may become slower.
» When a particle is entrained, it continues
to travel as long as the medium's velocity
• Deposition can also be caused by
particle precipitation and flocculation.
is high enough to horizontally carry the
particle. Transport will take place in the » Particle Precipitation is a process in
media in four different ways: which dissolved ions become solid due
» Suspension is where, without coming in to changes in water temperature or
contact of their origin, the particles are chemistry.
held by the medium. In air, water and » Flocculation is a chemical process
ice, this can occur. in which salt allows minute clay
» Saltation is where the particle travels in particles to be aggregated into larger
fast, repetitive cycles from the surface masses which are too heavy to remain
to the medium. Usually, the action of suspended.
returning to the surface has enough
force to allow new particles to be
entrained. Only in air and water is this
process involved.
Soil Formation
» Traction is the displacement of particles • The earth's outer layer is made up of
around the eroded surface by rolling, soil. Its thickness ranges between a few
slipping and shuffling. This happens in millimeters and a few meters.
all forms of erosion.
• Gradual breakdown of rocks resulted
• The solution is a transport mechanism into soil formation.
which occurs in aqueous environments • Rocks get broken down into finer
only. The solution includes dissolving particles because of many processes
the eroded substance and taking it like weathering and erosion.
along as individual ions in water. • The geological components are blended
• Particle size, weight, shape, surface to form soil with organic materials.
68
• This indicates that it is a mixture of the soil. Owing to extensive leaching

rocks that, along with the little bacteria, due to heavy rainfall, the soils
are split into smaller particles and the underlying tropical rainforests appear
dead and decayed organic matter. to be nutrient-poor.
• There are two main components of » Temperature: Temperature also plays
soil, the rock particles and the organic an important role because temperature
matter. Soil also has a life cycle of its variations cause shrinking and
own. Formation of soil starts with the swelling, frost activity and general soil
disintegration of rocks under certain weathering.
environmental conditions. » Biota (Flora, Fauna and
Microorganisms): Biota modifies the
parent material in accordance with
Factors Responsible for the climate to produce soil. For example,
Formation of Soil Nitrogen-fixing bacteria are present in
leguminous plants (such as beans, peas
• The key factors responsible for soil and groundnuts). These plants directly
formation are the relief characteristics, extract the nitrate ions from these
climate, parent material, vegetation Nitrogen-fixing bacteria. It increases
and other life-forms, along with time, soil fertility by fixing ammonia or
apart from human activities. ammonium with atmospheric Nitrogen.
» Parent Material: It is deposited by » Topography (Relief, Altitude and
water streams or derived from in-situ (in Slope): As it affects soil processes, soil
the original place) weathering. At this distribution and the form of vegetation,
stage, soil inherits many properties like it is considered a passive factor in
the mineral composition, the colour, the modifying the effects of climate.
particle size and the chemical elements. » Time: Soil formation is not a one-day
For example- Black soil derived its process, but it takes several years to
colour from lava rock. develop. Younger soils have some
» Climate: Since it influences the rate features of their parent material, but
of weathering of the parent rock, it is the addition of organic matter, moisture
one of the significant factors in soil exposure and other environmental
formation. Ex: Rocks in hot and wet factors can change their characteristics
climates experience faster rates of as they mature.
weathering.
» Role of Precipitation: The precipitation It is noteworthy that the above variables
variability modifies the composition of are differentiated but interdependent
the soil. For example, areas with low since the soil profile depends on climate,
precipitation with high evaporation parent material, topography, time for any
rates have led to salt accumulation in area around the world.
69
CHAPTER - 7
MINERALS AND ROCKS
• The hot magma in the earth's interior is

Introduction the fundamental source of all minerals.
Minerals • Natural gas, petroleum and coal are

organic minerals.
• The earth is made up of different • Minerals present in the crust are in solid
types of elements. To form minerals in form, while they are in liquid form in the
the earth's crust, these elements are interior.
combined together. • 98% of the crust consist of eight
elements:
− Oxygen
− Silicon
− Aluminium
− Iron
− Calcium
− Sodium
− Potassium
− Magnesium
• Mineral is an inorganic element
naturally occurring, with an ordered • The rest is constituted by Hydrogen,
atomic structure, definite chemical Titanium, Phosphorous, Manganese,
composition and physical properties. Sulphur, Carbon, Nickel & other
elements.
• The study of minerals is called
mineralogy. The Major Elements of the earth’s Crust
• Minerals are composed of two or three ELEMENTS BY WEIGHT (%)
elements. But sometimes a single
element mineral like Sulphur, Copper, Oxygen 46.60
Silver, Gold and Graphite, etc are also
Silicon 27.72
found.
• There are mainly six major mineral Aluminium 8.13
groups, with which most of the mineral Iron 5.00
groups are associated.
Calcium 3.63
• The major mineral groups are Feldspar,
Quartz, Pyroxene, Amphibole, Mica, Sodium 2.83
Olivine etc.
Potassium 2.59
» The crust contains at least 2000
Magnesium 2.09
minerals.
Others 1.41
70
− Transparent: Light passes through

Physical the mineral and images can be seen
Characteristics of clearly.
• Structure: Particular arrangement of

Minerals the individual crystals: fine, medium,
or coarse grained; fibrous separable
• External Crystal Form: Depends on divergent and radiating.
internal arrangement of molecules-
cube, octahedrons, hexagonal, prisms.
• Hardness: Relative resistance being
scratched. Absolute hardness
• Cleavage: The tendency to break in measured by a sclerometer. 10 minerals
specific directions to create relatively are selected to measure the degree
flat surfaces. It a result of internal of hardness from 1-10. They are: -Talc,
arrangement of the molecule. The Gypsum, Calcite, Fluorite, Apatite,
minerals may cleave in one or more Feldspar, Quartz, Topaz, Corundum
directions and at any angle to each and Diamond.
other.
• Specific Gravity: It is the ratio of the
• Fracture: Internal molecular weight of an object to the weight of an
arrangement are so complex that there equivalent volume of water; the object
are no planes of molecules; the crystal was weighed in air and then weighed in
can split in an irregular way, not along water and the weight of the object in air
cleavage planes. was divided by the difference between
• Lustre: Appearance of a material the two weights.
regardless of colour; each mineral has
a distinctive lustre like metallic, silky,
glossy etc.
• Colour: Characteristic colours Characteristics of
Some of the Major
determined by molecular structure. Ex:
malachite, azurite, chalcopyrite some
because of the impurities found the
crystal. Minerals
• Streak: The color of every mineral Feldspar
powder. It may be the same colour or
may vary as the mineral. Ex. Malachite– • Silicon and Oxygen are major elements
green, fluorite–purple/white. in all types of feldspar.
• Transparency: Transparency means • Potassium, sodium, Aluminium, calcium,
the degree to which a mineral can pass etc are found in specific feldspar
light through. varieties.
• Nearly half of the earth’s crust is
− Opaque: The light is obstructed composed of feldspar which is
by the mineral and cannot pass composed 39% of plagioclase and 12%
through it. of alkali feldspar.
− Translucent: Light easily passes • Its colour ranges from light cream to
through the mineral, but is diffused salmon pink.
so that it is difficult to clearly see
images. • It is commonly used in glass making
and ceramics.
71
Olivine Pyroxene
• The major elements of olivine are • The common elements in pyroxene
Magnesium, Iron and Silica. are Aluminium, Calcium, Magnesium,
• Olivine minerals primarily occur in mafic Silicon and Iron.
igneous rocks with a greenish colour. • Nearly 10% of the earth’s crust is made
• Olivine is used commonly in jewellery. up of Pyroxene.
• It is commonly found in meteorites.
• Its colour is usually green or black.
Quartz
Amphibole
• Quartz constitute one of the most
important components of granite and • Calcium, Aluminium, Silicon,
sand. Magnesium and Iron are the major
elements of amphiboles.
• It consists of Silica which is hard mineral,
almost insoluble in water. • Nearly 7% of the earth’s crust is made
up of amphibole.
• It is generally white or colourless.
• It is black or green in colour and is
• Quartz is mainly used in the
commonly used in asbestos industries.
manufacturing of radio, radar etc.
• Hornblende is another form of
amphiboles.
72
Mica » Metallic minerals contain metal in raw

form.
• It is made up of elements like Aluminium, » Metallic minerals are further classified
potassium, Magnesium, Silicon, Iron,
into Ferrous (contains Iron) and Non-
etc.
ferrous (does not contain Iron) metallic
• Nearly 4% of the earth’s crust is made minerals.
up of Mica.
• It is generally found in metamorphic • Non-metallic minerals are a specific
group of chemical elements from
rocks and igneous.
which, if melted, no new product can
• Mica is widely used in electronic be produced. For instance gravel,
instruments. sand, gypsum, dimension stone, halite,
Uranium,.
• Characteristics of Nonmetallic Mineral
Resources:
Types of Minerals
» Nonmetallic minerals are minerals
• Metallic which are either present a non-metallic
shine or luster in their appearance.
» Ferrous (containing Iron): Iron ore, » These minerals do not contain
Manganese, nickel, cobalt, etc.
extractable metals in their chemical
» Non-ferrous: (does not contain Iron): composition.
Copper, lead, tin, bauxite, etc.
» Precious: Gold, silver, platinum, etc.
• Non-metallic
Rocks
» Mica, salt, potash, Sulphur, granite,
Introduction
limestone, marble, sandstone, etc.
• A Rock is a solid, inorganic and natural
• Energy Minerals substance without any specific atomic
structure or chemical composition. It is
» Coal, petroleum and natural gas easy to remember that rocks are made
up of two or more minerals.
• Metallic Minerals are metals that are
• Samples of rocks involve limestone,
hard substance and conduct heat and
granite, marble, slate and sandstone.
electricity with characteristics of luster
Each of this rock type consists of varied
or shine. For example, Gold, Silver,
minerals that can be mixed up with
Tin, Copper, Lead, Zinc, Iron, Nickel,
the rock through different geologic
Chromium and Aluminum.
processes.
• Characteristics of Metallic Minerals
• Let’s consider granite. It mostly made
» Metallic Minerals present a metallic up of three minerals namely: quartz,
shine in their appearance. mica and feldspar.
» Contains metals in their chemical • All of these minerals exist in nature but
composition. mixed up with the rock. Sometimes we
see big chunks of one of these minerals
» Potential source of the metal ores that in granite, but when we take that stone
can be extracted by way of mining. as a whole, we have to call it rock.
73
types of processes:
1. Directly by cooling of magma in the
interior of the earth.
2. By cooling of lava above the surface
of the earth when lava gets poured
on the surface.
• As the Igneous Rocks form the earth’s
first crust and all other rocks are formed
from these rocks, they are also known
as the Primary Rocks or the parents of
Fig: Different Types of Rocks all rocks.
• Igneous rocks are the most abundant
rocks found in the crust of the earth.
Rocks in the Earth’s • On the basis of location of occurrence,
Crust these rocks can be classified as Intrusive
and Extrusive Igneous Rocks.
• A rock is ultimately an aggregates or a • Intrusive Igneous Rocks
physical mixture of various minerals.
» These are formed when magma cools
• Rocks can be soft or hard and also vary and solidifies below the earth’s surface.
in colors.
» The rate of cooling below the surface
• Quartz and Feldspar are the most of the earth is very slow, contributing to
common minerals found in all types of the development of large crystals in the
rocks. rocks.
• Petrology is the science which deals » That is why the mineral grains of
with the study of rocks. intrusive igneous rocks are very large.
» Rocks vary in their properties, particle » Deep-seated intrusive igneous rocks
size and forming mode. Rocks can be are called Plutonic rocks and shallow
divided into three on the basis of the depth intrusive igneous rocks are called
mode of formation: Hypabyssal Rocks.
» Igneous Rocks » E.g.: Granite, dolerite, etc.
» Sedimentary Rocks • Extrusive Igneous Rocks
» Metamorphic Rocks
» These are formed on the earth's surface
by the cooling of the lava.
» The mineral crystals of extrusive igneous
Igneous Rocks rocks are very fine as lava cools on the
surface very rapidly.
• The cooling of extremely fluid and hot » These rocks are also called Volcanic
liquid Magma forms Igneous rocks. Rocks.
• Asthenosphere is a region below the » Eg: Basalt, Gabbro.
Lithosphere and it is considered as the
primary source of magma. • On the basis of chemical properties,
these are categorised as Basic and
• Igneous rocks can be formed by two Acid Igneous rocks.
74
• They are formed because of Sedimentary Rocks

solidification of basic lava (low viscous) » Chemically formed Sedimentary Rocks
or acidic (high viscous).
• Acidic igneous rocks contains 65% or • Mechanically formed/ Clastic
more of Silica. They are dark coloured, Sedimentary Rocks
hard and very strong (E.g.: Granite).
» They are formed under extreme pressure
• Basic igneous rocks contain not more and cementation by the consolidation
than 55% of Silica and have more of sediments.
Magnesium and Iron. They are dark
in colour, weak enough and weathers
» Eg: Conglomerate, Breccia, Sandstone,
Shale, etc.
easily (Eg: Basalt, Gabbro).
• Organically/ Biologically formed
Sedimentary Rocks
» These rocks are formed through the

consolidation of organic matter derived
from plants and animals.
» E.g.: Coal, limestone, chalk, chert, etc.
• Chemically formed Sedimentary Rocks
» They are formed by various chemical
reactions.
» Eg: Halite, Potash, Limestone, etc.
F i g : I g n e o u s R o c k F o r m at i o n s
Sedimentary Rocks
Metamorphic Rocks
• By successive deposition of sediments,
these rocks are formed. • The word metamorphic means ‘change
of form’.
• These sediments are eroded from any
previous existing rock like igneous, old • Hence, these rocks get formed under
sedimentary rocks or metamorphic. the action of temperature, volume
changes and pressure on original form
• Lithification is called the process of
of rocks.
successive deposition and formation of
sedimentary rocks. • Under the influence of pressure or heat
on original rocks, metamorphic rocks
• They have a layered or stratified
are formed that cause their colour,
structure due to successive depositions
hardness, structure and composition to
and are hence often referred to as
change.
Stratified Rocks.
• Depending on the mode of formation, • Metamorphism is called the process of
recrystallization and reorganisation of
sedimentary rocks can be classified as:
materials within the original rock.
» Mechanically formed/ Clastic • When metamorphism occurs without
Sedimentary Rocks any major chemical alteration, it is
» Organically/ Biologically formed referred to as Dynamic Metamorphism.
75
• If the impact of heat induces

metamorphism, it is referred to as
Thermal Metamorphism. It has two
types: Regional Metamorphism and
Contact Metamorphism.
• If the reorganisation happens when
it comes into direct contact with the
hot magma, it is called as Contact
Metamorphism.
• If the rocks are metamorphosed due
to tremendous pressure or heat and
formed due to tectonic shearing, it is
Fig: Schist, a type of M e ta m o r p h i c R o c k
referred as Regional Metamorphism.
• On the basis of the presence or absence
of bands of mineral grains Metamorphic
Rocks can be classified into Foliated
(Gneiss, Slate, Schist) and Non-Foliated
Rock Cycle
(Marble, Quartzite) Metamorphic Rocks. • Rocks do not remain for a long time
in their original form, but can undergo
transformations.
• The rock cycle is continuous process
by which old rocks are turned into new
ones. The rock cycle is shown in the
following diagram.
mineral
The gravel, sand, silt, mud, clay, lime, soil
dissolution vein
Rock Cycle
calcite
vein
quartz
mineral chert
sediments precipitation travertine
weathering and erosion deposition
igneous rocks
vulcanism crystallization
conglomeraste
sandstone
mudstone
rhyolite sedimentary rocks siltstone
andesite uplift shale
basalt
greywacke
limestone
maerl
metamorphism chert
gypsum
(heat and pressure) salt
coal
plutonism
magma melting metamorphic rocks
granite, diorite, gabbro
slate, argillite, schist, gneiss, marble, metasandstone,

quartzite, greenstone, serpentinite, metachert
Image 7.1: Rock Cycle.
76
Rock Vs Minerals
Rocks Minerals
A rock in inorganic and solid naturally A mineral is a solid, inorganic substance,

formed substance without any chemical like rocks, which has a definite chemical
composition or atomic structure. composition and crystalline structure.
Rocks comprise of minerals. Minerals does not comprise of rocks.
Rocks exist in the tiny form which is also Minerals are easily distinguishable in
microscopic in nature. nature.
These occur in the solid form on the earth’s Minerals are said to occur in the form of
crust. mineral deposits.
Minerals have very distinctive properties

Rocks exhibit some physical properties like like shape, colour, texture, crystal habit,
colour, texture, shape and pattern. hardness, specific gravity, fracture, lustre
and tenacity etc.
Few examples of minerals are Feldspar,

Some examples of rocks are sand, pebbles,
Olivines, fossil fuels like coal, petroleum
shells, etc.
etc.
Rocks do not possess definite shape and Minerals are said to have definite shape
are found in different colours. and definite colour.
77
CHAPTER - 8
LANDFORMS AND THEIR EVOLUTION
Introduction: transformation of either a part of the

earth’s surface from one landform
Landforms and their into another or transformation of an

individual landform after they are once
Evolution formed.
• This means that each and every
• After the weathering processes have landform has a history of development
had their action on the materials on the and changes through time.
surface of the earth, the geomorphic • A landmass passes through three
agents like ground water, running water, stages of development: Youth, Mature
wind, waves and glacier perform the and Old stage.
action of erosion.
• Geomorphology deals with the
• Erosion causes the changes on the reconstruction of the earth's surface
surface of the earth. history through the study of its shapes,
• Deposition follows the process of the materials it consists of and the
erosion. Deposition often changes the processes that shape it.
features on the surface of the earth too. • Most of the changes in the landforms
• Landform is a natural feature on are brought about by erosion by various
the surface of the earth. Several geomorphic processes and deposition
related landforms together make up by covering the land surfaces or filling
landscapes. the basins, valleys and depressions.
• Each landform has its own size, physical • Running water, glaciers, underground
shape, materials and is a result of action water, wind and waves are powerful
of certain geomorphic processes and erosional and depositional agents that
agents. shape and change the surface of the
earth aided by weathering and mass
• Actions of most geomorphic processes wasting processes.
are slow and hence the results take a
long time to shape. • Each geomorphic agent creates its
own landform assemblage. They leave
• Landforms are continuously changing. distinct imprints on the landforms they
Landforms once formed may change produce.
their size, shape and nature because
of continued action of geomorphic • However, most of these geomorphic
processes and agents. processes are imperceptible
functions and can only be seen and
• Due to changes in climatic conditions measured through the changes in the
and horizontal and vertical movements characteristics of the landforms.
of landmasses, either the intensity of
processes or the processes themselves • Hence, the study of landforms will
might get changed leading to new reveal to us the process and agent
modifications in the landforms. which has made or has been making
these landforms.
• Evolution here implies stages of
78
» Vertical erosion or downward cutting

Running Water as would be strong as the river flows down
Geomorphic Agent at high speed, resulting in the creation

of V-Shaped Valleys.
• There are two components of flowing » Where the local hard rock bodies are
water: one is overland flow as a sheet exposed, waterfalls, rapids and gorges
on the general land surface and the develop.
other is linear flow in valleys as streams
• Middle Course/ Stage of Maturity
and rivers.
(Transportation dominates):
• The overland flow causes sheet erosion
and the overland flow can concentrate » Vertical erosion is slowly replaced by
on narrow to wide paths depending on lateral erosion or erosion from both
the irregularities of the surface of the sides of the channel at this stage.
land. » Thus, the river channel allows the
• Small or large amounts of materials V-shaped valley to eventually vanish
from the surface of the soil are removed (not completely).
in the direction of flow during sheet » Streams at this point are abundant with
erosion and small and narrow rills are strong integration.
gradually formed.
» In this course, larger floodplains begin
• These rills would eventually grow to be seen and the amount of water
into long and broad gullies, further rises with the confluence of several
deepening, expanding and lengthening tributaries.
the gullies and uniting them to create a
network of valleys.
» River function is mainly the transport of
eroded materials from the upper course
• It later develops into a stream or river (little deposition too).
once a valley is created.
» Landforms such as alluvial fans,
meanders, alluvial plains, can be seen
at this stage.
Courses of River
• Lower Course/ Stage of Old (Deposition
• On the basis of its course, a river, which dominates):
is the best example of the linear flow
of flowing water through a valley, can » The river begins to flow through a
be divided into 3 - upper course, middle broad, level plain with heavy debris
course and lower course. from the upper and middle courses
brought down.
• Upper Course / Stage of Youth (Erosion
dominates): » Vertical erosion has nearly stopped and
lateral erosion continues to occur.
» It begins in hilly or mountainous areas » The function of the river is primarily the
from the source of the river. deposition, the creation of its bed and
» The river flows down the steep slope the development of a broad flood plain.
and its velocity and eroding power are » Landforms can be seen at this point,
at their peak as a consequence. such as braided channels, floodplains,
» Streams are few, with poor integration. levees, meanders, oxbow lakes, deltas,
etc.
79
Image 8.1: Course of River
Running Water: Erosion, » After erosion, with flowing water, the

eroded materials are transported. The
Transportation and Deposition transport of eroded materials takes
• Erosion happens as the overland place in four ways (explained in Unit 6):
flow passes down the slope with soil
particles. − Traction
• The rock materials carried by erosion − Saltation

are the load of the river. − Suspension
• This load serves as a grinding instrument − Solution
that helps to cut the river bed's bottom
and sides, resulting in the river channel • As the stream descends from the
deepening and widening. hills with the eroded and transported
materials to plain areas, the absence
• Erosion Types of gradient/slope causes the river to
» The river erosion is accomplished in lose energy to take those transported
different ways, all of which may operate materials further.
together. • As a result, the river's load tends to
settle down, which is called deposition.
− Corrasion or Abrasion
• Erosion, transport and deposition
− Corrosion or Solution continue until the slopes are almost
− Hydraulic Action entirely flattened, eventually leaving a
lowland of faint relief called peneplains
• Transportation Types with some monadnocks called low
resistant remnants.
80
Erosional Landforms Due to deep potholes at the foot of a waterfall.

Running Water • They are created because of the
sheer influence of water and boulders'
Valleys, Gorges, Canyon, Rapids rotation.
Band of hard rocks STREAM
HARD ROCK
S
CK
RO
FT
soften rocks SO
ERODED PLUNGE
Image 8.2: Rapids, cataracts POOL
DEBRIS
• Valleys are formed because of running

water. Image 8.3: A waterfall with plunge pool
• The rills developed by the overland flow

of water grow into gullies later.
Incised or Entrenched Meanders
• These gullies eventually deepen and
widen to form valleys. • Broad meanders (loop-like channels)
found cut in hard rocks are very deep.
• A gorge is a deep valley with very steep
to straight sides. • They deepen and widen over time to
form gorges or canyons in hard rocks.
• A canyon is characterized by steep
step-like side slopes and may be as • The distinction between a regular
deep as a gorge. meander and an incised/entrenched
meander is that latter are present in the
• A gorge is almost equal in width at its hard rocks.
top as well as bottom and is formed in
hard rocks while a canyon is wider at its
top than at its bottom and is formed in
N
IO
OS
ER ERO
SION
horizontal bedded sedimentary rocks.

• Rapids are formed when the stream DEPOSITION
passes through alternate bands of hard

DEPOSITION
and soft rocks.
DEPOSITION
SION
ERO
FLOW OF WATER
Potholes, Plunge Pools

BOTTOM CURRENT
Image 8.4: Development of Meanders

• Circular depressions over the rocky beds
of hill streams are called as potholes.
• In such depressions, once a small and River Terraces
shallow depression forms, pebbles and
boulders are deposited and rotated • They are surfaces marking old valley
by moving water. As a result, the floor or flood plains which are resulted
depressions are getting larger to form due to vertical erosion by the river.
potholes. • When the terraces on either side of the
• Plunge pools are nothing but wide, river have the same height, they are
81
referred to as paired terraces. Depositional Landforms Due to

• When the terraces are seen on one Running Water
side only, with none on the other side
or on the other side at quite a different Alluvial Fans
elevation, they are called unpaired • They can be found in the middle course
terraces. of the river at the foot of slopes/
UP
PE
RC mountain.
OU
RS
E • As the stream moves from the high-
level break into the low-gradient foot
slope plain, it loses the energy required
UR to carry most of its load.
SP
• Hence, they get deposited and spread
as a broad low to the high cone-shaped
SP deposits called an alluvial fan.
UR
• The deposits are not very well sorted.
M
STREA
Image 8.5: Interlocking
Deltas
• Deltas are like an alluvial fan but form
at a different location.
• They are found near the mouth of the
river, where the river finally deposits all
the load.
• While alluvial fans are not well stratified,
the deposits in the deltas are very
well sorted and stratification is clearly
visible.
• The coarser material like pebbles,
small rocks settle out first and the finer
82
materials like soil, silt and clay gets Flood Plains, Natural Levees
deposited into the sea.
• Deposition forms a flood plain like
erosion makes valleys.
• A riverbed formed of river deposits is
the active floodplain and the floodplain
above the river bank is called as inactive
flood plain.
• Natural levees can be found along
the banks of large rivers. They are low,
parallel and linear ridges of coarse
deposits along the river banks.
• The levee deposits contain coarser
material than the deposits spread by
ALLUVIUM ALLUVIUM ALLUVIUM
flood water away from the river.
LAND LAND LAND
SEA SEA
CALM
SEA
1. 2. 3.
River reaches River obstructed by Delta takes
coast & deposits sediments & branches fan-shape,
sediments lines distributares extending
is discharge more sideways &
sediments seawands
Image 8.6: Formation of Delta
Image 8.7: Flood Plain & Levees
83
Meanders and Oxbow Lakes » Coriolis force acting on water deflecting

it to the right or left like deflecting the
• Meanders are loop-like channel wind.
patterns form in the middle stage of the
river. • The concave bank of a meander is
• They are not a landform but only a type called as cut-off bank and the convex
of channel formed due to deposition. bank is called as a slip-off
• They are formed because of three • As meanders develop into deep loops,
reasons: the meandering channel may get cut-
off due to erosion at the inflection point
» Propensity of water flowing over a very and are left as oxbow lakes.
gentle gradient to work laterally on the • For large rivers, the sediments deposited
banks. in a linear fashion at the depositional
» Unconsolidated nature of alluvial side of a meander are called as
deposits making up the bank with Meander Bars or Point Bars.
many irregularities.
Image 8.8: Meanders and Oxbow Lakes
Braided Channels into braided channel.
• When selective deposition of coarser • Riverine Islands are developed because

materials develops a central bar, it of braided channels.
diverts the flow of river towards the • River Brahmaputra boasts of highly
banks. This increases the propensity of braided channels and Majuli island in
lateral erosion. Assam is the largest riverine island in
• Similarly, when more number of such the world.
central bars are formed, it develops
84
in rocks rich in calcium carbonate, such

as limestone, gypsum or dolomite.
• Any limestone, dolomite or gypsum
area showing typical landforms formed
by the solution and deposition process
by the action of groundwater is called
Karst Topography.
• The zones of permeable and porous
rocks completely filled with water are
referred to as the Saturation Zones.
• The Water Tables are the marks that
signify the upper surface of these
saturated groundwater areas.
• In areas with heavy precipitation and
even in areas surrounding rivers and
lakes, the water table is usually higher.
» They vary according to seasons as well.

Water tables are of two kinds, on the
basis of variability:
Image 8.9: Braided Channels » Permanent water table, where the
water will never fall below a certain level
and water is supplied in all seasons by
Groundwater as wells drilled up to this depth;
Geomorphic Agent » Temporary water tables, which are

seasonal in nature.
• The portion of rain or snow-melt • Springs: When the groundwater

water that accumulates in the rocks outflows over the surface under
is called underground water or simply hydraulic pressure through an opening
groundwater after seeping through the in a rock, these are called as springs. As
soil. hot water is produced by such springs,
• The rocks are as called permeable they are called hot springs. Typically,
rocks if they allow the water to pass they occur in regions with active or
through easily, while the rocks that do recent volcanism. When hot water
not allow water to pass through are and steam are released by a spring in
called impermeable rocks. the form of fountains or jets at regular
intervals, they are called geysers.
• The water below the ground flows
horizontally through the bedding • The interval between two emissions in
planes, joints or through the materials a geyser is often regular (Yellowstone
themselves, after vertically moving National Park of USA is the best
down to some depth. example).
• Though the amount of groundwater
varies from place to place, its role is
very significant in shaping the earth's Karst Landforms
surface features. • The Karst landforms are a result of
• Groundwater works are primarily seen the erosion of groundwater. Ground
85
or underground water is classified as » Thick strata of limestone (20 feet or more).

water that occupies pores, cavities, » Moderate rainfall in the region.
cracks and other spaces in the crustal
rocks. Precipitation and melt-water that » Karst topography does not develop in
infiltrates into the rocks is the primary deserts.
source of underground water.
• Groundwater erosion starts with water
• Significant amounts of soluble rock percolating through joints, faults and
may be dissolved and taken away in bedding plains dissolving the soluble
solution by slow flowing ground water. rock.
Limestone, rock salt and gypsum are
dissolved here. It is the dominant
agent of erosion in some regions and Sinkholes
creates karst topography, which is
characterized by sinkholes, solution • By the action of the solution, small to
valleys and streams that vanish. medium size sub-rounded to rounded
shallow depressions are formed on the
• However, groundwater work is more surface of the rocks such as limestone.
critical in the regions of the Karst These depressions are called as swallow
Topography. holes.
• Approximately 15% of the Earth’s land • A gap more or less circular at the top
has developed karst topography with and funnel-shaped at the bottom is a
outstanding examples found in Bosnia, sinkhole.
Croatia, Southern China, Puerto Rico,
Yucatan of Mexico, Florida, Australia, • If the sinkhole is created solely by the
Meghalaya and Siberia. solution phase, it is called a solution
sink.
• Conditions required for a limestone to
develop into karst topography: • Some sinkhole begins its development
through the solution, but subsequently
» The limestone formation must contain collapses due to the presence or hollow
80% or more calcium carbonate. under it and becomes a larger sinkhole.
Such forms are called collapse sinks.
» Complex patterns of joints in limestones.
Image 8.10: Karst Features
86
• Doline is sometimes used to refer to Caverns

collapse sinks.
• Caverns are interconnected
• Solution sinks are more commonly underground cavities in the bedrock
found than collapse sinks. created by the corrosive action of
• When several sinkholes join together circulating underground water on
to form valley of sinks, they are called limestone.
Uvalas (large depression). • They are present in Uttarakhand,
• Lapies are the irregular grooves and near Dehradun and in the Kumaon
ridges that are created when most of Himalayas in Almora.
the limestone surfaces are eroded by • India's famous caverns are the caves of
the solution process. Kotamsar in the tribal district of Bastar
in Chhattisgarh.
Swallow Holes
• They are cylindrical in shape lying Depositional Landforms of
below the sinkholes at some depth. Groundwater: Stalactites and
• The surface streams often join the Stalagmites
sinkholes in limestone regions and
then disappear underground through
swallow holes.
• This is because these holes are
connected to the underground caverns
on their other side.
Stalactites
• They are the key depositional features
CAVES produced in limestone regions.
• Caves are prominently formed in • The water containing limestone in

solution, in the form of a continuous
areas where there are alternate rock
chain of drops, seeps through the roofs
beds (non-soluble) with dolomite or
of the caverns.
limestone in between or in areas where
limestone rocks are thick, massive and • A part of the water that falls from
occurring as dense beds. the ceiling is evaporated and a small
limestone deposit is left behind on the
• Caves usually have an opening from
roof.
which they discharge cave streams.
• Caves that have an opening at both • This process proceeds and limestone
deposition rises downwards like pillars.
ends are known as tunnels.
87
• Those beautiful types are called • They develop features such as crevasses,
stalactites. seracs, etc. In comparison to a crevice
that occurs in rock, a crevasse is a deep
crack, or fracture, located in an ice
Stalagmites
sheet or glacier. A serac is a glacial ice
• As the remaining portion of the water block or column, frequently created on
falling from the cavern's roof falls on a glacier by intersecting crevasses.
the floor, a portion of it evaporates • Ogives are alternating wave crests and
again and a small layer of limestone is valleys (troughs) that appear on glacier
left behind. surfaces as dark and light bands of ice.
• This deposit develops from the cavern's They are related to the seasonal glacier
floor upwards. movement; the width of one dark band
and one light band is normally equal to
• Such kinds of depositional features are
the glacier's annual movement.
called stalagmites.
• Nearly 10 percent of Earth’s land is
• As the process develops, stalactite and
covered by glaciers and they constitute
stalagmite sometimes come together
the largest freshwater source on our
to create a vertical column.
planet.
• On the basis of the location of the
glaciers, they can be categorised as:
» Continental Glacier/Piedmont Glacier:

These glaciers move outward in all
directions.
» Valley/Mountain Glaciers: Move from
higher elevation to lower.
Erosional Landforms
Image 8.11: Stalactites and Stalagmites
Cirque
PYRAMIDAL
Glacier as
PEAK
Geomorphic Agent
ARETES
SNOW
ACWMULATES
HERE
• Glaciers are a mass of ice that moves CIRQUE
under its own weight. In the snow-fields,
they are commonly found.
• Snow-fields are considered the
permanently ice-covered areas on
the earth's surface. The snow line
is considered the lowest limit of Image 8.12: Cirque, aretes and pyramidal peak
permanent snow or snow-field.
• In areas where snow accumulation
exceeds its ablation (melting and • The most common landforms in
sublimation) for several years, often glaciated mountains are cirques. At the
decades, a glacier forms. heads of glacial valleys, cirques are very
88
frequently found. These circles are cut of the surrounding bedrock, a fjord is
by the accumulated ice while heading formed and this valley is eventually filled
down the mountain tops. They are long, with seawater (formed in mountains
deep and wide troughs or basins with nearby sea).
very steep concave to drop high walls • Fjords are found mainly in Norway,
vertically at its head and sides. Chile, New Zealand, Canada, Greenland
• Within the cirques, a pool of water can and the U.S. state of Alaska. Ex:
be seen very frequently after the glacier Sognefjorden fjord in Norway, is more
melts. These lakes are called the Cirque than 160 kilometres long.
or Tarn lakes.
• In a stepped sequence, two or more
circles will lead one into another.
Horns and Aretes
• Horns are sharp peaks that are pointed
and steep-sided.
Hanging Valleys or U-Shaped
Valleys, Fjords/Fiords • They are created by the erosion of the
cirque wall towards the head.
• The Glacier does not create a new • Saw-toothed ridge called Arete are
valley like a river does but deepens formed when the divide between
and widens a pre-existing valley by two cirque walls gets narrow due to
smoothing away the irregularities. progressive erosions.
• Such valleys created by glacial erosion • Horns form through headward erosion
take the form of the letter 'U' and are of the cirque walls.
therefore referred to as U-shaped
valleys or Hanging Valleys. • Horns form when three or more radiating
glaciers cut the headward until their
• A fjord is a deep glacial trough made up cirques meet high, sharp pointed and
of shorelines and filled with sea water. steep-sided peaks.
• If a glacier cuts a U-shaped valley • Horns formed due to headward erosion
through ice segregation and abrasion of radiating cirques are:
HORN
ARETE
COL
CIRQUES
HANGING
VALLBY
TRUNCATED SPURS
MEDIAL LATERAL
MORRAINE MORAINE
OUTWASH PLAINS TERMINAL

MORAINE
Image 8.13: Erosinal landforms of glacier

89
» The highest peak in the Alps is Lateral moraine

Matterhorn.
» The highest peak in the Himalayas is HILL
Medial moraine
Everest. GLAC VALLEY SIDES

IER
terminal
moraine
Snout melts at Valley foot
Image 8.14: Glacier Moraine
Moraines
• Moraines are long ridges of glacial till
deposits.
• They are called terminal moraines
when these deposits are at the end of a
glacier and when they are deposited on
Depositional Features of both sides of the valley, they are called
Glacier lateral moraines.
• Glacial deposits are of two types: • They form Medial moraines when lateral
moraines of two glaciers join together.
» Glacial Till: It consist of unassorted • It forms a horse-shoe shape as the
coarse and fine debris lateral moraines on both sides of a
» Outwash: Assorted roughly stratified glacier join together.
deposits. • Ground moraines are the deposits left
behind in areas previously covered by
• Glacial till is described as the unassorted
glaciers.
coarse and fine debris dropped by
the melting glaciers. Most of the rock
fragments in the till are shaped from
angular to sub angular. With the melting
of ice at the bottom, sides or lower ends
of glaciers, streams form.
• Some amount of rock debris small
enough for such melt-water streams
to be carried is washed down and
deposited. These glacio-fluvial deposits
are called deposits of outwash.
Eskers
• The water accumulates underneath the
glacier when glaciers melt in summer
and flows like streams in channels
underneath the ice.
• These streams contain very coarse
materials such as boulders, blocks and
90
some small fractions of rock debris.

• They are later deposited in the valleys
Winds as
themselves and become apparent to
the surface as sinuous ridges until the
Geomorphic Agent
ice melts completely. • In the hot deserts, the wind is the
• Those ridges are referred to as Eskers. principal geomorphic agent.
• Winds in hot deserts have greater
velocity, which triggers desert erosion
Drumlins and depositional activities.
• The landforms formed by wind erosion
and deposition activities are referred to
as Aeolian Landforms.
• Wind causes deflation, abrasion and
impact.
• Deflation involves dust and smaller
particles being raised and separated
from the surface of rocks. In
transportation, sand and silt serve as
effective tools for abrading the surface
of the land. The effect is simply pure
momentum force, which happens when
• They are soft oval-shaped ridge-like sand is blown through or against a rock
structures consisting predominantly of surface.
glacial till.
• It's shaped like an inverted spoon called
Stoss end with the highest part and Tail Transport of Particles by Wind
end with the lowest narrow part.
• Tiny particles such as silt and clay are
• They are shaped like tiny surface rocks carried by wind over great distances,
as a result of glacial movement over even it can traverse the continent or an
some small obstruction. entire ocean basin.
• In these obstructions, the glacial till gets • Small particles can be suspended for
deposited and the ice movement forms days.
these deposits like an inverted spoon.
• Wind picks up dust more quickly
on disturbed surfaces, such as a
construction site or a sand dune.
• Wind transfers particles as both bed
ESKER
OUTWASH
PLAINS
load and suspended load, much like

OUTWASH
PLAINS
DRUMLINS flowing water.
ESKER
DRUMLIN
ESKER TERMINAL
MORAING • Bed loads are made of sand-sized
particles, many of which move by
OUTWASH
saltation.
• The suspended load is very tiny silt and
Image 8.15: Depositional Landforms of Glacier
clay particles.
91
Wind Erosion parallel.

• The mountain gets eroded over the
• In arid areas, the wind is a stronger period of time and leaving behind an
erosion factor. Tiny particles are picked
inselberg which is a remnant of the
up and transported selectively in arid
mountain.
areas.
• That's how the high relief is reduced to
• Deflation: The ground surface gets low featureless plains in desert areas
lower and rockier as small particles
called as Pediplains.
are removed, causing deflation. Desert
pavement, a surface paved with gravel-
sized particles that are not easily Playas Plains
pushed by the wind, is left behind.
• Abrasion: Particles that are moved by
wind involve in the abrasion function. As
a grain hits another grain or surface, the
surface is eroded. Wind abrasion can
polish surfaces. Ventifacts are stones
that have been polished and faceted
due to abrasion by sand particles.
• Desert Varnish: Exposed rocks
sometimes develop a dark brown or
black coating called desert varnish.
Wind transports clay-sized particles
which, at high temperatures, chemically • Playas are the most common landforms
react with other substances. The in the deserts by far.
coating is made from the oxides of Iron • In basins with hills and mountains
and Manganese. around and along, the drainage is
towards the middle of the basin and
a nearly level plain emerges at the
Erosional Features center of the basin due to the steady
accumulation of sediment from the
Pediments and Pediplains edges of the basin.
• The creation and extension of pediments • This plain is filled up by a shallow water
is mainly concerned with landscape body during periods of ample water.
evolution in deserts. With or without Such forms of shallow lakes are referred
a thin layer of debris, gently inclined to as playas where water is stored only
rocky floors near to the mountains at for a short period due to evaporation
their feet are called pediments. and the playas also contain good salt
• These rocky floors develop through deposition.
a combination of lateral erosion by • The salt-covered plain of the playa is
streams and sheet flooding through the called alkali flats.
erosion of the mountain front.
• The steep wash slope and free face
retreat backwards when pediments are Deflation Hollows and Caves
built with a steep wash slope followed • Weathered material from over the rocks
by the cliff or free face above it. This or bare soil, blown out in one direction
erosion method is referred to as the by constant movement of wind currents.
retreat of slopes by back wasting in
92
• This process can produce shallow leaving some resistant rock remnants
depressions called deflation hollows. beautifully polished in the form of a
• Over rock surfaces, deflation often mushroom with a slender stalk and a
produces several small pits or cavities. large and rounded pear-shaped cap
above.
• The rock faces suffer wind-borne
impact and abrasion of soil and first • Sometimes, like a table top, the top
shallow depressions called blow outs surface is large and most often the
are formed and some of the blowouts remnants stand out like pedestals.
become deeper and wider to be called
caves.
Wind Deposition
• A wind is a good sorting agent. Different
sizes of grains are moved along the
floors by rolling or salting, depending
on the wind speed and carried in
suspension and the materials are sorted
in this transportation process itself.
• The grains will begin to settle when
the wind slows or starts to die down,
depending on the grain sizes and their
critical speeds.
• So, good grain sorting can be found in
depositional landforms made by wind.
Mushroom, Table and Pedestal • Since wind is everywhere and wherever
Rocks there is a good sand source and with
constant wind directions, depositional
• Many rock-outcrops in the deserts are characteristics can develop anywhere
easily prone to wind deflation and in arid regions.
abrasion and are quickly worn out,
Sand Dunes
SEIF BARCHAN
TRANS-
VERSE
DUNES
PARABOLIC
LONGITUDINAL DUNES
Image 8.16: Type of Sand Dunes
93
• Dry hot deserts are good sites for that covers it is broken, it is subject to
the formation of sand dunes. Equally rapid gullying.
significant are barriers to initiating • In Northeast China, the thickest
dune formation. deposits of loess are where a layer over
• There can be following different types 30 m deep is prevalent and a maximum
of dunes. thickness of 100 m has been measured.
• Crescent shaped dunes called • Besides China, deposits of loess occur
barchans with points or wings directed in Mississippi Valley of North America
away from the direction of the wind, i.e. and north of Central European Upland
downwind, from where the direction of in Germany, Belgium and France and
the wind is steady and moderate. are also found in Australia.
• When sandy surfaces are partially
covered with green cover, parabolic
dunes form. That means parabolic Landforms made
dunes are nothing but a reversed
barchan with wind direction being the by Waves, Tides
and Winds (Coastal
same.
• Seif is similar to barchan. There is
only one wing or point for Seif. This
occurs when there is a change in wind
landforms)
conditions. Seifs' lone wings can grow Basic information like High
very long and high.
rock coasts and low rock
• When the supply of sand is low and coasts
the direction of the wind is constant,
longitudinal dunes form. They appear • The Coastal Landforms are created
as long, but low in height, ridges of by the continuous action of the waves,
substantial length. tides and currents.
• Transverse dunes are developed • The coastline changes the coastal
perpendicular to the wind direction. landforms due to the action of these
When the wind direction is constant, denudational agents and gives shapes
these dunes form and the source of to different types of marine landform
sand is an elongated feature at right features.
angles to the direction of the wind. • Role played by the waves:
» Most of the modification along the
LOESS coasts are accomplished by waves.
• The soil is dominated by layers of silt » Continuous impact of breaking waves
carried by wind that have dried out for drastically affects the coasts.
several thousands of years from dust
storms. This substance is referred to as
» As waves break, along with a great
churning of sediments on the sea floor,
loess.
the water is pushed onto the shore with
• When it is exposed by the cutting of a great force.
stream or the grading of a roadway,
Loess appears to break away along
» Storm waves and tsunami can cause
far reaching modifications in a short
vertical cliffs.
period of time than normal breaking
• It is also very readily eroded by flowing waves.
water and when the vegetation cover
94
• Other factors on which the coastal beaches along the shore and as bars in
landforms depend. the nearshore area (long ridges of sand
and/or shingle parallel to the coast).
» Relief features of land and sea floor.
• Bars are submerged characteristic and
» Whether the coast is advancing when bars show up above water, they
(emerging) seaward or retreating are known as barrier bars. When barrier
(submerging) landward. bar gets keyed up to the headland of a
bay, it is called as a spit.
• Two types of coasts can explain
the concept of evolution of coastal • When barrier, bars and spits created
landforms (Assuming sea level to be at the mouth of a bay and block it, a
constant): lagoon forms. The lagoons would slowly
get filled up by sediments from the land
and giving rise to a coastal plain.
High Rocky Coasts (submerged
coasts)
Low Sedimentary Coasts
• Near the high rocky coasts, the rivers
seem to have been drowned with highly • Near low sedimentary coasts the rivers
irregular coastline. The coastline looks seem to extend their length by forming
highly indented with stretch of water coastal plains and deltas.
penetrating the land where fjords • With periodic incursions of water in the
(glacial valleys) are present. The hill sides form of lagoons and tidal creeks, the
cut off sharply into the water. Initially coastline appears smooth. The slopes
Shores do not show any depositional of the land gently reach into the sea.
landforms features. Erosion features
• Along the coasts, marshes and swamps
dominate.
can occur. Features of the depositional
• Near high rocky coasts, waves break landform dominate. The bottom
with great power against the land sediments are churned and shift readily
shaping the hill sides into cliffs. With to form bars, barrier bars, spits and
continuous pounding by waves, the lagoons as waves smash along a gently
cliffs recede and leaving a wave-cut sloping sedimentary shore.
platform in front of the sea cliff.
• In the due course Lagoons would
• Waves slowly minimize the irregularities eventually turn into a swamp which
along the shore. The materials which would subsequently turn into a coastal
fall and removed from the sea cliffs, plain. Nurturing of these depositional
slowly gets fragmented into smaller landform features relies upon the
fragments and roll to roundness, would steady supply of materials.
get deposited in the offshore region.
• Storm and tsunami waves can cause
• After a considerable period of cliff drastic modification irrespective of
growth and retreat process, a wave- supply of sediments. Large rivers which
built terrace will build in front of the bring lots of sediments form deltas
wave-cut terrace when the coastline along low sedimentary coasts.
turns quite smooth, after the deposition
of some more material in the offshore.
• As the erosion takes place along the Erosional Landforms
coastal region, long-shore currents
Cliffs, Terraces, Caves and Stacks
and waves become available to supply
good material to deposit them as • Wave-cut cliffs and terraces are two
95
forms situated where erosion is the 1. LANGE CRACK

OPENED UP BY
3. THE CAVE
BECOMES
5. THE ARCH IS
ARODED AND
7. THE STACK
IS ARODED
dominant controlling shore process. HYDRAULIC ACTION LARGER COLLAPSES FARMING

A STUMP
Almost every sea cliffs are steep and

may fluctuate from a few meter to 30 m HEADLAND DIRECTION OF
CLIFF RETREAT
or even more.
• There may be a flat or gently sloping
platform at the foot of such cliffs
2. THE CRACK GROWS 4. THE CAVE BREAKS THROUGH 6. THIS LEAVES
occupied by rock debris derived from INTO A CAVE BY
HYDRAULIC ACTION
THE HEADLAND FORMING A
NATURAL ARCH
A TALL ROCK STACK
the sea cliff below. Such platforms are

AND ABRASION
classified as wave-cut terraces, located

at elevations above the average wave Image 8.17: Formation of Caves and Stacks
height.
Depositional Landforms
• Beaches and Dunes Beaches are
features of shorelines that are influenced
by deposition but may take place as
patches along even the rugged shores.
• Most of the sediment responsible for
making up the beaches comes from
land carried by the streams and rivers
or from wave erosion. Beaches are not
the permanent features.
• The lashing of strong waves against • The sandy beach which seems so
the cliff base and the rock debris that permanent may be reduced to a very
is hurled against the cliff along with narrow strip of coarse pebbles in some
smashing waves create hollows and other season.
enlarge and expand these hollows to • Nearly most of the beaches are made up
create sea caves. of sand sized materials. Beaches known
• The roofs of caves fall and the sea cliffs as shingle beaches contain excessively
retreat further inland. Recede of the small pebbles and even cobbles.
cliff may leave some remaining of rock • Sands raised and winnowed from above
standing isolated as small islands just the beach surfaces would be deposited
off the shore. as sand dunes just behind the beach.
• These resistant masses of rock are Near low sedimentary coasts, sand
known as sea stacks, originally sections dunes forming long ridges parallel to
of a cliff or hill. Sea stacks are often the coastline are very common.
temporary, like all other features and
coastal hills and cliffs will gradually
disappear due to wave erosion that Bars, Barriers and Spits
gives rise to small coastal plains and
• A ridge of sand and shingle created
deposits from above the land behind
in the sea in the off-shore zone (from
may be covered by alluvium or covered
the position of low tide waterline to
by shingle or sand.
seaward) reclining approximately
parallel to the coast is knows as an off-
shore bar.
• An off-shore bar which is exposed,
96
because of further addition of sand is from the beach itself (assisted by wind)
called a barrier bar. fill up the lagoons slowly and a broad
• The off-shore bars and barriers and wide coastal plain feature may
commonly create across the mouth of develop to replace a lagoon.
a river or at the entrance of a bay.
• Occasionally such barrier bars get BAY LAGOON
keyed up to one end of the bay when

they are knows as spits. Spits may also
form attached to headlands/hills.
• At the opening of the bay, the spits,
SPITS
BARRIER
bars and walls slowly expand and only a ISLAND
small opening of the bay is left into the CUSPATE TOMBOLO
sea and the bay will gradually develop FORELAND
into a lagoon.
Image 8.18: Lagoon and Barrier
• Sediments coming from the ground or
97
CHAPTER - 9
CLIMATOLOGY - WEATHER
Introduction: and includes detailed statistical reports

which provides us with information on
Weather vs Climate weather.

• Because of changing patterns of
• The primary distinction between climate and effects of climate change,
weather and climate is the duration, it has become uncertain to predict
while the weather is the day-to-day or that whether the sudden change in the
short-term condition of atmospheric weather conditions of any particular
changes and climate is the average day is the effect of climate change,
weather conditions of a particular though the pattern changes can be
place over a long time of time, about predicted.
30 years. • Basic comparison between weather
• While weather changes are observed and climate:
daily, the change in climate are observed • At some extent, weather and climate
over the years, decades or centuries tend to be synonymous as they are
Factors WEATHER CLIMATE

Weather is day-to-day Climate is statistical
information of the changes weather information about
Definition in the atmospheric the average weather
condition in any particular conditions of a particular
area. place over a long period.
The short-term The long-term average
atmospheric condition of weather or atmospheric
Duration any place is the weather, condition of a place or
which may vary from time- country is the climate over
to-time. a period of 30 years.
The climate is the long-
Pressure, temperature, term observations of the
humidity, cloudiness, wind, atmospheric conditions at
Affected By
precipitation, rain, ice any location like humidity,
storms, flooding, etc. temperature, Sunshine,
wind, etc.
Climate significantly
affects agriculture,
The day-to-day livelihood
industries, the livelihood of
It affects and it may hamper
the people in long run. Ex:
transport, agriculture, etc.
Impact of climate change
on agriculture productivity.
98
The changes in the weather

The changes in climate take
Changes observed condition can be observed
a longer time to be visible.
easily.
Weather forecasting
is observed by the The Climate Prediction
Meteorological Department Centre studies climate
Studied by
of any particular place and its study is known as
and the study is known as Climatology.
Meteorology.
influenced by almost the same factors,

but it is now understood that what
makes them different is the period of
occurrence. We may summarize by
saying that "the weather is what you
get, but what you expect is the climate."
Factors Affecting Image 9.1 : Sunlight angle of incidence

Climate
Latitude or Distance from the Altitude or the Height from the
Equator mean sea level
• The areas near the equator are warmer
than the locations further away from it.
• We all know that mountains are cooler
than the plains.
This is because the Sun's rays fall on the
equator vertically and in the temperate • The temperature decreases as we go at
and polar regions slantingly. higher elevations. There is an average
temperature drop at the rate of 1 ° C
• The vertical rays are concentrated over
with a vertical rise of 165 meters. Thus,
a narrow area rather than a slanting
with increased height, the temperature
area. Again, before touching the earth's
decreases
surface, the vertical rays travel through
the atmosphere for a shorter time. • E.g.: Shimla situated on a higher altitude
Therefore, in lower latitude temperature is cooler than Jalandhar, although both
is higher and vice versa. are almost on the same latitude.
• E.g. Malaysia is warmer than England
as it is very close to equator 2C
0
3000 M
NORMAL
LAPSE 8C
0
INCREASE IN
2000 M
RALI ATTITUDE
1000 M
140C
200C 0M
Image 9.2 : Altitude or height from mean sea Level
99
Continentality or the Distance Ocean Currents

from the Sea • Water move from one place to other
• Water is a bad heat conductor, which partly as an attempt to offset the
means it takes longer to heat and temperature and density differences of
longer to cool. Due to this moderating water. Ocean currents are large masses
influence of the sea, there are low of surface that circulate in regular
temperature levels and high humidity patterns. The ocean currents usually
in areas along the coast. move from warm temperature areas to
cooler temperature areas or vice-versa.
• The places in the continent's interior do
not feel the sea's moderating influence. • The warm ocean currents along the
These areas have temperatures that coast raises the temperature and
are high. sometimes bring rainfall, while the cold
currents lower the temperature and
• There is a greater range of diurnal (daily) create fog near the coast.
and annual temperatures in areas far
from the sea. • The on-shore winds that pass through
a hot current bring warm air to the
• Mumbai has a comparatively lower interior and increase the temperature
temperature and higher precipitation of the inland areas. Similarly, cold air
than Nagpur, while both are almost at is brought inside by the winds rushing
the same latitude. over the cold current, producing fog
and mist.
• Owing to the warm North Atlantic Drift,
Nature of the Prevailing Winds Port Bergen in Norway is free of ice
• The on-shore winds carry moisture from even in winter, although Port Quebec
the sea and bring rainfall in the region in Canada stays frozen during winter
they travel through. The off-shore winds months because of the freezing impact
are dry and aid in evaporation coming of the Cold Labrador Current, despite
from the land. the fact that Port Quebec is located at
a far lower latitude than Port Bergen.
• The on-shore summer monsoon winds
in India produce rain, while the off-shore
winter monsoon winds are normally dry.
Direction of Mountain Chains
• The mountain chains serve as the
Cloud Cover wind's natural barrier. After striking
against the mountain, the on-shore
• If the sky is more or less cloudless,
moisture laden winds are forced to
temperature under tree shadows
rise and provide heavy rainfall on
also feel unbearable because of high
the windward side. These winds that
temperature of the day time.
descend on the leeward side cause very
• As the land during nights cools rapidly low precipitation.
by radiating more heat, it results in a
• The Himalayan mountain ranges
large diurnal range in temperature.
check the moisture laden monsoon
• On the other hand under cloudy skies winds while crossing over to Tibet. The
and heavy rainfall at Trivandrum Himalayan arc also act as a barrier to
(Kerala) the temperature range is very cold winds blowing out from Central
small. Asian region. This is the reason for
which the northern plains of India
100
experience rains while Tibet being in a − Wind

perpetual rain shadow area experience − Pressure
lesser amount of rainfall.
Temperature
Slope
• Temperature, measured by a
• The temperature of the air above thermometer, is a measure of the
them is increased by the accumulation warmth of an object expressed in
of heat on the gentler slope. Its Celsius or Fahrenheit. The Sun is the
lower concentration decreases the Earth's chief source of energy.
temperature over steeper slopes.
• The atmosphere serves as an insulator
• Mountain slopes facing the Sun at the and regulates the earth's temperature.
same time are colder than the slopes Without the atmosphere, during the
that are hidden from the rays of the day and night, the planet will encounter
Sun. The southern Himalayan slopes great temperature fluctuations.
are warmer than the northern slopes. Radiation, conduction, convection and
advection are some of the processes
which are responsible for atmospheric
Nature of the Soil and heat.
Vegetation Cover
− Radiation is the transfer of energy
• The essence of the soil depends on by electromagnetic waves between
its composition, structure and texture. two objects. Heat radiates into the
From soil to soil, these characteristics lower atmosphere from the earth.
differ. − Conduction is the transfer, by
• Stony or sandy soils are strong heat contact, of heat from a hot body to
conductors, while black clay soils easily a cold body. Ex: Ice cooling down
absorb the heat of the Sun's rays. The your hand.
bare surface quickly radiates heat. In − The transfer of heat by movement
the daytime, the deserts are hot and at or circulation of air in a mass is
night they are cold. convection. The formation of sea
• In comparison to non-forested areas, and land breeze form the classic
forested areas have lower temperature examples of convection.
levels across the year. − Advection is the transfer of heat by
horizontal movement by the transfer
of heat. Ex: the motion of hot and
Elements of cold fronts in meteorology.
Weather • The incoming heat from the Sun is in

the form short waves and the amount
• The elements of weather and climate of that heat absorbed by the earth is
are more or less the same. However, few called as Insolation or Incoming Solar
of the important ones are: Radiation.
• The outgoing heat from the earth to the
− Temperature space in the form of long waves is called
− Humidity terrestrial radiation or re-radiation.
− Precipitation • Albedo is the measure how much light
101
or heat reflected from the earth back rays fall slanting in this zone. These are
into space without heating the earth’s the coldest regions of the world. The
surface. It is a measure of how much surface remains permanently frozen
light that hits a surface is reflected under thick snow.
without being absorbed.
• The balance between Insolation and
Radiation is termed as the Heat Budget Pressure
of the earth.
• Atmospheric pressure is the weight on
• Earth is divided into three heat zones a specific region of the earth's surface
namely torrid zone, temperate zone exerted by the air. It is measured with
and frigid zone based on the amount of a barometer of mercury and a millibar
insolation from the Sun. unit of measurement is (mb).
» Torrid Zone: This is the largest thermal • The air pressure distribution on the
zone and covers almost 50% of the earth's surface is not constant. It differs
earth's surface. The zone between the vertically, as well as horizontally.
Tropic of Cancer (23½°N) and the Tropic
» Vertical distribution of atmospheric
of Capricorn (23½°S) is considered
pressure: With altitude, air pressure
as torrid zone. This Zone experiences
declines. At higher altitudes, the air
vertical Sun rays almost throughout the
molecules become dispersed and more
year.
widely distributed. The air pressure
» Temperate Zones: In northern decreases by 34 millibars with each
hemisphere the Temperate Zone height rise of 300 metres.
extends between the Tropic of Cancer
» Horizontal distribution of atmospheric
(23½°N) and Arctic Circle (66½°N) and
pressure: The horizontal atmospheric
in the southern hemisphere between
pressure distribution in the world is not
the Tropic of Capricorn (23½° S) and
uniform. This varies according to time
Antarctic Circle (66½° S). The Sun’s rays
and place because of:
fall obliquely temperate zone.
FRIGID
− Air temperature.
COLD 66.5°N
ZONE
− The earth's rotation.
WARM TEMPERATE
ZONE 23.5°N − Presence of water vapour.
• The pressure belts along the latitudes
EQUATOR HOT TORRID ZONE 0°
are characterized by alternate high or
low-pressure belts. The pressure belts
TEMPERATE
WARM ZONE
23.5°S of the world are:
COLD FRIGID
ZONE
66.5°S » Equatorial low
» Subtropical highs
Image 9.3 Heat Zone of the World
» Sub polar lows
» Polar highs
» Frigid Zones: In the northern hemisphere
the Frigid Zone is found between Arctic • The Equatorial Low-Pressure Belt: This
Circle (66½°N) and North Pole (90° N) belt stretches to 5° N and 5° S latitudes
and stretches out between Antarctic from the equator. The planet is heated
Circle (66½° S ) and South Pole (90°S) by the vertical rays of the Sun at the
in the southern hemisphere. The Sun’s equator and heats the air in contact
102
with it in exchange. The hot air, resulting Winds

in a low pressure belt, expands and rises
upwards. This belt is called a doldrum • Wind is nothing but the horizontal
since surface winds are practically movement of the air along the surface
absent. of the earth while the vertical movement
of air is called an Air Current. The winds
• The Subtropical High-Pressure Belts:
always blow from high pressure area
The subtropical high pressure belts
to low pressure region. Wind is mostly
extend from the tropics to about 35°
named after the direction from which
latitudes in both hemispheres. The
it blows. For example, the wind blowing
air that rises in the equatorial region,
from the west is known as the westerly.
becomes cold and heavy and starts to
descend in the subtropical regions. This • An Anemometer is used to record
result in subtropical high pressure belts the wind speed while a Wind Vane
referred as the Horse latitude. measures the direction of the wind. The
unit of measurement is kilometer per
• The Subpolar Low-Pressure Belts: In
hour or knots.
the northern hemisphere, the sub-polar
low pressure belts range between 45° • Winds are generally categorised into
N and the Arctic Circle and between the following four major types:
45° S and the southern hemisphere of
the Antarctic Circle. The air in this layer » Planetary winds
travels to the subtropical high-pressure » Periodic winds
belt and the polar high-pressure belt, » Variable wind
leaving the sub-polar low-pressure belt
free from air pressure. This is caused by » Local wind
the rotation of the earth.
• The Polar High Pressure Belts: Sun Planetary winds
rays are always slanting at poles and
temperature remains always low. As • The Planetary winds are called the
the temperature is low, air compresses winds that continually blow in the same
and its density increases. Hence, high direction throughout the year. They
pressure is found here. Winds from are often referred to as permanent
these belts blow towards sub-polar low winds, or prevailing winds. Trade winds,
pressure belts. Westerlies and Polar Easterlies included
under this,
POLAR HIGH 60° N
SUB POLAR LOW PRESSURE » Trade Winds: These winds blow from
45° N
the subtropical high pressure area to
SUB TROPICAL HIGH PRESSURE
23.5° N the Equatorial low pressure belt in both
the hemispheres. They are also called
EQUATORIAL LOW PRESSURE BELT 0° as tropical easterlies and blow from
the right in Northern hemisphere and
23.5° S
to the left in the Southern hemisphere
SUB TROPICAL HIGH PRESSURE
under the influence of Coriolis effect
45° S and Ferrel’s law. Trade winds blow
SUB POLAR LOW PRESSURE
more or less regularly and in a constant
60° S
POLAR HIGH direction round the year. They were thus
helpful to early traders who depended
on the winds when sailing the high seas.
Image 9.4: Pressure Belts Because of this, these winds are called
103
as Trade winds. Trade winds traverse Inter Tropical Convergence Zone:

vast surfaces of oceans and during
their journey they collect more moisture • ITCZ is a broad trough of low pressure
from oceans and bring heavy rainfall to area in equatorial latitudes. Over this
the East Coast of the continents of the low pressure area the northeast and
tropics. As they move westward, they the southeast trade winds converge
become dry and produce no rainfall. with each other.
» Westerlies: These winds are the • This convergence zone is more or less
permanent winds that blow out from parallel to the equator but moves
the sub-tropical high pressure area north or south with the apparent
to the sub polar low pressure area in movement of the Sun.
northern and southern hemispheres. • The ITCZ propagates poleward more
In the northern hemisphere they travel prominently over land than over water
from South West to North East direction and over the Northern Hemisphere
and in the southern hemisphere North than over the Southern Hemisphere,
West to South East. The speed of because water has a greater heat
westerlies become so vigorous and capacity than land.
fast to be called Roaring Forties at 40° • The ITCZ is situated between 5 and
latitude, Furious Fifties at 50° latitude 15 degrees north of the Equator in
and Screaming Sixties at 60° latitude. July and August over the Atlantic and
Pacific, but farther north over the land
• Polar Easterlies: These winds are cold
masses of Africa and Asia. The ITCZ
and dry polar winds that originate from
can propagate up to 30 degrees north
the polar high pressure belt and travel
of the Equator in eastern Asia.
towards the sub polar low pressure belt
towards the south. These are weak winds • In several equatorial nations, seasonal
travel from North East direction in the variations in the position of the ITCZ
Northern Hemisphere and South East have a dramatic effect on rainfall,
direction in the Southern Hemisphere. resulting in the rainy and dry seasons
in tropics rather than the cold and
warm seasons in higher latitudes.
HIGH
Polar Easterlies
60˚N
LOW LOW
Westerlies
Periodic Winds
30˚N
HIGH Subtropical Highs HIGH • Periodic winds are seasonal winds that
Northeast Trades
Intertropical regularly change direction.
Convergence
0˚
Zone
• These winds are caused by terrestrial
Southeast Trades
and ocean heating differentials.
HIGH Subtropical Highs HIGH

• Winds that with the change of
30˚S seasons reverse their course are called
Westerlies
monsoons. The Indian subcontinent's
LOW
Tropical Monsoon winds are a best
60˚S LOW
Polar Easterlies example.
HIGH
Image 9.5: Wind Regimes
104
Coriolis Force: » Cyclones: The cyclones are of low

pressure areas where, winds from
• The Coriolis force is the invisible the surrounding high pressure area
force that helps to deflect the wind. converge towards the centre in a spiral
Every rotating object comes under form. Because of the earth’s rotation
the influence of Coriolis force. It is and under the influence of the Coriolis
determined by the mass of the object force, the cyclones follow anticlockwise
and the object's rate of rotation. The direction in the northern hemisphere,
Coriolis force is perpendicular to the where as they move in a clockwise
object's axis. direction in the southern hemisphere.
• The rotation of the earth makes the Cyclones can be classified into:
wind to deflect from their original » Tropical cyclones: Tropical cyclones are
path, called the Coriolis effect. formed in the Inter tropical convergence
• The Earth rotates on its own axis from zone. They are developed because of
west to east. Thus, The Coriolis force the differential heating of land and sea.
acts in a north-south direction. The Tropical cyclones are also known by
Coriolis force is almost zero at the different names in various regions like
Equator and maximum at Poles. ‘typhoons’ in the Western Pacific ocean,
• Winds are deflected in the right in the ‘cyclones’ in Indian ocean, ‘willy willy’
northern hemisphere and to the left in Australia, ‘hurricanes’ in the Atlantic
in the southern hemisphere, which is and Eastern Pacific ocean, ‘baguios’
called the Ferrel’s law. in Philippines. Tropical cyclones often
cause heavy loss of property and life
on the coasts and become weak after
reaching the landmasses.
» Temperate cyclones: Temperate
cyclones are developed along a front
where cold and hot air masses converge
between 35° and 65° N and S latitudes.
Temperate cyclones do not become
weak like the tropical cyclones on
reaching the land. Temperate cyclone
commonly occurs over the North
Atlantic Ocean, North West Europe,
Mediterranean basin. Mediterranean
basin’s temperate cyclones extend up
to Russia and India in winter. In India it
is called western disturbances.
Image 9.6: Deflection due to Coriolis Force
» Extra tropical cyclones: Extra
tropical cyclones develop in the
Variable Winds latitudes between 30° and 60° in both
hemispheres. They are also referred to
• The disturbance and the local weather as mid-latitude cyclones. They receives
changes cause fluctuations in the energy from temperature differences
prevailing winds. Such winds are referred which are more pronounced in higher
to as variable winds. Variable winds latitudes. Extra tropical cyclones can
generally end up with the development cause mild showers to heavy gales,
of cyclones, anticyclones and storms. tornadoes, thunderstorms and blizzards.
105
• Anticyclones: Anticyclones are exactly above the freezing point is the most
opposite of cyclones. With high pressure common and significant form of
in the centre and isobars far apart. The precipitation. It happens only when
wind from the high pressure region move humidity is abundant in the air. A rain
outwards to the low pressure regions drop's diameter is more than 5 mm.
in a spiral form. Anticyclones are often » Sleet: Sleet refers to snow, which
accompanied by cold and heat waves. consists of clear and translucent ice
in the form of pellets. This rainfall is a
blend of snow and rain.
Local Winds
» Snow: Snow is produced when
• Local winds are those winds which are condensation occurs below freezing
experienced only in a particular region point. It is the precipitation of ice
for a short period of time. crystals that are opaque and semi
• They are mostly seasonal in nature and opaque. When they collide and stick
called by different names in different together, these ice crystals become
regions: snowflakes.
» Hails: Hails are chunks of ice (greater
» Fohn (Alps-Europe)
than 2cm in diameter) that fall during a
» Chinook (Rockies-North America) rainstorm or thunderstorm. Hailstones
» Sirocco (North coast of Africa) are solid precipitation where small
pieces of ice fall. These are most
» Loo (Thar Desert- India) destructive and dangerous forms of
» Mistral (Mediterranean sea in France) solid precipitation because they destroy
» Bora (Mediterranean sea in Italy) agricultural crops and human lives.
Precipitation Humidity
• Falling down of condensed water vapour • Humidity is the amount of water vapour
in various forms is called Precipitation. available in the atmosphere. The
After reaching the dew point in the humidity of th atmosphere increases
cloud water droplets become saturated with the increase in quantity of water
and start to fall. Thus, they fall on the vapour in the atmosphere.
our earth as Precipitation. • The amount of water vapour available
• The climatic factors which influence in the atmosphere is called absolute
the forms of precipitation are: Altitude, humidity.
Temperature, Cloud type, Precipitation • The ratio between the amount of water
process, Atmospheric conditions,. vapour in the atmosphere and the
• The main forms of precipitation include: actual amount of water vapour it can
hold is called as relative humidity.
» Drizzle: The drizzle is type of • Hot air can hold more water vapour than
precipitation in which numerous cold air. Relative humidity increases
uniform minute droplets of water (with when air gets cold and decreases when
a diameter not more than 0.5 mm) fell air gets heated up.
from sky. They fall from low clouds.
Sometimes drizzles are combined with • The absolute humidity unit is given
fog and reduces the visibility. as g.m-3. The specific humidity unit is
given as g.kg-1.
» Rain: Rain in areas with temperatures
106
Clouds − Alto-stratus: These are denser,

greyish clouds with a watery look.
• Large surface areas of oceans are They are fibrous or striated structure
best source of water vapour which are through which the Sun’s rays shine
required for cloud formation. faintly.
• Cool moisture laden air gets collected − Alto-cumulus: These are wooly,
around hygroscopic particles like soot, bumpy clouds arranged in layers
smoke, dust, salt particles from the and appearing like waves in the
ocean, etc. and develop clouds. blue sky. They normally indicate fair
• Sometimes, clouds are formed when weather.
cold and warm air masses are mixed − Nimbo stratus: This is a dark,
together. dull cloud, clearly layered and is
• A visible mass of water vapor above also known as rain cloud. It brings
ground level floating in the air is called continuous rain, snow or sleet.
a cloud. Cloud formation is common
phenomena in troposphere but very
• Low clouds: These are mainly stratus or
sheet clouds below 7000 feet.
rare phenomena in stratosphere and
mesosphere. » Strato-cumulus: This is a rough bumpy
• According to their height, clouds are cloud with the waves more pronounced
categorised into the following types than in altocumulus. There is a great
contrast between the bright and the
» High clouds extend from 6-20km shaded parts.
» Middle clouds extend from 2.5km-6km » Stratus: This is formed at very low
» Low clouds extend from ground surface height, uniformly grey and thick, which
to 25 km appears like a low ceiling or highland
fog. It brings dull weather with light
• Further classification of clouds based drizzle. It reduces the visibility of aircraft
on a combination of form, height and and is thus dangerous.
appearance are as follows:
» Cumulus: This is a vertical cloud and
» High clouds: Mainly cirrus of feathery has rounded top and horizontal base.
form at 20000-40000 m above ground. This cloud is more typically found in
humid tropical regions and associated
− Cirrus: This looks fibrous and with rising convectional currents. White
appears like wisps in the blue sky. globular masses of the cloud may look
It is often called as ‘mares tails’. It grey against the Sun but it is a fair
indicates fair weather and often weather cloud.
gives a brilliant Sunset. » Cumulonimbus: This an overgrown
− Cirro-cumulus: This appears as cumulus cloud, extending for a
white globular masses, forming tremendous vertical height from a base
ripples in mackerel sky. of 2000 feet to over 30000 feet. Its black
and white globular masses take a wide
− Cirro-stratus: This resembles thin
range of beautiful shapes. This is more
white sheet or veil. The sky appears
frequently seen in tropical afternoons.
milky and the Sun or Moon shines
It is also called as a thunder cloud and
through it with characteristic halo.
brings convectional rain, accompanied
• Middle clouds: Mainly alto or middle by lighting and thunder.
height clouds forms at 7000-20000 m.
107
Image 9.7: Type of Clouds
108
CHAPTER - 10
CLIMATOLOGY: CLIMATE
Atmosphere: Proportion of Gases in the

Atmosphere
Composition and
Structure
Origin of the Atmosphere on
Earth
• The atmosphere is now believed to
have formed about 4.5 billion years ago,
when the Earth was formed. Asteroids
collided with the expanding earth,
causing degassing, mostly of steam,
but also of hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon
dioxide, and carbon monoxide.
Earlier, Hydrogen & Helium were in abundance
Lighter gases escaped
During Early Life: Extensive Volcanism and Degassing
N, S, Water vapor, Agron & Co2 Comes Out
Water vapor condensed and Clouds formed
Brings Rainfall
Rainfall washed out the bulk of CO2 into Oceans

Image 10.2: Proportion of Gases in Atmosphere
O2 into the atmosphere from anaerobic respiration of cyanobacteria
Origin of Almosphere
• Nitrogen: 78%; Oxygen: 21%; Argon:
Image 10.1: Stages of Atmosphere Formation 0.93%; Carbon Dioxide: 0.04%.
• Permanent gases: Nitrogen, Oxygen,
Hydrogen and Argon.
• Variable gases/ GHGs: Water Vapour,
Carbon Dioxide, Ozone.
• Inert gases: Nitrogen and Argon.
• Atmospheric gases→ no chemical
interaction among them→ don’t lose
their properties→ Act as single unified
gas.
• Almost 99% of the total mass of the
atmosphere is confined to the height of
109
32 km from the earth’s surface. & 18 km. near the Equator).

• CO2 and water vapor are found only up • Generally, in this layer, with increasing
to 90km from the surface of the earth. height temperature decreases. It is so
• Water vapor also decreases from the because of:
equator towards the poles.
» Greenhouse effect in the troposphere.
» GHGs (Greenhouse gases) transparent
to insolation (short wave).
Structure of the Atmosphere
» Heated by terrestrial radiation (Long
wave).
400
» GHGs absorb long wave terrestrial
radiation.
Thermosphere
• The zone which separates the
80 Mesopause
troposphere and the stratosphere is
known as the tropopause. Temperature
Mesosphere is constant at this zone.
50 Stratopause
Stratosphere
• The stratosphere lies above the
Stratosphere troposphere.
• The average height extends between
Tropopause 13-50km.
10
Troposphere • The stratosphere is not only very cold
0 but cloudless, with extremely thin air
-100 -80- 60 -40- 20 02 0
Temperature (°C)
and without dust, smoke or water
vapor but there are marked seasonal
Image10.3: Structure of the Atmosphere temperature changes.
• Generally, in this layer, the phenomenon
of ‘Temperature Inversion’ is observed
There are five layers of the atmosphere: i.e., with increasing height temperature
1. Troposphere increases. It is so because of the ozone
layer.
2. Stratosphere
• The stratopause is the level of the
3. Mesosphere
atmosphere which is the boundary
4. Thermosphere between two layers: the stratosphere
5. Exosphere and the mesosphere.
• No vertical winds are present in the
lower stratosphere.
Troposphere
• This is the lowest layer, in which the
weather is confined, is known as the
Mesosphere
troposphere. • It is the region of the earth's atmosphere
• Average Height: 13 km. (8 km. near Poles above the stratosphere and below the
110
thermosphere, between about 50 and Exosphere

80 km in altitude.
• It is the outermost layer of the
• Generally, in this layer, with increasing
atmosphere.
height temperature decreases due
to decreasing absorption of solar • It is a highly rarefied layer and extends
radiation by the rarefied atmosphere beyond 640 km.
and increasing cooling by CO2 radiative • The temperature in this layer is very
emission. high and there is no existence of air
• The coldest temperatures in Earth's also.
atmosphere, about -90° C, are found
near the top of this layer.
Ionosphere
• Mesopause is a zone of separation
between the mesosphere and the • It is a very active component of
thermosphere. the atmosphere that overlaps the
mesosphere, the thermosphere and
• The stratosphere and mesosphere the exosphere and, depending on
together are referred to as the middle
the energy it receives from the Sun, it
atmosphere.
expands and shrinks.
• There are no GHGs in this layer. • Its name derives from the fact that
The meteors burn and evaporate in this
gases are excited by solar radiation
layer only. Meteors easily move through
in these layers to form "ions," which
the thermosphere and exosphere
have an electrical charge.
because the thin air in these layers
provides less resistance. When they • Parts of the ionosphere overlap with
reach the mesosphere, however, there the magnetosphere of Earth. That's
are enough gases to induce friction and the region around the Planet where
generate heat. charged particles feel the magnetic
field of the Earth.
• In the mesosphere near the poles,
very strange, high altitude clouds • In the ionosphere, the magnetic fields
called "noctilucent clouds" or "polar of both the Earth and the Sun impact
mesospheric clouds" often form. charged particles. This is the area
where auroras occur. These are the
shiny, lovely bands of light often seen
Thermosphere near the poles of the Planet.
• They are caused in this layer of our
• The thermosphere lies directly above the atmosphere by high-energy particles
mesosphere and below the exosphere. from the Sun interacting with the
• Generally, in this layer, with increasing atoms.
height temperature also increases due • The ionosphere is commonly known to
high-energy UV radiation and X-rays influence signals on short-wave radio
from the Sun are absorbed in this layer, bands where it "reflects" signals that
raising its temperature to hundreds of allow these radio communications
thousands of degrees. signals to be heard over vast distances
• But, the air in this layer is so rare and (due to the electric charge).
thin that it nearly feels freezing cold.
• Thermosphere extends up to a height
of 800km from the earth.
111
Solar Radiation, the year.

• The factors responsible for this:
Heat Budget, » Earth’s rotation on its own axis.
Temperature and » The angle of inclination of the Sun’s
rays.
Temperature » The length of the day.
Inversion » The transparency of the atmosphere.
» The configuration of land in terms of its
Solar Radiation aspect.
• The surface of the earth gets most of its 66½° N
energy in the form of short wavelengths 23½° 23½°

Tro
(high energy). The energy the earth pic
of C 47°
anc
receives is known as incoming solar 0° er
radiation, which is called insolation in
Sun Rays
90°
Day
short. Night
23½° Equ
• As the earth is a Geoid that resembles Tro
p ic o
ato
r
66½°
fC
a sphere, at the top of the atmosphere apr
ico
rn
the Sun's rays fall obliquely and the 66½°
43°
earth intercepts a very small portion of S 0°
the energy of the Sun.
Image10.4: Isolation at Earth Surface
• At the height of its atmosphere, the
planet receives an average of 1.94
calories per square centimetre per • Rotation of the Earth: The fact that the
minute. Because of variations in distance earth’s axis makes an angle 66½ with
between the Earth and the Sun, the the plane of its orbit around the Sun. It
solar output obtained at the top of the has a greater influence on the amount
atmosphere varies considerably over of insolation received at different
the course of a year. latitudes.
• During its rotation around the Sun, the • The angle of the Inclination of the
earth is the furthest away from the Sun Sun’s rays: The greater the latitude,
(152 million kilometres) on July 4th. The the lower the angle they create to the
earth's location is referred to as the earth's surface, resulting in slanting
aphelion. Sun rays. There is often a smaller area
• The earth is closest to the Sun on occupied by vertical rays than the
January 3rd (147 Million km). This slanting rays. The energy is distributed
location is referred to as perihelion. The and the net energy obtained per unit
annual insolation obtained by the Earth area decreases as more area is covered.
on 3 January is also marginally higher
than the amount received on 4 July.
Spatial Distribution of Insolation at
the Earth’s Surface
Variability of Insolation at the • The insolation received at the surface
Surface of the Earth ranges from about 320 Watt/m2 in the
tropics to about 70 Watt/m2 at the
• The amount and intensity of insolation
poles.
varies during the day, the season and
112
• Maximum insolation is received over atmospheric heat. This vertical heating

the subtropical deserts and not over process of the atmosphere is referred
the equator. This is because subtropical to as convection. Convective energy
deserts are generally cloudless. transfer is limited to the troposphere
• The Equator receives comparatively less only.
insolation than the tropics due to heavy • The transfer of heat through the
cloud cover as the clouds obstruct the horizontal movement of air is known as
Sunlight and hence equator receives advection. The horizontal movement of
less insolation. Generally, at the same the air is comparatively more important
latitude the insolation is moreover the than the vertical movement.
continent than over the oceans. • In mid latitudes, most of diurnal (day
• In winter, the middle and higher and night) changes in daily weather are
latitudes receive less radiation than in caused by advection alone.
summer. • In tropical regions particularly in
northern India during summer season
local winds called ‘loo’ is the result of
Heating and Cooling of Atmosphere the advection process.
• There are various means of atmospheric
heating and cooling.
Terrestrial Radiation
• After being heated by insolation, the
planet transmits the heat in a long • The insolation obtained by the earth is
waveform to the atmospheric layers in the form of short waves and heats its
near the earth. surface. After being heated, the earth
• The air is heated slowly in contact itself becomes a radiating body and in
with the ground and the upper layers the long waveform radiates radiation to
are also heated in contact with the the atmosphere. From below, this force
lower layers. This mechanism is known heats up the atmosphere. This process
as conduction. When two bodies with is referred to as terrestrial radiation.
unequal temperatures are in contact
with each other, conduction takes
place. There is a flow of energy from the
Heat Budget of the Planet Earth
warmer to the cooler body. Until both • The earth as a whole does not
bodies reach the same temperature or accumulate or lose heat. It maintains
the contact is broken, the transfer of its temperature. This can happen only
heat continues. Conduction is critical in if the amount of heat received in the
heating the atmosphere's lower layers. form of insolation (Short wave solar
• The air in contact with the earth rises radiation) equals the amount lost by
vertically in the form of currents when the earth through terrestrial radiation
heated and further transmits the (Longwave solar radiation).
113
Image10.5: Heat Budget of Earth
• Therefore, the cumulative return of 350
300
radiation from the earth and the Surplus
Energy-watts m-2
250
atmosphere is 17+48 = 65 units, which is
200
equal to the total of 65 units obtained
it
De
fic
150 Solar Radiation

from the Sun. This is called the heat
De
fic
it
300
budget or heat balance of the earth. Terrestrial Radiation
50
This explains why, despite the massive
North South
transfer of heat that takes place, the 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 0
planet neither warms up nor cools Latitude
down. Image10.6: Regions of Heat Surplus & Deficit
• The surplus heat energy from the

Variation in the Net Heat Budget at tropics is redistributed polewards and
the Earth’s Surface the tropics are not gradually heated
as a result of the accumulation of
• As explained earlier, there are variations excess heat or the high latitudes are
in the amount of radiation received at permanently frozen due to excess
the earth’s surface. Some parts of the deficit.
earth have surplus radiation balance
while the other part has a deficit.
• As the figure shows there is a surplus Temperature
between 40 degrees north and south of
• The interaction of insolation with the
the net radiation balance and there is a
atmosphere and the surface of the
deficit in the regions near the poles.
earth generates heat which is measured
in temperature terms.
• The temperature is how hot (or cold)
a thing (or a place) is measured in
degrees.
• Factors Controlling Temperature
114
distribution Inversion of Temperature

» The latitude of the place. • Normally, temperature decreases with
» The altitude of the place. an increase in elevation. It is called
the normal lapse rate. But sometimes,
» Distance from the sea, the air-mass the conditions are reversed and the
circulation. normal lapse rate is inverted. It is called
» The presence of warm and cold ocean Inversion of temperature.
currents.
» Local aspects.
• Latitude of the Place: Temperature HEIGHT
Normal temperature of
decrease with height
and latitude are inversely related
to each other. As latitude increases, Temperature inversion
the temperature falls and vice versa.

Generally, around the world, it gets TEMPERATURE
warmer towards the equator and cooler Image10.7: Temperature Inversion

towards the poles.
• Altitude of the Place: Temperature • Inversion is usually of short duration but
decreases as the altitude from the quite common during winter nights or
surface of the earth increase because at the leeward side of the slope.
the ground absorbs more radiation • A long winter night with clear skies
from the Sun and during night time the and stable air is an ideal condition for
ground emits this absorbed radiation temperature inversion.
to its surroundings. The molecules of air • The heat of the day is radiated off
surrounding the land also absorb the during the night and by early morning
emitted radiation from the ground. hours, the earth is cooler than the air
• Distance from the Sea: Compared to above.
surface, the sea heats up slowly and • Over polar areas, a temperature
slowly loses heat. The land heats up and inversion is normal throughout the year.
rapidly cools down. Therefore, relative to
land, the difference in temperature over
the sea is less. The places located near Benefits of Temperature Inversion:
the sea come under the moderating
influence of the sea and land breezes. • Stability in the lower layers of the
atmosphere is aided by surface
• Air-mass and Ocean currents: The inversion.
movement of air masses also influences
the temperature, much like the land and • Smoke and dust particles get collected
sea breezes. The regions, experiencing beneath the inversion layer (smoke and
warm air-masses have higher dust basically gets settled down).
temperatures and the places that • Dense fogs in the mornings are
come under the influence of cold air- common especially during the winter.
masses experience low temperatures. This inversion commonly lasts for a
Likewise, the regions located near the few hours until the Sun comes up and
coast where the warm ocean currents begins to warm the earth.
flow record higher temperatures than
• Hills and mountains also experience
the coastal regions where cold currents
temperature inversion due to air
flow.
drainage.
115
• Cold air at the hills and mountains, than prevailing winds. Because soil
formed during the nights, flow under absorbs solar radiation much faster
the influence of gravity. Being heavy than water, a sea breeze is a natural
and dense, the cold air moves down the occurrence along the coast after the
slope to pile up deeply in pockets and Sunrise.
valley bottoms with warm air above.
This is called air drainage. It protects
plants from frost damages. Land Breeze
• The local wind system is called land
breeze and some refer to it as offshore
Land and Sea Breeze wind, which flows from land to sea.
Sea Breeze • It occurs at night and early morning
when, compared to the adjacent water,
• A sea breeze or onshore breeze is any
the land has a lower heat capacity.
wind that blows from a large body of
water toward or onto a landmass. • In particular, during the last weeks of
summer, land breezes last longer as
• Sea breeze is caused by differential
this is when the temperature of the
heating of the land and the sea.
sea will gradually rise to the regular
• Sea breezes are, as such, more localized temperature fluctuations of the land.
Category Land Breeze Sea Breeze
Time It is formed at Night time. It is formed at Day time.
Source Land breeze comes from Land. Sea breeze comes from water.
It is often experienced during

It is more common in the Autumn spring and summer because
Season and winter season due to the of the significant temperature
cooler nights. differences between land and
water.
Generally, Sea breezes are

Generally, Land breeze is weaker stronger than land breezes
Strength
than Sea breezes. due to the bigger temperature
differences.
Land breezes are often dry Sea breezes have more moisture
Moisture
winds. due to absorbed water droplets.
116
Mountain and Valley Winds • The hills get cold throughout the night
and the dense air descends like the
• In mountainous areas, the slopes are mountain wind into the valley.
heated up during the day and air flows
• Cold air from the high plateaus and ice
upwards and the air from the valley
fields that flow into the valley is referred
blows up the valley to fill the resulting
to as katabatic wind.
gap. This wind is known as the valley
breeze. • Katabatic winds are stronger than the
mountain winds.
Image10.8: Mountain and Valley Winds
Air Masses » The relatively cold high latitude oceans.

• If the air remains in a homogeneous » The very cold snow-covered continents
in high latitudes.
area for a long enough period of time, it
takes on the characteristics of the area. » Permanently ice-covered continents in
the Arctic and Antarctica.
• The air with distinctive features is called
an air mass in terms of temperature and • Accordingly, the following types of air
humidity. It is known as a large air body masses are recognized:
that has little horizontal temperature
and moisture variation. » Maritime tropical (mT)
• The air masses are classified according » Continental tropical (cT)
to their source.
» Maritime polar (mP)
» Warm tropical and subtropical oceans. » Continental polar (cP)
» The subtropical hot deserts. » Continental arctic (cA).
117
Fronts • There are four types of fronts:

» Cold
» Warm
nt
4000 m Fro » Stationary
rm
Warm air Wa Cold air
» Occluded.
Km 600 400 200 0 200 400 600 800 Km
• Cold Front: When the cold air moves
towards the warm air mass, its contact
zone is referred as the cold front.
4000 m
Cold air Warm air » In this type of front the temperatures
generally vary rapidly over a short
Km 600 400 200 0 200 400 600 800 Km
distance. Also, there is a sharp change
in moisture content.
Cold Front » It moves up to twice as quickly as warm
Warm air
Front fronts.
Warm
Cold air
Cold air » Sometimes thunderstorms develop
Occluded Front ahead of these fronts as the warm air
ahead of the front rises over the colder
Vertical Sections of: (a) Warm Front
(b) Cold Front (c) Occluded Front air.
Image10.9: Types of Front » At actual front, dark nimbus and
cumulonimbus clouds cause heavy
showers.
• When two different air masses meet,
the boundary zone between these air • Warm Front: If the warm air mass moves
masses is called as a front. towards the cold air mass, the contact
• Frontogenesis means the process of zone is referred as a warm front.
formation of the fronts. It involves the
» Frontolysis (front dissipation) begin
convergence of two distinct air masses.
when the warm air mass makes way for
In this process the temperature contrast
cold air mass on the ground.
increases and front strengthens.
» The passage of warm front is marked
• The process of dissipation of a front by rise in temperature, pressure and
is known as Frontolysis. It involves
change in weather.
overriding of one of the air mass by
another. In this process the temperature » There is a temperature inversion (frontal
contrast lessens and front weakens. inversion) just ahead of the front.
» These fronts cause moderate to gentle
Determining Location of Front precipitation over a large area, over
1. Sharp temperature variation over several hours.
short distance. • Occluded Front: If an air mass is fully
2. Changes in the moisture content of lifted above the land surface, it is known
air(dew point). as the occluded front.
3. Changes in wind direction.
» There are both warm and cold
4. Pressure and pressure changes. occlusions. In a cold occlusion, the
5. Clouds and precipitation patterns. colder air is found behind the front.
118
» Conversely, a warm occlusion is Concepts of El Nino, La Nina

characterized by warmer air located
behind the front. Walker Cell
» Weather along an occluded front is Concept of Upwelling:
complex i.e., a mixture of cold front type • It occurs where water from the deeper
and warm front type weather. Such parts of the ocean is allowed to travel
fronts are common in west Europe. upwards to the surface.
» The formation Mid-latitude cyclones
[temperate cyclones or extra-tropical
Concept of Downwelling
cyclones] involve the formation of
occluded front. • It is the vertical movement of surface
water to deeper parts of the ocean.
• Stationary Front: When the front
remains stationary, it is known as a
stationary front. Walker Cycle
» In this front neither the cold air mass nor • The Walker circulation is caused
the warm air mass moves. Winds tend by the pressure gradient force that
to blow along it in opposite directions results from a low-pressure areas over
on both sides. Indonesia and high-pressure areas over
the eastern Pacific Ocean.
» Conditions along the front are clear and
dry. However, if moisture is available • The walker cell is indirectly related to
near the front, clouds may develop and the upwelling off the coast of Peru and
cause light precipitation. Ecuador.
• When the walker cell/circulation
• The fronts occur at medium latitudes weakens or reverses and causes El-
and are characterized by a steep Nino (causing the Ocean Surface to be
temperature and pressure gradient. warmer). A strong walker circulation
They cause sudden temperature causes a La Nina (resulting in cooler
changes which cause the air to rise to ocean temperature).
form clouds and cause precipitation.
Trade Winds
Western Eastern
Upwelling
AUSTRALIA Water heated by SOUTH
the Sun AMERICA
NE
M OCLI
THER
PACIFIC OCEAN
Image10.10: Walker cycle
119
El- Nino El-Nino Condition
• ‘El Nino’ is a Spanish word meaning ‘the • Eastern Pacific: Coast of Peru and
child’ and refers to the “Baby Christ”, Ecuador→ Warm Ocean Water or
as this current starts flowing during Current→ Not Good for Fishing.
Christmas. • Western Pacific: Indonesia and
• It is the name given to the occasional Australia→ Cold Ocean Water or
development of warm ocean surface Current→ Drought.
waters along the coast of Ecuador • In an El-Nino year, air pressure drops
and Peru. The normal upwelling of over large areas of central pacific and
cold, nutrient-rich deep ocean water along the coast of South America.
is greatly reduced as a result of this
warming.
• The normal low-pressure area is
replaced by a weak high in the western
Normal Condition pacific (the Southern Oscillation). This
• Eastern Pacific: Coast of Peru and change in pressure pattern causes the
Ecuador→ Cold Ocean Water→ Good trade winds to be reduced. Sometimes,
Fishing grounds. Walker’s cell might even get reversed.
• Western Pacific: Indonesia and • This reduction allows the equatorial
Australia→ Warm Ocean Water→ counter-current (current along
abundant of rain. doldrums) to accumulate warm ocean
water along the coastlines of Peru and
Ecuador.
Image10.11: El-Nino Event
120
• The accumulation of warm water causes La-Nina

the thermocline (The thermocline is
the oceanic water layer in which water • After El-Nino event weather conditions
temperature decreases rapidly with generally becomes normal.
the increasing depth) to drop in the • However, trade winds may become
eastern pacific ocean which cuts off exceptionally strong in certain years
the upwelling of cold deep ocean water and an excessive accumulation of cold
along the coast of Peru. water in the central and eastern Pacific
• The development of an El-Nino brings can occur. The name of this event is La
drought to the western pacific, rain to Nina.
the equatorial coast of South America • In 1988, a severe La Nina occurred and
and convective storms (thunderstorms) scientists claim that it could have been
and hurricanes to the central pacific. responsible for central North America's
summer drought. The Atlantic Ocean
experienced very active hurricane
El-Nino Southern Oscillation seasons during this time.
[ENSO]
• The formation of El Nino (circulation
of water) is linked with Pacific Ocean World Climatic
circulation patterns known as Southern
Oscillation (circulation of atmospheric Types and
pressure).
• The Southern Oscillation is a see-saw
Vegetation
pattern of meteorological changes • We can divide the world into several
observed between the eastern pacific climatic zones, each with its own
and western pacific. climatic characteristics, natural
• The El-Nino and Southern Oscillation vegetation, crops, animals and human
coincide most of the time and hence, is activities.
called ENSO. • Though the geographical
• Only SO condition: Low pressure over characteristics may not be absolutely
Eastern Pacific and High Pressure over uniform in each climatic type, they have
western pacific. many things in common.
• ENSO condition: Warmer water in • The below table gives the scheme of
eastern pacific and Low pressure over the world’s climatic types with their
eastern pacific along with cold-water in seasonal rainfall and natural vegetation.
western pacific and high pressure over
western pacific.
Rainfall Natural
Climatic Zone Latitude Climatic Type
Regime Vegetation
1. Equatorial Hot, Wet All year round: Equatorial Rain
0 - 10° N-S
Zone Equatorial 80 Inches. Forests.
Tropical Heavy Summer
2. Hot Zone 10 - 30° N-S Monsoon Forest.
Monsoon rain: 60 Inches.
121
Forests are more

open and less
diverse and
Much Summer
Tropical Marine luxuriant than the
Rain: 70 Inches.
equatorial forests
and there are far
fewer species.
Rain Mainly in
Savanna [Tropical
Sudan Type Summer: 30
Grassland].
Inches.
Desert:
i) Saharan Type Little Rain: 5 Desert Vegetation
ii) Mid-latitude Inches. and Scrub.
Type
3.Warm Western Margin

Winter rain:35 Mediterranean
Temperate 30-45° N-S (Mediterranean Inches. forests and Scrub.
Zone Type)
Central
Light Summer Steppe/Temperate
Continental
Rain: 20 Inches. Grassland.
(Steppe Type)
Eastern Margin:
i) China Type Heavier
Warm, wet forests
Summer rain:
ii) Gulf Type and Bamboo.
45 Inches.
iii) Natal Type
4. Cool More rain in
Western Margin
Temperate 45-65° N-S autumn and Deciduous forests.
(British Type)
Zone winter: 30 Inch.
Central
Light Summer Evergreen
Continental
rain: 25 Inches. Coniferous forests.
(Siberian Type)
Eastern Margin Moderate Mixed forests:
(Laurentian Summer rain: Coniferous +
Type) 40 Inches. Deciduous.
Very light
Tundra, Mosses,
5. Cold Zone 65-90° N-S Arctic or Polar Summer rain:
Lichens.
10 Inches.
Alpine Pastures,
Mountain Heavy Rainfall
6. Alpine Zone conifers, fern,
Climate (Variable).
snow.
122
Jet Streams it is in the winter season and reach far

into the tropics.
• In the upper troposphere, lower

stratosphere and probably even Development of the Jet Streams
mesosphere, jet streams are the strong
air streams that help complete the • The main causes of development of
global circulation and are characterized the Jet Streams are the temperature
by strong vertical and lateral wind gradient from the equator towards
shear. the poles. The high pressure surface
• They are relatively narrow belts of swift- at the poles and the genesis of the
moving winds having velocity in the circumpolar whirl above the poles
range of 100km/hr to 900km/hr. caused by tropospheric low pressure.
• Wind speed increases to greatest • Due to the subsidence of the cool air
intensity toward a central centre in the over the Arctic region, the surface high
narrow belt of jet streams. pressure is intensified while upper air
low pressure develops in the upper
troposphere.
Characteristics of the Jet • Because of this phenomenon, a
cyclonic system of air circulation,
Streams whose direction is from west to east
• Jet streams follow curved and in the form of whirl develops around
meandering paths because of the upper-tropospheric low pressure and
Coriolis force and due to the tendency the equatorward meandering part of
of large scale systems to conserve the this upper air circulation, is called Jet
angular momentum. Stream.
• The height of the jet stream varies and,
in general, its height from the equator
to the poles decreases as the height Types of Jet Streams
of the troposphere decreases from the • Permanent Jet Streams
equator to the poles.
• Jet streams are embedded in the upper » Polar Jet Streams
air westerlies or in the core of westerlies » Sub- Tropical Westerly Jet Streams
where the maximum velocity is found. It
is because, away from core there is an Subtropical Jet
increased wind shearing. Polar Jet
• Their length profile varies from 1600- Tropopause

Hadley cell
3200 Km. Ferrel cell
Polar cell
• The high velocity is due to the intense
pressure gradient and thermal contrast. North Pole 60°N 30°N Equator
• Jet streams are characterized by large Image10.12: Types of Jet Streams

seasonal variations as they migrate
to the equator during the colder part • Polar Jet Streams:
of the year and their velocity is also » One Polar Jet Streams in the Northern
increased while during the summer Hemisphere and Other in Southern
the wind speed of the Jet streams is Hemisphere.
reduced to approximately half of what
» It lies between 50-60° N and 50-60°
123
S and greatly influences climates of over peninsular India and over the area
regions lying close to 60 degree latitude. of North Africa.
» The Polar jets are strong and continuous » It suddenly disappears at the beginning
in winter. of winter, while its arrival heralds the
» It determines the path, speed and start of the South West Monsoon.
intensity of temperate cyclones.
• Somali Jet Stream
• Sub-Tropical Westerly Jet Streams: » Somali Jet is among the most well-
» There are two Sub-tropical Jet Streams, known of the tropical LLJs (Low-Level
One in the Northern Hemisphere and Jet Streams)
other in the Southern Hemisphere. » The Somali jet rises over northern
» They originate at the meeting point of Madagascar and off the coast of
Hadley cell and Ferrel Cell which lies Somalia throughout the summer.
between 20-30° N and 20-30° S. » From June to August, the jet is
» It is continuous in both hemispheres most intense, with average monthly
during winter. maximum speeds of 18 m/s.
» Unlike the polar front jet streams, it » Maximal wind speed along the northern
travels in lower latitudes and at slightly tip of Madagascar and off the coast of
at higher elevations, owing to the Somalia.
increase in height of the tropopause at » A significant cross-equatorial flow
lower latitudes to the central Arabian Sea from the
» It is closely connected to the Indian and southern Indian Ocean.
African summer monsoons. » A relative minimum of speed near the
equator along the line of strong winds.
• Local Jet Streams:
» A split over the Arabian Sea in the jet axis,
» These jet streams are formed locally the more northern branch intersecting
due to local thermal and dynamic near 17 ° N on the west coast of India,
conditions and have limited local while the southerly branch travels east
importance. These jet streams are also just south of India
temporary in nature.
• Tropical Easterly Jet Streams (TEJ):

» The development and maintenance of
the Tropical Easterly Jet Stream are not
Global Warming
fully understood, but it is considered
that the extreme heating of the
• Global warming is the long-term heating
of the Earth's climate system observed
Tibetan plateau during the summer is
since the pre-industrial era (between
the primary cause of this jet stream's
1850 and 1900) as a result of human
formation.
activities, mainly the combustion of
» It is situated above the Gangetic fossil fuels, which raises heat-trapping
Plain at an altitude of 10-12 km and greenhouse gas levels in the Earth's
approximately parallel to the 25-degree atmosphere.
North Latitude.
» At 6-9 km, TEJ flows from east to west
124
Greenhouse Effect here the ultra-violet rays aids the

conversion of Oxygen into ozone. The
• The atmosphere is behaving like a energetic ultraviolet (UV) radiation
greenhouse due to the presence of dissociates molecules of Oxygen, O2,
greenhouse gases. into separate Oxygen atoms. Free
• The atmosphere also transmits the Oxygen atoms can recombine to
incoming solar radiation but retains the form Oxygen molecules but if a free
large amount of long wave radiation Oxygen atom collides with an Oxygen
emitted by the earth’s surface. molecule, it joins up, forming ozone.
Thus, ultraviolet rays do not reach the
• The gases that absorb long wave earth’s surface.
radiation are known as greenhouse
gases (GHGs).
Ozone Formation:
• The processes in which atmosphere is
warmed is often collectively referred to O2 + UV => O + O
as the greenhouse effect 2 O + 2 O2 + third molecule => 2 O3 +
third molecule
Net Reaction: 3 O2 + UV => 2 O3
Greenhouse Gases (GHGs)
• The primary GHGs are Carbon
• Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are
Dioxide (CO2), Methane (CH4),
byproducts of human activity and are
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), nitrous
composed of chlorine, fluorine, and
oxide (N2O) and ozone (O3).
carbon. They have a long lifecycle,
• Some other gases such as carbon which facilitates their accumulation.
monoxide (CO) and nitric oxide (NO)
• This extreme stability allows CFC's
easily react with these GHGs and
escape slowly into the stratosphere and
changes their concentration in the
destroy the ozone present there.
atmosphere.
• Chlorine acts as a catalyst and destroys
• The efficacy of any given GHG molecule much of the ozone. One chlorine
will depend on the extent of the increase
atom can thereby destroy hundreds
in its concentration, its atmospheric life
thousands of ozone molecules.
cycle and the radiation wavelength it
absorbs. • Over the Antarctic, major ozone
depletion occurs. The ozone hole
• The chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are is considered as the loss of ozone
highly effective. Ozone which absorbs
concentration in the stratosphere. This
ultraviolet radiation in the stratosphere
facilitates the passage of ultraviolet
is very effective in absorbing terrestrial
rays through the troposphere.
radiation when it is present in the lower
troposphere. • A slew of unusual atmospheric
conditions across the continent
• The largest concentration of GHGs in that combine to create an optimal
the atmosphere is Carbon Dioxide. The
environment for ozone depletion are
emission of CO2 comes mainly from
creating the ozone hole over Antarctica.
fossil fuel combustion (oil, gas and coal).
• Since Antarctica is surrounded by
water, winds blow in a distinct clockwise
Ozone Hole direction over the continent, producing a
so-called "polar vortex" that essentially
• Ozone occurs in the stratosphere and contains a single mass of static air over
125
the continent. Consequently, air over Global Warming

Antarctica does not mix with air in the
rest of the earth's atmosphere. • The growing trend in the concentration
of GHGs in the atmosphere will warm
• Antarctica, sometimes reach -110 degree
up the earth in the long run. It will be
F, has the coldest winter temperatures
impossible to reverse it once global
on earth. The development of polar
warming sets in.
stratospheric clouds (PSCs), which
are a conglomeration of frozen • The impact of global warming
H2O and HNO3, results from these might not be uniform everywhere.
chilling temperatures. PSC's form Nevertheless, the detrimental effect of
an electrostatic attraction with CFC global warming would have a negative
molecules as well as other halogenated influence on the life supporting system.
compounds due to their extremely cold • Rise in the sea level due to melting
temperatures. of glaciers and ice-caps and thermal
• Recent evidence shows that the expansion of the sea may inundate
frequency of the polar vortex is directly large parts of the coastal area and
proportional to the size of the ozone islands, leading to social problems.
hole from any given year. The ozone • This is another cause for serious concern
hole is shown to increase in diameter in for the world community.
years with a strong polar vortex, while
the ozone hole is seen to diminish in
• Efforts have already been taken to
control the emission of GHGs and
years with a weaker polar vortex.
to arrest the trend towards global
warming.
International Efforts
• International measures have been
launched to reduce the atmospheric
Indian Monsoon
emissions of GHGs. The most significant Introduction
one is the adoption of the Kyoto Protocol
in 1997. This protocol, ratified by 141
• The word ‘monsoon’ is believed to have
originated from the Arabic word for
countries, went into effect in 2005.
season ‘mawsim’.
• Kyoto protocol bounds the 35
industrialized countries to reduce their
• Monsoons are essentially seasonal
winds. According to the change in
emissions by the year 2012 to 5 percent
season, they reverse their course. They
less than the levels prevalent in the year
are, indeed, periodic winds.
1990.
• The Twenty-Eighth Meeting of the • In summers and during winters, the
monsoons travel from sea to land and
Parties to the Montreal Protocol on
from land to sea respectively, so they
Substances that Deplete the Ozone
are a double system of seasonal winds.
Layer has reached a landmark global
climate agreement in Kigali, Rwanda • Historically, monsoons have been very
(MOP28) relevant because traders and seafarers
used these winds to travel from place
• The so-called Kigali Amendment,
to place.
amending the Montreal Protocol of
1987, intends to phase out by the late • In the summers, India experiences
2040s hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), a southwest monsoon winds and during
class of active greenhouse gases. the winters, northeast monsoons.
126
The former is due to the formation of • The change in the position of the ITCZ
extreme low-pressure systems over is also related to the phenomenon of
the Tibetan Plateau. Because of the the withdrawal from its position of the
high-pressure cells that develop over westerly jet stream over the northern
the Siberian and Tibetan plateaus, the Indian plain, south of the Himalaya.
latter occurs. • The easterly jet stream sets in along
INDIA 15°N latitude only after the western
DATES OF ONSET OF jet stream has withdrawn itself from
SOUTH WEST MONSOONS
the region. This easterly jet stream is
held responsible for the burst of the
15
monsoon in India.
L
JU
L1
JU
JUL 15
• Entry of Monsoon into India
JUL 10 JU
N
1
» The southwest monsoon sets in over
N
5 the Kerala coast by 1st June and moves
JU
JUN 5 steadily to reach Mumbai and Kolkata
between 10th and 13th June.
1
JU
N
» By mid- July, the southwest monsoon
engulfs the entire subcontinent.
Southwest Monsoon
Image10.13: Onset of the Monsoon
• As a result of the rapid rise in temperature
over the northwestern plains in May,
Onset of the Monsoon there are more intensified low-pressure
• The large landmass in the north of the conditions over there. They are strong
Indian Ocean is intensely heated during enough to draw the trade winds of the
April and May when the Sun shines Southern Hemisphere coming from the
vertically above the Tropic of Cancer. Indian Ocean by early June.
• This causes the formation in the • These southeast trade winds cross the
northwestern part of the subcontinent of equator and enter the Bay of Bengal
extreme low pressure. The low-pressure and the Arabian Sea, only to be caught
cell pulls the southeast trade across up in the air circulation over India.
the Equator because the pressure in • Passing over the equatorial hot currents,
the Indian Ocean in the south of the they bring moisture in abundance with
landmass is high as the water gets them. They follow a southwesterly
heated slowly. direction when approaching the
• These conditions help in the northward equator. That's why they are known as
shift in the position of the ITCZ the Monsoons of the Southwest.
(Inter Tropical Convergence Zone). • Southwest monsoon season begins
Thus, after reaching the Equator, the from June and continues up to the
southwest monsoon can be seen as a middle of September over the Indian
continuation of the southeastern trade subcontinent. This season brings close
winds deflected towards the Indian to 70 % of the annual rainfall received
subcontinent. About 40° E and 60° by India. However, the rainfall is not
E longitudes, these winds cross the uniformly distributed across time and
Equator. space.
127
• The rain starts quite suddenly in the (iii) The third branch of this monsoon
southwest monsoon season. One wind strikes the Saurashtra Peninsula
consequence of the first rain is that it and the Kachchh.
significantly reduces the temperature.
This sudden onset of moisture-laden
− It then passes over west Rajasthan
and parallel to the Aravallis, causing
winds linked to violent thunder and
only a scanty rainfall.
lightning is often referred to as the
monsoons' "break" or "burst." − In Punjab and Haryana, it too joins
the Bay of Bengal branch. These
• The monsoon approaches the landmass
two branches, reinforced by each
in two branches:
other, cause rains in the western
(i) The Arabian Sea branch. Himalayas.
(ii) The Bay of Bengal branch.
Monsoon Winds of the Bay of

Monsoon Winds of the Arabian Sea Bengal
• The monsoon winds originating over • The branch of the Bay of Bengal
the Arabian Sea further split into three strikes the Myanmar coast and part
branches: of southeast Bangladesh. But along
(i) Its one branch is obstructed by the Myanmar's coast, the Arakan Hills
Western Ghats. deflect a significant portion of this
branch toward the Indian subcontinent.
− These winds rise from 900-1200 m
up the slopes of the Western Ghats. • Therefore, the monsoon reaches West
They soon become cold and the Bengal and Bangladesh from the south
windward side of the Sahyadris and and southeast rather than from the
Western Coastal Plain receive very south-western direction.
heavy rainfall ranging from 250 cm • From here, under the impact of the
to 400 cm. Himalayas, this branch splits into two
− These winds descend and get heated and the thermal low is northwest India.
up after crossing the Western Ghats. It is a branch that travels westward
It reduces moisture in the winds. As along the plains of the Ganga, reaching
a consequence, east of the Western as far as the plains of Punjab.
Ghats, these winds cause little • The other branch moves up the
rainfall. This low rainfall zone is Brahmaputra valley in the north and the
known as the rain-shadow area. northeast, causing widespread rains.
(ii) Another branch of the Arabian Sea Its sub-branch strikes the Garo and
monsoon strikes the coast north of Khasi Hills of Meghalaya. Mawsynram,
Mumbai. located in the Khasi hills, receives the
highest average annual rainfall in the
− These winds cause rainfall in world and it is considered as wettest
extensive areas of central India by place on the earth.
moving along the Narmada and
Tapi River valleys.
• Let’s understand why the Tamil Nadu
coast remains dry during monsoon
− From this part of the branch, the season? There are two factors
Chotanagpur plateau gets 15 cm of responsible for it:
precipitation. They then reach the (i) The Tamil Nadu coast is situated
plains of the Ganga and mingle with parallel to the Bay of Bengal branch of
the Bay of Bengal branch. southwest monsoon.
128
(ii) It lies in the rain shadow area of the Bay of Bengal and by early November, it
Arabian Sea branch of the south-west moves over Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
monsoon. By the middle of December, the center
of low pressure is completely removed
from the Peninsula.
Reasons for Onset of Advancing • Open skies and an increase in
Monsoon (Southwest Monsoon) temperature mark the retreating
southwest monsoon season. The soil
• Low Pressure over North India.
appears to be damp.
• The shift of Inter-Tropical Convergence
Zone (ITCZ) northwards to the Ganga
• Because of the high temperature and
humidity conditions, the weather becomes
Plains.
very oppressive. This is generally referred
• The Himalayas work as a barrier to the to as the 'October heat'.
monsoon to stop it from reaching Tibet
region and also intensifying the Low
• Mercury began to fall rapidly in the
second half of October, particularly in
Pressure in North India.
northern India. In northern India, the
• Tropical Easterly Jet Streams above weather in the retreating monsoon is
Tibetan Plateau helping the Monsoon dry, but it is associated to rain in the
maintain its strength. eastern part of the peninsula.
• High Pressure at Madagascar. • Here, October and November are the
• Indian Ocean Dipole, Southern year's rainiest months. In this season,
Oscillations (ENSO) also have a role in widespread rain is associated with
helping or disrupting the South-West the passage of cyclonic depressions
Monsoon. that emerge over the Andaman Sea
and manage to reach the southern
• Jet stream from the coast of Somalia
peninsula's eastern coast. These
towards the Indian Peninsula
cyclones in the tropics are very
strengthens the Monsoon winds.
devastating.
• Thickly populated deltas of the
Northeast Monsoon Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri are their
chosen targets. Cyclones bring disasters
(Retreating Monsoon) here each year.
• Retreating monsoons start in the • The coast of West Bengal, Bangladesh
months of October and November. and Myanmar are also hit by a few
At the end of September, as the low- cyclonic storms. These depressions
pressure trough of the Ganga plain and cyclones are the cause of much of
begins to shift southward in response the Coromandel Coast's rainfall. In the
to the southward march of the Sun, the Arabian Sea, such cyclonic storms are
southwest monsoon becomes weak. less common.
• The monsoon retreats from the
western Rajasthan by the first week
of September. It withdraws from Monsoons and Economic Life
Rajasthan, Gujarat, Western Ganga in India
plain and the Central Highlands by the
end of the month. • The Monsoon is the axis around which
the entire Indian agricultural cycle
• By the beginning of October, the low
revolves.
pressure covers northern parts of the
129
• This is because about 64% of India's • India's agricultural success depends

people depend on agriculture for their heavily on timely and accurately
livelihoods and agriculture is dependent distributed rainfall. If this fails,
on the Southwest Monsoon itself. agriculture will be adversely affected,
• All parts of the country have a particularly in regions where irrigation
temperature above the threshold level is not available.
for growing crops or plants during the • Sudden monsoon bursts cause soil
year, excluding the Himalayas. erosion problems in large areas of India.
• Regional differences in the monsoon • Winter rainfall by temperate cyclones
climate assist in the cultivation of in north India is highly beneficial for
different crop types. rabi crops.
• In some parts of the country, variability • In India, regional climate variation is
in rainfall brings droughts or floods reflected in the diverse array of food,
every year. clothing and household.
130
CHAPTER - 11
CYCLONES AND ASSOCIATED FEATURES
Tropical Cyclone oceans having large sea surface with

temperature around or higher than 27° C.
• Tropical cyclones are violent and intense • Presence of the Coriolis force which
provides energy to rotate or curve in the
storms that originate over oceans near
anti-clockwise (in the north hemisphere)
the tropical zones and move over to the
and clockwise direction (in the southern
coastal regions bringing about large-
hemisphere).
scale demolition caused by violent
winds, very heavy rainfall and storm • Small variations in the vertical wind or
surges. It is considered a one of the speed low wind shear which allows the
most devastating natural calamities. storm clouds to rise vertically to high
levels.
Favorable conditions required for the • A pre-existing weak-low-pressure

formation and intensification of tropical region or low-level-cyclonic circulation.
cyclone are: • Upper divergence above the sea level
system.
• Warm, moist air derived from tropical
Image 11.1: Formation of Tropical Cyclone
131
Formation of Tropical Cyclone ocean’s heat and sea water evaporating

from the ocean surface.
and Other Important Features
• The energy that intensifies the storm is • Eye and Eye-wall
produced by the condensation process » A well established tropical cyclone is
in the towering cumulonimbus clouds characterized by the strong spirally
that surround the storm's centre. The circulating wind around the centre
storm is intensified further by a steady called the eye. The eye is a calm zone
supply of moisture from the sea. along with subsiding air.
• The moisture supply is cut off as the » Eye wall is situated around the eye,
storm makes contact with the ground, where there is a powerful spiralling
and the storm dissipates. The area ascent of air to greater height reaching
where a tropical cyclone crosses the the tropopause. The wind reaches
coast is known as the cyclone's landfall.. maximum velocity in this area, achieving
• The tropical cyclones, which cross 20° velocity as high as 250 km per hour.
N latitude generally, re-curve and they Heavy rain occurs in this zone. From the
are more destructive. eye wall rain bands may spread and
• A mature tropical cyclone is described trains of cumulonimbus and cumulus
by the powerful spirally circulating wind clouds may drift into the outer region.
around the centre (eye). » The diameter of the circulating cyclone
• The diameter of the circulating cyclone system can vary between 150 and 250
system can vary between 150 and 250 km.
km.
• Process of formation of Tropical
Cyclone
» Warm, moist air of the ocean rises

upward leaving less air near the surface.
This causes low air pressure area below. Image 11.2: Movement of Wind associated with Cyclones
» The air from adjoining regions with and Anticyclone
higher air pressure pushes into the low-
pressure area and undergoes deflection
because of Coriolis force which is Tropical Cyclone Distribution
responsible for creating a cyclonic
vortex (spiraling air column). and Their Regional Names
» The fresh "cold" air warms and moistens, • Cyclones are referred by several names
rising with it, and the cycle continues. in different regions.
» The condensation of the rising warmed, » Hurricanes: In the Atlantic and Eastern
moist air responsible for the formation Pacific.
of clouds.
» Typhoons: In Southeast Asia
» Heat is emitted during this process and
a reaction between the moisture from » Tropical Cyclone: In the Indian Ocean
the evaporation of water takes place » Willy-willies: North Western Australia
that produces Thunderstorms.
» The whole system of clouds as well as
wind spins and intensifies, fed by the
132
Image 11.3: Tropical cyclone distribution
Extra-Tropical / Middle-Latitude / • Pressure drops along the front leads

Temperate Cyclones movement of the warm air northwards
and the cold air southward.
• The complex systems forming in the mid
and high latitude, beyond the tropical » Results in counter-clockwise cyclonic
zone are called the extra tropical circulation.
cyclones or middle latitude. The passage
of front triggers abrupt modifications in • The cyclonic movement leads to a
the weather phenomenon over the area well-developed extra tropical cyclone
in the middle and high latitudes. (consisting of a warm front and a cold
front).
H
H
L
H
H
• There are different pockets of warm air
or warm sector wedged between the
L
L L
L
forward and the rear cold air or cold

sector.
• The warm air slides over the cold air. A
H Midlatitude anticyclone
(high)
L Midlatitude cyclone
L sequence of clouds emerges over the
sky ahead of the warm front and trigger
(low) L
H
H L
precipitation.
Image11.4: Distribution of Temperate Cyclones • The cold front move toward the warm
air from behind and pushes the warm
Stages of Formation and air up due to which, cumulus clouds
develop along the cold front.
Disappearance
• The cold front moves quicker than the
• Front is stationary initially. warm front ultimately overtaking the
warm front.
» Warm air blows northern hemisphere
from the south. • At the end warm air is completely
lifted up and the front is occluded and
» Cold wind blows from the north of the Ultimately the cyclone gets dissipates.
front.
133
wind shear indentation in front cold and warm fronts

(wave) advance
cP
H
cold L
L
warm
H
mT
cold front catches up occlusion pf warm front dissipation

with warm front
L L
L
stationary front warm front isobar

occluded front cold front precipitation
Image 11.5: Movement of Wind associated with Cyclones and Anticyclone
• Difference between Tropical and Temperate Cyclone

Features Tropical Cyclone Temperate Cyclone
Origin Thermal Dynamic due to Coriolis
force and air masses etc.
Latitude It is confined to 10–30 It is confined to 35–65
degree N and S of equator. degree N and S of equator.
More noticeable in
Northern hemisphere due
to greater temperature
contrast.
Frontal system Non-existence Development of Temperate
Cyclone is associated with
frontogenesis (Occluded
Front).
Formation Its formation takes It can form both on land as
place only on seas with well as seas.
temperature more than 26-
27 degree C.
Gradually they disappear
on reaching the land.
Rainfall Heavy rainfall but does not Temperate cyclone is
last beyond a few hours. associated with slow
rainfall which continues for
many days (occasionally
even weeks).
Shape Elliptical Inverted ‘V’
134
Velocity of wind and Very high wind velocity ( Comparatively low. Typical
destruction around 100–250 kmph). range: 30–150 kmph.
Close to around 200–1200 Less destruction because
kmph in upper troposphere. of wind velocity but more
Very intense and destructive destruction because of
due to winds, storm surges flooding.
and torrential rains.
Isobars Complete circles and the Isobars are generally ‘V’
gradient of pressure is steep. shaped and the pressure
gradient is low.
Lifetime Doesn’t last for more than a Last for 2-3 weeks.
week.
Path/route East–West. West–East (Westerlies–Jet
Move away from equator. Streams).
Move away from equator.
Distribution of Temperature The temperature at the All the sectors of the

center of the cyclone is cyclone have different-
almost evenly distributed. different temperatures.
Influence of Jet streams The relationship between On the other side the
tropical cyclones and the temperate cyclones have
upper-level airflow is not a distinct relationship with
very easy to understand. upper-level air flow (jet
streams, Rossby waves etc.)
135
CHAPTER - 12
KOEPPEN’S SCHEME OF CLASSIFICATION

OF CLIMATE AND CLIMATIC REGION
Koeppen’s Scheme groups, four of them are based on

temperature and one on the basis of
precipitation.
• The most widely used and popular
classification of climate is the climate
• The capital alphabets: A, C, D and E
are for humid climates and B is for dry
classification scheme developed
climates.
by German climatologist and plant
geographer V. Koeppen in 1918. Subdivision
• Koeppen recognized a close link • The climatic groups are subdivided
between the distribution of Vegetation into different types which is designated
and Climate. He selected particular by small letters, based on seasonality
values of temperature and precipitation of precipitation and temperature
and linked them to the distribution of characteristics.
Vegetation.
• The seasons of dryness are specified by
• Koeppen used these values for the small letters: f, m, w and s,
classifying the various climates. It is an
empirical categorization based on data » f - no dry season,
related to mean monthly and mean
» m - monsoon climate,
annual temperature and precipitation.
» w - winter dry season and
• He used capital and small alphabetical
letters to designate climatic groups and » s - summer dry season.
types.
• The small letter alphabets a, b, c and
d refer to the degree of severity of
Temperature.
Major Climatic • The B- Dry Climates are subdivided
Groups using the capital letters S for steppe or
semi-arid and W for desserts.
• Koeppen identified five major climatic
136
Different Climatic
Regions
Equatorial Climatic Region
Distribution:
• Situated between 5° and 10° N and S of
the equator. Image 12.1: Equatorial Climatic Region
• Greatest stretch equatorial climate

found in the lowlands of the Amazon, Climatic Conditions
the Congo, Malaysia and the East
Indies. • Temperature:
• Away from the equatorial region, » Equatorial region has great uniformity
the influence of the on-shore Trade of temperature throughout the year.
Winds, gives rise to a modified type
of equatorial climate with monsoonal » The mean monthly temperatures are
effect. always around 27°C with very little
variation.
» There is no winter.
» Heavy rainfall and Cloudiness moderate
137
the daily temperature. Therefore, even gather wild rubber and in the jungles of
at the equator itself, the climate is not Malaysia the Orang Asli make different
unbearable. types of cane products and sell them to
» The daily range of temperature is small people in villages and towns.
and so is the annual range.
• Precipitation: Tropical Monsoon Climate and

» Heavy precipitation (between 60 to Tropical Marine Climate
100 inches) and properly distributed Distribution
throughout the year.
• Situated in the zones between 5° and
» This region has no month without rain. 30° latitudes on both sides of the
A distinct dry season similar to those of equator.
the Savannah or the Tropical Monsoon
Climates, is absent. • These zones are the tropical monsoon
lands with on-shore wet monsoons
» Because of the great heat in the in the summer and off-shore dry
equatorial belt, mornings are bright monsoons in the winter.
and Sunny.
• This type of climate is best developed
» Evaporation and convectional air in the Indian sub-continent, Thailand,
currents followed by heavy downpours. Laos, Burma, Cambodia, parts of
Vietnam and south China and northern
Australian region.
Natural Vegetation
• Outside this region, the climate is
• Encouraged a luxuriant type of altered by the influence of the on-shore
vegetation, the tropical rain forest. Trade Winds all the year round and
• Amazon tropical rain forest is also has a more equally distributed rainfall.
called as Selvas. Such types of climate, better termed
as the Tropical Marine Climate, is
• Comprises a multiple type of evergreen
experienced in north-eastern Australia,
trees that yield tropical hardwood, e.g.,
the Philippines, some parts of East
Mahogany, Ebony, Greenheart, Cabinet
Africa, Madagascar, the Guinea Coast,
wood. Epiphytic, Lianas and parasitic
Central America and eastern Brazil.
variety of plants are also found.
• Trees of single species are very less in
such vegetation.
Life and Development in the

Equatorial Regions
• This region is sparsely populated.
• Most primitive inhabitants live as
hunters and collectors. Image 12.2: Tropical monsoon and tropical Marine
• The more advanced ones practice regions
shifting cultivation.
• In the Congo Basin, the Pygmies gather Climatic Conditions:
nuts, the Indian tribes of Amazon basin
• Important cause of monsoon climates
138
is the difference in the rate of heating − The rainy season (mid-June to

and cooling of land and sea. September).
• Mean temperature of warm dry summer • The Tropical Marine Climate:
months ranges between 27°C and 32°C.
• During summer session in Northern » This type of climate is experienced
Hemisphere. near the eastern coasts of tropical land
region. This region is receiving steady
» During summer session, when the Sun rainfall from the Trade Winds all the
is overhead at the Tropic of Cancer of time.
the earth, the huge land masses of the
» Both type of rainfall:
northern hemisphere are heated. The
water of seas and oceans, which warm − Orographic-where the moist trades
up much slower, remain comparatively meet upland masses as in eastern
cool. Brazil.
» At this time, the southern hemisphere − Convectional due to intense heating
experiences winter and a region of during the day and in summer.
high pressure is set up in the interior
land of Australia. From here winds blow » Its tendency is towards a summer
outwards as the South East Monsoon, to maximum as in monsoon lands,
Java and after crossing the equator line However, without any distinct dry
they are drawn towards the continental period.
low-pressure area reaching the Indian
sub-continent region as the South-
West Monsoon. Natural Vegetation
• During the winter in Northern • The natural vegetation of this region
Hemisphere depends on the amount of the summer
rainfall.
» Conditions are reversed. • Deciduous trees because of the marked
» During the winter, the Sun is overhead dry period, during which they shed their
at the Tropic of Capricorn of the earth leaves to withstand the drought period.
due to which central Asia is extremely • The regions (southern Burma, peninsular
cold and resulting in rapid cooling of India, northern Australia and coastal
the land. regions with a tropical marine climate)
» An area of high pressure is created where the rainfall is heavy, the resultant
with out-blowing winds-the North-East vegetation is forest.
Monsoon. • More open and less luxuriant forest
than the equatorial jungle.
• The Seasons of Tropical Monsoon
Climate: • There are far fewer species.
• Most of the forests yield valuable
» Three different seasons are timber and are prized for their good
distinguishable: quality and durable hardwood. Teaks is
the best known one.
− The cool, dry season (October to
February).
− The hot dry season (March to mid- Economy: important economic activity of
June). the people is agriculture. Major agriculture
crops are rice, cane sugar, jute etc.
139
Tropical Grassland / The » One other important characteristic of

Sudan type of climate is the extreme
Savannah or Sudan Climate diurnal range of temperature.
Distribution
• Rainfall: The average annual rainfall
• Savannah climate is a transitional type ranges between 100 cm-150 cm.
of climate observed in the middle of the • The prevailing winds of this zone are
equatorial forest and the trade wind the Trade Winds which bring rain to the
hot deserts. coastal areas.
• This type of climate is confined within
the tropics and is best developed in the
Sudan region where the dry and wet Natural Vegetation:
seasons are most distinct. Therefore it • Characterized by tall grass and short
is also known as the Sudan Climate. trees.
• This belt comprises West African Sudan • The terms 'parkland' or 'bush-veld'
and then curves southwards into East perhaps best describe the landscape of
Africa and southern Africa north of the this region
Tropic of Capricorn.
• South America: There are two different
zones of savannah north and south of
the equator.
» The llanos of the Orinoco basin.

» The Campos of the Brazilian Highlands.
• Characteristics of Trees
» Trees grow best near the equatorial
humid latitudes area or along riverbanks
but decrease in their height and density
as move away from the equator.
» Deciduous trees which shed their leaves
Image 12.3: Savannah or Sudan Climate Region in the cool, dry season to prevent itself
from extreme loss of water through
transpiration. Example: Acacias.
Climatic Conditions:
» Other trees have broad trunks, with
• Distinct wet and dry seasons. water-storing features to survive
• Temperature: through the prolonged drought e.g.
baobabs and bottle trees.
» Mean high temperature throughout the » Mostly hard, gnarled and thorny and
entire year is between 24°C -27° C. may exude gum like gum Arabic.
» The yearly range of temperature is
between 3°C-8°C, but this range rises
as one move further away from the
equator.
140
Animal Life of the Savannah: Iranian Desert and Namib Deserts.
• Africa is the home of wild Animals. • In North America, the desert stretches
from Mexico to USA and is known by
• It is also called as the 'big game country' several names at different places such
and thousands of animals are trapped as the Mohave Sonoran, Californian
or killed every year by humans from all and Mexican Deserts.
over the world.
• The Atacama Desert or Peruvian Desert
• Some animals are killed down for their (with less than 0.5 inches of rainfall
skins, horns, tusks, bones, or hair. annually) in South America, is the driest
• Some of the others are captured alive amongst all deserts in the world. The
and sent out of Africa as zoo animals, Patagonian Desert in South America
laboratory specimens or pets. is formed more due to its rain- shadow
position on the leeward side of the
Andes mountain than to continentality.
Economy:
• This region is occupied by many tribes.
• Some tribes live here as pastoralists
like the Masai and other as settled
cultivators like the Hausa of northern
Nigeria.
• Agriculture is not much developed in
this region.
Desert Climate Image 12.4: Desert Climate

Distribution:
• Desert areas are the zones of low Climatic Conditions:
precipitation which may be very hot • Rainfall:
such as the hot deserts of the Saharan
type or cold temperate such as the mid- » Aridity of deserts is the important
latitude deserts e.g. the Gobi. characteristic of the desert climate.
• Important deserts are situated on the » Whether hot or mid-latitude: few
western coasts of continents between deserts have an annual precipitation of
latitudes 15º -30ºN and S. more than 10 inches while in others less
• Sahara hot desert is the largest single than 0.02 inches.
stretch of desert, which is extended » Most of the hot desert situated near
over around 3,200 miles from the east the Sub- Tropical High-Pressure Belts
towards the west and at least around (the air is descending), which is a least
1,000 miles wide. favourable condition for precipitation
• The next biggest desert of the world of any kind to take place.
is the Great Australian Desert which » The rain carrying trade winds blow
covers around almost half of the offshore and the Westerlies, that are
continent. on-shore, blow outside the desert limits.
• The other important hot deserts are the » Whatever winds reaches the desert
Thar Desert, Kalahari, Arabian Desert, regions flow from the cooler to the
141
warmer regions and their relative Natural Vegetation:

humidity is lowered which makes
condensation almost impossible. • It consists grass, scrub, herbs, weeds,
roots, or bulbs.
» Mostly rainfall occurs here due to
convectional rainfall process and with • Deficient in moisture and so excessive
thunderstorms. in heat which is most unfavourable
condition for plant growth and
» In cold deserts in Asia: mostly rainfall development.
happens due to occasional western
disturbances and in form of snow. • So, trees are very rare except the region
where there is good amount of ground
• Temperature: water to support clusters of date palms.
» Hot deserts are some of the hottest spots • The predominant and significant
on earth and have high temperatures vegetation of both deserts are
during the entire year. xerophytes (drought-resistant scrub).
» Cold season is absent in the hot deserts • This comprises the bulbous cacti, thorny
and the average summer temperature bushes, long-rooted wiry grasses and
is around 30°C. scattered dwarf acacia.
» The highest shade temperature
recorded in history is 58°C at Al Azizia, Life in the Deserts:
(25 miles south of Tripoli, Libya, in the
Sahara). • Despite its extreme climatic features,
the desert has always been occupied
» Desert region is having very high diurnal by different groups of inhabitants.
range of temperature.
• The people of this region struggle
» Coastal deserts mostly have less against an environment which is
temperature than interiors due to cold
insufficient in water, food and other
currents.
means of livelihood.
» As compared to hot deserts, annual • Following categories of settlement can
range of temperature is higher in
be seen:
cold deserts region, because they are
mostly situated in mid-latitudes where » The primitive hunters and collectors
insolation variation is highest and (The Bushmen and the Bindibu).
because they are situated deep inside
continents. » The nomadic herdsmen (the Tuaregs of
the Sahara, the Gobi Mongols and The
Bedouin of Arabia).
» The caravan traders, the settled
cultivators and the mining settlers.
Important Mineral region

Image 12.5: Climate and Vegetation in Desert • Gold is mined in Australia, diamonds
and copper in Kalahari Desert, copper
and nitrates in Atacama Desert.
142
Warm Temperate Western temperatures are generally moderate

with a comparatively small range of
Margin Climate/Mediterranean temperature res between the winter low
Climate and summer high.
Distribution: • Regions with this climate receive
almost all their yearly rainfall during the
• The Warm Temperate Western Margin wintertime and summer may go without
Climate is present in just a few places having any significant precipitation.
in the world.
• This climate is confined to the western
part of continental masses, between Natural vegetation:
30°-45° N and S of the equator. • The small broad leaves trees are widely
Important reason of this type of climate spaced and never very tall. Although
is the shifting of the wind belts. there are many branches but they are
• The Mediterranean Sea region has the short and carry few leaves.
greatest extent of this type of 'winter • The absence of shade.
rain climate'.
• Growth of plant is slow in the cooler
• Mediterranean climate also found in and wetter season, even though more
Central Chile, California (around San rain comes in winter.
Francisco), the south-western tip of
Africa (around Cape Town), south-west • The Mediterranean regions are also
Australia (Swanland) and southern called as the world's orchard lands
Australia (in southern Victoria and because of wide range of production of
around Adelaide, adjoining the St. citrus fruits e.g., oranges, lemons, limes,
Vincent and Spencer Gulfs). citrons and grapefruit.
• Wine production is also the specialty
of this region, because the best wine is
essentially made from grapes. Around
85% of grapes produced, go into wine.
The long, Sunny summer permits the
grapes to ripen and then they are
handpicked.
Image 12.6: Mediterranean Climate Region Economy:

• Significant for fruit cultivation, cereal
growing, wine-making and agricultural
industries along with engineering and
• Very distinctive climatic characteristics- mining.
a warm summer with off-shore trades,
a concentration of rainfall in winter
season with onshore westerlies, Temperate Continental
bright, Sunny weather with hot dry
summers and wet, mild winters and the
Grasslands/ Steppe Climate
prominence of local winds around the Distribution (30° - 45°)
Mediterranean Sea (Sirocco, Mistral).
• This climate is situated around the
• These climatic regions are situated deserts and lie in the interiors of the
near large bodies of water; therefore,
143
continents in Northern hemisphere and

near the oceans in Southern hemisphere
of the earth.
• Far away from the maritime influence.
• Mostly this region is grassland and
treeless due to the absence of maritime
influence.
• Stretched extensive in northern
hemisphere
• Grasslands in Southern hemisphere
are less continental due to proximity to
maritime features. Image 12.7: Temperate Grasslands
• Very fewer extreme temperatures

(milder winters and less annual range) Climatic Conditions
and rainfall is higher as well.
• Temperature:
• They are called the Steppes in Eurasian
region. It stretches eastwards from the » The climate of this region is continental
shores of the Black Sea area across type with extremes of temperature and
the Great Russian plain region to the have little maritime influence.
foothills of the Altai Mountains, a total » Very warm summer, over 19°C.
distance of more than 2,000 miles. There
are isolated portions in the Pustaz of
» Winter season is very cold in the
continental steppes of Eurasia due to
Hungary and the plains of Manchuria.
the long distances from the nearest
• North America: The grasslands in this sea. The winter months are well below
part of the continent are also quite freezing temperature.
extensive and are called Prairies. It is
positioned between the foothills of the
» On the other side the steppe type of
climate in the southern hemisphere
Rockies and the Great Lakes astride
is never severe. The winters are mild.
the American Canadian border.
Temperatures below freezing point
• Pampas grasslands of Argentina and even in midwinter (July in the southern
Uruguay, extend right to the sea and hemisphere) are very rare.
enjoy much maritime influence.
• The grassland regions are sandwiched • Precipitation:
between the Drakensberg and the
» The annual precipitation of the Steppe
Kalahari Desert in South Africa and
Climatic region is light. The average
are further subdivided into the more
rainfall may be taken as around 20
tropical Bushveld in the north and the
inches. However, this again changes
more temperate High Veld in the south.
according to location from 10 inches to
30 inches.
» The marine influence in the steppe type
of climate of the southern hemisphere
is even better brought out by the
rainfall regime. Annual precipitation
of this region is always more than the
average 20 inches due to the warm
ocean currents.
144
Natural Vegetation: eastern margins of continents in warm

temperate latitudes, just outside the
• The steppes are grass covered, dissimilar tropics.
only in the density and quality of the
grass. • Compare to Mediterranean climate in
the same latitudes It has more rainfall
• Their greatest difference as compare to which is mostly coming in the summer
the tropical savannah is that they are season.
practically treeless and the grasses of
these regions are much shorter. • This is, in fact, the climate of most parts
of China –a modified form of monsoon
• The region with moderate rainfall, type of climate.
above 20 inches, the grasses are tall,
fresh and nutritious and are better • Therefore, it is also known as the
described as long prairie grass. Temperate Monsoon or China Type of
climate.
• The temperate grasslands appearance
varies with seasons. • In south-eastern U.S.A., near the Gulf of
Mexico, continental heating in summer
• Trees are very scarce in the steppes due brings an influx of air from the cooler
to the scanty rainfall, long droughts and Atlantic Ocean region.
severe winters.
• Sometimes it is also referred as the Gulf
type of climate.
• This climate is also found in the southern
hemisphere of the earth and it is
experienced near the warm temperate
eastern coast-lands of all the three
continents: in Natal, South Africa where
cane sugar thrives; in New South Wales
with its eucalyptus type of forests; and
in the maize belt region of the Parana-
Economy: Paraguay-Uruguay basin.
• These regions have been ploughed
up for extensive, mechanized wheat
cultivation and are now known as the
Gulf type
‘granaries of the world’. China type
• Maize and Wheat are increasingly

cultivated in the wetter and warmer
regions. Natal type Natal type
Natal type
• The tufted grasses have been

substituted by the more nutritious Image 12.8: China type climate
alfalfa and Lucerne grass.
Climatic Condition:
China Type of Climate/The • The Warm Temperate Eastern Margin
Warm Temperate Eastern Climate is characterized by a warm
Margin moist summer and a cool, dry winter.
Distribution • The mean monthly temperature

changes between 5°C and 25°C and is
• This climatic type situated on the strongly modified by maritime effect.
145
• The relative humidity is a bit high in pines and cypresses are found on the
mid-summer season. highlands that are important softwood.
• Rainfall associated with this climate is
more than moderate, anything from 25
inches to 60 inches.
Economy:
• Another significant property is the • It is the most productive parts of the
fairly uniform distribution of rainfall middle latitudes.
throughout the year. There is rain in • Long with the widespread cultivation
each month, except in the interior of of Maize and cotton in the Corn and
central China, where there is a distinct Cotton Belts of U.S.A. fruit and tobacco
dry season. Rainfall occurs either from are also cultivated.
convectional sources or as orographic
• Rice, tea and mulberries are extensively
rain in summer, or from depressions in
cultivated in monsoon China.
prolonged showers in winter.
• Some other important products of
• Local storms like typhoons and
economic significance e.g. cane sugar
hurricanes, also occur in this region.
in Natal, dairying in New South Wales
• It can be sub-divided into three and Victoria and maize and coffee in
important types: South America etc.
1. The China type of climate:
Includes central and north China
and southern Japan (temperate Cool Temperate Western
monsoonal). Margin/British Type of Climate
2. The Gulf type of climate: found in
Distribution
south-eastern United States (slight-
monsoonal). • Situated to the western margin in cool
3. The Natal type: the entire warm temperate zone (45°-65°) North and
temperate eastern margin region South.
(non-monsoonal region) of the • Climate associated with the cool
southern hemisphere comprising temperate western margins are
Natal, southern Brazil-Paraguay- under the permanent influence of the
Uruguay and northern Argentina Westerlies during the entire year.
and eastern Australia. • Zones of much cyclonic activity,
typical of Britain and therefore said to
experience the British type of climate.
Natural Vegetation:
• From Britain, the climatic belt extends
• The eastern margins of warm temperate far inland into the lowlands North-
region have a much heavier rainfall as West Europe, comprising regions such
compare to the western margins or the as Belgium, the Netherlands, Denmark,
continental interiors and therefore have western Norway, northern and western
luxuriant vegetation. France and also north-western Iberia.
• The lowlands include both evergreen • This type of climate is also found in the
broad-leaved forests and deciduous southern hemisphere of the earth and it
trees quite like those of the tropical is experienced near the Tasmania and
monsoon forests region. most parts of New Zealand, specifically
• Different species of conifers such as in South Island and southern Chile.
146
the 'fall' season.

• Some of the more common and
important species are oak, elm, ash,
birch, beech, poplar and hornbeam.
• Unlike the equatorial types of forests,
the deciduous types of trees occur in
pure stands and have more lumbering
value from the commercial point of
view.
• The deciduous hardwoods are of
excellent quality for both fuel and
industrial purposes.
Image 12.9: British Type climate
Economy:
• This region is different from many
• Temperature: others in its unprecedented industrial
advancement.
» The mean annual temperatures are
generally between 5°C-15°C.
• Mostly involved in the production of
machinery, chemicals, textiles and
» The annual range of temperature is other manufactured articles rather
very low. than agriculture activities, fishing or
» Summers are, in fact, never very warm. lumbering, though these activities
are well represented in some of the
» Monthly temperatures of over 18°C even
countries.
in mid-summer are exceptional.
• Fishing is specifically significant in
• Precipitation: Britain, Norway and British Columbia.
» It has adequate rainfall in the entire • A very large part of the deciduous trees
year with a tendency towards a slight has been cleared for fuel, timber or
winter or autumn maximum from agriculture.
cyclonic sources.
» Since the rain bearing winds come from Cool Temperate Eastern
the west, the western margin regions
have the heaviest rainfall. The amount Margin/Laurentian Climate
of rainfall decreases eastwards with Distribution
increasing distance from the sea.
• It is found in cool temperate eastern
margin (45°-65°) of northern
Natural Vegetation hemisphere.
• The natural vegetation of this climatic • It is an intermediate variety of climate
region is deciduous forest and trees between the British and the Siberian
shed their leaves in the cold season. type of climate.
This is an adaptation evolved by the • Comprises both features i.e. the
trees for protecting themselves against maritime and the continental climates.
the winter snow and frost.
• This climate found only in two regions.
• Shedding of leaves begins in autumn,
147
» It found in north-eastern North • Of the total annual precipitation of 30

America, including, north-east U.S.A., to 60 inches, 2/3rd come in the summer.
(i.e. Maritime Provinces and the New • Winter is cold and dry due to the winds
England states), Newfoundland and that are dry Westerlies which blowout
eastern Canada. It can also be denoted from the continental interiors.
to as the North American region.
» It found in eastern coast-lands of Asia,
including North China, Manchuria, Natural Vegetation
eastern Siberia, Korea and northern
• The predominant variety of vegetation
Japan. It can also be denoted to as the
in the Laurentian type of climatic region
Asiatic region.
is cool temperate variety of forest. The
• This climatic type is absent in the warm summers, heavy rainfall and the
southern hemisphere because only a damp air from fogs, all encourage the
small part of the southern continent development and growth of trees.
regions extend south of the latitude of • Mostly, the forest tends to be coniferous
40° S. in the 50° N latitude region.
• The increase in the length and severity
of the winter eliminates forests that are
not adaptable to cold surroundings.
• Important species: Oak, beech, maple
and birch
Economy
• Lumbering activities and its associated
industries such as timber, paper and
Image 12.10: Laurentian type climate pulp are the most significant economic
undertaking.
• Agriculture is less important because of
Climatic Conditions: the severity of the winter and its long
• This region has cold, dry winters and duration.
warm, wet summers. • Luckily, the maritime effect and the
• In Winter temperatures may go well heavy rainfall enable some hardy crops
below freezing point and snow falls to to be raised for local needs.
quite a depth. • The fertile Annapolis valley in Nova
• Summers are as warm as the tropics (21° Scotia province in eastern Canada
- 27°C) and if the region would not have is the world’s most popular region for
the cooling effects of the off-shore cold apples.
currents from the Arctic, the summer • However, Fishing is the most outstanding
might be even hotter. economic activity of the Laurentian
• Though precipitation occurs during the climatic zones.
entire year, there is a distinct summer
maximum from the easterly winds from
the ocean regions.
148
The Cool Temperate Siberia due to which it is often known

as the 'cold pole of the earth'.
Continental (Siberian) Climate
» Verkhoyansk is known for some of the
Distribution lowest temperatures in the world
• It extends along a continuous belt • Precipitation:
across central Canada, some parts of
Scandinavian Europe (50° to 70° N). » The hinterland of the Eurasian continent
• This type of climate is experienced only is so remote from maritime influence
in the northern hemisphere where the that annual precipitation cannot go
continents within the high latitudes high.
have a broad east-west spread. » Mostly a total of 15 to 25 inches is typical
• Towards the pole side, it merges into the of the annual precipitation of this sub-
Arctic tundra of Canada and Eurasia at Arctic type of climate.
around the Arctic Circle. » It is quite well disseminated during the
• The Siberian type of Climate is entire year, with a summer maximum
conspicuously absent in the southern from convectional rain.
hemisphere due to the narrowness of
the southern continents in the high
latitude regions. Natural Vegetation
• The strong oceanic effect decreases • No other type of tree is as well suited
the severity of the winter and as conifers to such a harsh and intense
coniferous forests are seen only on the environment as the Siberian type of
mountainous upland regions of New climate.
Zealand, Tasmania and south-east • The coniferous forest region of Eurasia
Australia and southern Chile,. and North America are the richest
sources of softwood for use in building
construction, furniture, matches, paper
and pulp, rayon and other branches of
the chemical industry
• Russia, U.S.A., Canada and the
Fennoscandian countries (Finland,
Norway and Sweden) are the world's
greatest softwood producers.
• In terms of newsprint paper, Canada
has surpassed all other manufacturers,
Image 12.11: Taiga type climate
accounting for nearly a half of the
world's overall annual output.
Climatic Condition • Important species of Coniferous forest:
• Temperature: » Pine, e.g. White Pine, Red Pine, Scots
Pine, Jack Pine.
» Featured by a bitterly cold winter of
long duration and a cool brief summer. » Fir, e.g., Douglas fir and balsam fir.
» Spring and autumn are merely brief » Spruce.
transitional time span. » Larch.
» Extreme cold temperature are found in
149
Economy: Climatic Conditions

• Climatic regions of the northern • Temperature:
hemisphere are comparatively little
developed. » Featured by a very low mean annual
temperature and its warmest month in
• Only in the more accessible and June seldom goes to more than 10°C.
reachable areas, the forests have been
cleared for lumbering. » During mid-winter (January)
temperature is as low as -35°C and
• Agriculture is not much developed, as much colder in the hinterland.
few crops can survive in the sub-Arctic
climate of these northerly lands. » Winters are extreme, long and very
severe; summers are cool and short
• Many of Samoyeds and Yakuts of Siberia period.
and some Canadians are involved in
hunting, trapping and fishing. • Precipitation:
» Mainly falls in the form of snow, falling
Tundra Climate/ Polar in winter and being drifted about during
blizzards. Snowfall differs with locality;
Climate/ Arctic Climate it may come down either as ice crystals
Distribution or large, amalgamated snowflakes.
• This type of climate and vegetation is » Convectional rainfall is generally absent
found mainly north of the Arctic Circle due to the low rate of evaporation
in the northern hemisphere and south process and insufficient moisture in the
of Antarctic Circle. cold polar air.
• The icecap is confined to Greenland
and to the highlands of these high Natural vegetation
latitude zones, where the ground is
permanently snow-covered. • In such an adverse and extreme
atmosphere as the tundra, only few
• The lowlands, with a few months ice- plants survive.
free, have tundra type of vegetation.
• Insufficient heat is the greatest
• They consist the coastal strip of inhibiting factor in this region.
Greenland, the barren grounds of
northern Canada and Alaska and the • With a growing season of only less than
Arctic seaboard of Eurasia. three months and the warmest month
not exceeding 10 °C (the tree-survival
line), there are no trees in the tundra
region.
• Such an environment can support
only the lowest form of vegetation like
mosses, lichens and sedges.
• Poor drainage due to sub soil which is
permanently frozen.
• Ponds and marshes and waterlogged
areas are seen in hollows.
Image 12.12: Tundra type climate
150
Economy:
• Human activities of the tundra are
mostly restricted to the coast. Where
plateau and mountains (permanently
snow-covered) increase the altitude, it
is uninhabitable.
• The few people of this region live a
semi-nomadic life and have to adapt
themselves to severe environment.
• Once it was regarded as completely
useless but now it is considered as of
some economic significance.
• Apart from the efforts of the different
governments of the world in assisting the
advancement of the Arctic inhabitants
the Eskimos, Lapps, Samoyeds etc., new
settlements have sprung up due to the
finding of minerals.
151
CHAPTER - 13
MOVEMENTS OF OCEAN WATER
• Wind provides energy to the waves and

Introduction triggers waves to travel in the ocean
water and the energy is released on
• The ocean water is very dynamic. coastlines.
Physical characteristics of water such
• As a wave move towards the beach
as salinity, density, temperature and
region, it slows down because of the
the external forces such as the Sun,
friction occurring between the dynamic
Moon and the winds control the overall
water and the seafloor. And the wave
movement of ocean water.
breaks, when the extent of depth of
• The vertical and horizontal motions water is less than half the wavelength
are common in different ocean water of the wave.
bodies.
• Waves continue to grow bigger as they
• The horizontal motion implies to move and absorb energy from the wind
currents and waves of the ocean. The and the largest waves are observed in
vertical motion corresponds to tides. the open oceans.
• Ocean currents are the constant flow • A wave’s shape and size reveal its
of huge amounts of water in a certain genesis. Steep waves are relatively
direction. Water in the ocean moves young ones and are probably developed
ahead from one place to another with by local winds. Slow and steady waves
the help of ocean currents derive from far away locations, possibly
• While the waves are the horizontal from another hemisphere.
movement of water, the water in the Wave travelling
Crest
falling
Crest
falling
waves does not transfer, only the wave toward th
right
trains move ahead.
• The vertical motion is associated
with the rise and fall of ocean water.
Because of the attraction of the Sun
and the Moon, the water of ocean is Trough Trough
lifted up and falls down twice a day. The rising rising
cold ocean water from the subsurface Image 13.1: Motion of waves and molecules
due to upwelling and the sinking of
surface water, are also types of vertical • The maximum height of the wave is
movement of ocean water. governed by the strength of the wind,
i.e. how long it blows and the region
over which it moves in a single direction.
Waves • Waves travel because the wind pushes
the body of water in its course and
• They are actually the form of energy, gravity pulls the crests of the waves in
not the water as such, which moves downward direction. The falling water
across the surface of ocean. Water pushes the former troughs in upward
particles only move in a small circle as direction and the wave moves to a new
a wave passes. spot.
152
• The real motion of the water below the highest level and low tide appears
waves is circular. It suggests that things when water falls to its lowest level and
are carried up and forward as the wave recedes from the shore.
approaches and down and back as it
passes.
How does Tides Occur?
Features of Waves • The gravitational pull of Moon to a
great extent and to a lesser degree, the
• Crest and trough of the wave: The Sun’s gravitational pull, are the main
highest and lowest points of a wave causes for the occurrence of tides in
are known as the crest and trough ocean water. Another important factor
respectively. is centrifugal force, which is the force
• Height of wave: Wave height is the that acts to counterbalance gravity.
vertical distance from the base of a • Together, the centrifugal force and
trough to the top of a crest. gravitational pull are responsible for
• Amplitude of wave: It is calculated as establishing the two major tidal bulges
one-half of the wave height. on the earth.
• Wave period: It is simply the time • A tidal bulge occurs on the side of
interval between two successive wave the earth facing the Moon while on
crests or troughs as they pass a fixed the opposite side of the Earth, the
point. gravitational attraction of the Moon is
low as it is farther away, the centrifugal
• Wavelength of wave: It is calculated force causes a tidal bulge on the other
as the horizontal distance between the side (Figure).
two consecutive crests.
• The ‘tide-generating’ force is associated
• Speed of wave: It is related with rate with the difference between these two
at which the wave travels through the forces; i.e. the centrifugal force and
water and is measured in knots. gravitational attraction of the Moon.
• Frequency of wave: It is the number of • Earth surface (nearest to the Moon),
waves passing a given point during a pull or the attractive force of the
one-second time interval. Moon is higher as compared to the
centrifugal force and so there is a net
force responsible for a bulge towards
Tides the Moon.
• The attractive force is less on the
• The periodical (once or twice in a day) opposite side of the earth surface, as it
rise and fall in the sea level, mainly is farther away from the Moon position.
because of the attraction of the Sun The centrifugal force is dominant.
and the Moon, is known as a tide. Therefore, there is a net force away
• Movements of water caused by from the Moon. It generates the second
meteorological effects (winds and bulge away from the position of Moon.
atmospheric pressure changes) are • On the earth surface, the horizontal tide
called surges. Surges are not regular generating forces are more important
like tides. than the vertical forces in generating
• High tide occurs when water covers the tidal bulges.
much of the shore by mounting to its
153
Gravitational Force • Diurnal tide:

» There is only one low tide and one high
Sun
Earth Moon
tide during each day.

Centrifugal Force
» The consecutive low and high tides are
Tidal Bulge approximately of the same altitude.
Sun
Earth Moon
• Mixed tide:
Gravitational & Centrifugal Force
» Tides having variations in height are
called as mixed tides.
Sun
Earth Moon
» Generally, these tides take places along

Image 13.2: Relation between Gravitational Force the west coast of North America and
and tides
on many islands of the Pacific Ocean.
• The tidal bulges on broad continental Tides on basis of positions of the

shelves have more height. When tidal
bulges hit the islands of mid-oceanic Sun, Moon and the Earth
region, they become low. • The peak of rising water (high tide)
• Various shape of bays and estuaries fluctuates appreciably depending
along a shoreline can also amplify the upon the position of Moon and Sun
intensity of tides. Funnel-shaped bays with respect to the earth. Neap tides
greatly modify tidal magnitudes. (Ex: and Spring tides come under this
Bay of Fundy→ Highest tidal range) classification.
• When tide is channeled between the • Spring tides:
islands or into bays and estuaries, they
are known as tidal currents. » The position of both Moon and Sun
in relation to the earth, has a direct
bearing on height of the tide.
Types of Tides Springs | New Moon
• Tides differ in their direction, frequency

Earth Sun
and movement from time to time and

also from place to place.
• Tides may be categorized into various
Neaps | First Quarter
types on the basis of their frequency of Earth Sun
occurrence in one day or 24 hours or

based on the height of tide.
Springs | Full Moon
Tides on basis of frequency Earth Sun
• Semi-diurnal tide:
» The most frequent tidal pattern, Neaps | Last Quarter
featuring two high tides and two low Earth Sun
tides each day.

» The successive low or high tides are
almost of the same height. Image 13.3: Tide Formation
154
» When the earth, Moon and Sun are in • The time gap between the high tide
a straight line, the tide height will be and low tide, when the water level is
higher. falling, is termed as the ebb.
» These are known as spring tides and • The time between the low and high tide,
they happen twice a month, one on the when the tide is escalating, is known as
new Moon period and another during the flow or flood.
full Moon period.
• Neap tides: Importance of Tides

» Generally, there is a seven-day gap Navigation:
between the neap tides and spring
tides. • Heights of the tides are very important,
particularly for harbours near
» At this time the Moon and Sun are rivers, having shallow ‘bars’ [Marine
at right angles to each other and the Landforms] at the entrance, which
forces of the Moon and Sun have a prevent boats and ships from arriving
tendency to counteract one another. into the harbour.
» Though the attraction of the Moon is • High tides assist in navigation. They
more than twice as powerful as the Sun’s, raise the level of water close to the
but it is weakened by the counteracting shores which facilitates the ships to
force of the gravitational pull of Sun. reach at the harbour more easily.
• The magnitude of tides on basis of • Tides usually assist in making some of
Perigee and Apogee of Moon the rivers navigable for ocean-going
vessels. London and Calcutta [Tidal
» On one occasion in a month, when Ports] have become crucial ports owing
the Moon’s orbit is closest to the earth to the tidal nature of the mouths of the
(perigee), unusually low and high tides Thames and Hooghly respectively.
take place. At this time, the tidal range
(height difference between low tide and
high tide ) is greater than normal. Fishing:
» Two weeks later, when the position of • The high tides also facilitate fishing
Moon is farthest from Earth (apogee), activities. During the high tide, much
gravitational force of Moon is limited more fish come closer to the shore line.
and the ranges of tide are less than This allows fishermen to get a plentiful
their average heights. catch.
• The magnitude of tides on basis of
Perihelion and Apehelion of the earth: Desilting:
» When the position of the earth is closest • Tides are also valuable in removing
to the Sun (perihelion), close to around polluted water and desilting the
3rd January every year, tidal ranges are sediments from river estuaries.
also much greater, with unusually low
and high tides.
» When the position of the earth is Weather:
farthest from the Sun (aphelion), nearly • Tides stir the water of ocean that creates
around 4th July each year, tidal ranges habitable climatic condition and balances
are much lower than average. the temperatures on the planets.
155
Tidal Energy: » The estuary (the mouth of the river)

acts as the wide part of the funnel,
• In every 24 hour, two high tides and two channeling water into the narrower river,
low tides take place. where the water rises to compensate
• Thus, the fast water movement during for this influx of volume.
the inflow and outflow will give a source
of renewable energy to the various • The name ‘bore’ is due to the sound
communities living along the coastline. the tidal current makes when it travels
through narrow channels.
• A tidal bore occurs during the flood tide
Tidal Zone Foods: and never at the time of ebb tide (Tidal
bores almost never happen during
• Edible sea creatures like crabs, mussels,
neap tides. Neap tides happen during
snails, seaweed, etc. that inhabit the
quarter Moons when tides are feeblest).
tidal zone and without the regular
washing of the tides, these complex
and abundant creatures would die and
Impact of Tidal Bore
food resources would diminish.
• They are less predictable and therefore
can be dangerous.
Tides are utilized to produce electrical
power (in France, Russia, Canada and • The tidal bores adversely affect the
China). A 3 MW tidal power plan at navigation and shipping in the estuarine
Durgaduani in Sunderbans (West Bengal) region.
is underway. • Tidal bores of substantial magnitude
can capsize ships and boats of
considerable size.
Tidal Bore • Powerful tidal bores disturb fishing
• Rivers mostly move from higher zones in gulfs and estuaries.
elevations towards the ocean or seas. • Tidal bores have an unfavourable
A tidal bore is a condition where the impact on the ecosystem of the river
flow of water from the river into the mouth. The tidal-bore affected estuaries
ocean reverses and the tide pushes are the breeding grounds of various
water up the river. The Indian rivers like forms of wildlife and rich feeding zones.
the Ganges, Brahmaputra, Indus, etc
exhibits tidal bores.
• Tidal bores take place every day Ocean Currents
However, they are not common all over
the planet. Special circumstances are Introduction
required for one to occur. • They are huge masses of surface water
• Let's go through the conditions that that circulate in regular patterns around
cause tidal bores: the ocean waters.
» The river where a tidal bore appears • The Ocean Currents in the northern
must not be too deep. hemisphere deflects towards their
right direction and in the southern
» The mouth of the river, needs to be hemisphere redirect towards their left
comparatively shallow and fairly wide because of the Coriolis force.
compared to the inland part of the river
to create a sort of funneling effect. • The only exception to this rule associated
156
with the flow of ocean water is found − Because of the Coriolis force, water
in the Indian Ocean region, where the of the ocean drift to the left direction
direction of flow of the current changes in the southern hemisphere and to
with the change in the direction of the right direction in the northern
monsoon wind movement. hemisphere of the earth.
• It is noteworthy that the number of cold − These huge accumulations of water
currents are lesser as compared to the and the flow around them are known
hot or warm current. as Gyres. These create large circular
currents in all the ocean basins.
− One such example of circular current
Forces responsible for Ocean is the Sargasso Sea.
Currents
Sargasso Sea
• Primary forces that start the
• The Sargasso Sea, located entirely
movement of water comprises
within the Atlantic Ocean, is the
» Heating by solar energy: only sea in the world without a land
boundary.
− The water expands due to the • Instead of being bounded by land
heating by solar energy. That is why boundary, it is surrounded by four
near the equatorial region the ocean ocean currents. These ocean currents
water is about 8 cm higher in level form a clockwise-circulating gyre that
as compare to the middle latitudes. surrounds the Sargasso Sea much like
− This produces a very slight gradient a terrestrial coastline would.
and water tends to move down the • It is surrounded by the North Atlantic
slope. The flow is generally from Current on the north, the North
east to west. Atlantic Equatorial Current on the
south, the Canary Current on the east
» Wind: and the Gulf Stream on the west.
− Wind blowing on the ocean surface • This vast patch of ocean named for a
pushes the water to move. Friction genus of free-floating seaweed know
amongst the wind and the water as Sargassum.
surface affects the movement of the
water body in its course.
− Flow of Winds are responsible for • Secondary forces that influence the
both direction [Coriolis force also flow of the currents comprises
influences direction] and magnitude
of the ocean currents. E.g. the » Temperature difference:
seasonal reversal of ocean currents − The difference in heating of the
in the Indian ocean due to Monsoon Sun at the equator and the pole
winds. region causes a difference in the
» Gravity: temperature of sea or ocean water.
− The temperature is higher near the
− It tends to pull the water down to equator due to which the ocean
pile and create gradient variation. water gets heated up and expands.
» Coriolis force: − Higher temperature makes the
warm water lighter and hence it
157
rises. Cold water is denser and sinks where the temperatures of this zone
in polar region. are cold enough to cause the density to
− Warm water from the equatorial increase.
area gradually moves along the » It is also called 'Thermohaline Currents'.
surface towards the polar region,
while the cold water from the poles
gradually creeps along the bottom Based on Temperature
of the ocean towards the equator.
• Cold Currents:
− Therefore, the differences in heating
and surface temperatures play a » Cold currents carry cold water into
significant role in the movements of warm water regions.
ocean water across the globe. » Those that flow from Polar Regions
to equatorward have a lower surface
» Salinity Difference: temperature and are called cold
− The water density also depends on currents (from higher latitudes to lower
its salinity and the salinity of water latitudes).
fluctuates from place to place. » These cold currents are generally found
− Waters with low salinity flow on the on the west coast of the continents near
surface of waters of high salinity the low and middle latitude regions (in
while the waters of high salinity flow both the hemispheres) and on the east
at the bottom. coast near the higher latitudes in the
Northern Hemisphere of the earth.
» Cold currents flow in the anti-clockwise
Types of Ocean Currents direction in the northern hemisphere
and in the clockwise direction in the
On the Basis of Depth southern hemisphere of the earth.
• Surface currents • Warm Currents:
» Surface currents comprise close to » Warm currents carry warm water into
around 10% of all the water in the
cold water regions.
ocean; these waters are the upper 400
meter of the ocean water. » Those that move from equatorial areas
towards pole, have a higher surface
» It is also called Wind-Driven Currents. temperature and are warm currents.
» The Surface Currents are a result of » These currents are usually observed
the Wind-stress and are modified by
on the east coast of continents in the
Coriolis force. Hence Surface currents
low and middle latitudes (true in both
mimic Atmospheric Wind Circulations.
hemispheres) and in the northern
• Deep Water Currents hemisphere they are found on the west
coasts of continents in high latitude
» Deep water currents make up the other areas.
remaining 90% of the ocean water. » Because of Coriolis force, Warm
» These waters move around the ocean currents move in the anti-clockwise
basins because of the variations in the direction in the southern hemisphere
gravity and density. and in the clockwise direction in the
northern hemisphere of the earth.
» Deep sea waters sink into the deep
ocean basins near the high latitudes,
158
Circulation of Atlantic Ocean • From the North Atlantic ocean, it

fans out in three different directions:-
• Starting with the North and South northwards to the Arctic, eastwards
Equatorial ocean Current at the Equator, to Britain and southwards along the
the steady trade winds regularly drift Iberian coast, as the cold canaries
two streams of water from east to west current.
direction.
• Almost two-thirds of the waters
• Near the shoulder of north-east Brazil, transported by the Gulf Stream to the
the protruding land mass divides the Arctic areas is returned annually to the
South equatorial ocean current into tropical latitudes by cold, dense polar
the Brazilian current which moves ocean water that creeps southwards in
Southwards direction along the east of the ocean depths.
Brazil coast and the Cayenne current
• The canaries current moving southward
which flows along the coast of Guiana.
direction eventually combines with the
North Equatorial Current, completing
the clockwise circuit in the North
North Atlantic Ocean Atlantic Ocean.
• In the North Atlantic Ocean water, • Inside this ring of ocean currents, a zone
the Cayenne current is joined and in the middle of the Atlantic ocean has
reinforced by the North Equatorial no perceptible current. A huge quantity
Current and heads north-westwards of floating sea-weed gathers and the
as a huge mass of equatorial water into region is known as the Sargasso Sea.
the water of Caribbean Sea.
• There are also some currents that move
• The part of the current moves into into the North Atlantic from the Arctic
the Gulf of Mexico and emerges from areas. These cold water are blown
the Florida Strait between Cuba and towards south by the out-flowing polar
Florida as the Florida current. winds.
• The rest of the equatorial ocean water • East Greenland current (The Irminger
move northward direction, east of the Current) flows between Greenland and
Antilles to join the Gulf Stream near the Iceland and cools the North Atlantic
south- eastern U.S.A. drift at the point of convergence.
• The Gulf Stream Drift ocean current is • The cold Labrador Current drifts
one of the most important and strongest toward south- eastward direction
ocean currents, 35 to 100 miles wide, between West Greenland and Baffin
2000 feet deep and with a velocity of Island to join the warm Gulf Stream off
around 3 miles an hour. Newfoundland, as far South as 50° N,
• The Gulf Stream Drift hugs the coast where the icebergs carried South by
of America as far as Cape Hatteras the Labrador current melt.
(latitude 350 N), Where it is redirected to
eastward direction under the combined
influence of the rotation of the earth South Atlantic Ocean
and the westerlies.
• Ocean water of South Atlantic follows
• It extends to Europe as the North Atlantic the similar pattern of circulation like
drift. This current, flowing at around 10 the North Atlantic Ocean.
miles per day, carries the warm equatorial
• The main differences are that the circuit
ocean water for over a thousand miles to
is anticlockwise and the collection
the coastlines of Europe.
of sea-weed in the still waters of the
159
mid- South Atlantic ocean is not so direction to reach the South Equatorial
distinctive. Current.
• When the South equatorial current is • This completes the circulation of the
divided at Cape Sao Roque, one branch current in the South Atlantic Ocean.
turns south as the warm Brazilian East-flowing Equatorial Counter
current. Current is in between the North and
• Its deep blue is easily distinguishable South Equatorial Currents.
from the yellow, muddy waters carried
hundreds of miles out to sea by the
Amazon further north.
Currents in the Atlantic Ocean
• At around 40° S, the influence of the • North Equatorial Current (warm)
rotation of the earth and the prevailing • South Equatorial Current (warm)
westerlies push the current in eastward
• Equatorial Counter Current
direction to join with the cold West
Wind Drift as the South Atlantic ocean • Gulf Stream (warm)
Current. • Florida Current (Warm)
• On reaching the west coast of African • Canaries Current (Cold)
continent, the current is diverted
• Labrador Current (Cold)
to northward direction as the cold
Benguela Current and it carries the • Brazilian Current (Warm)
cold polar waters of the west wind drift • Falkland Current (Cold)
into tropical latitudes.
• South Atlantic Drift (Cold)
• Driven by the regular South East Trade
Winds, the Benguela current surges
• Benguela Current (Cold)
equator wards in north- westerly
Image 13.4: Ocean currents
160
Circulation of the ocean water South Pacific Ocean

in Pacific • The South Pacific current system is similar
to that of the South Atlantic ocean.
• The pattern of circulation in the pacific
ocean is similar to that of the Atlantic • The South equatorial current, driven by
except in some modifications which the S-E trade winds, flows in Southward
can be expected from the more open direction near the Queensland coast
nature and the greater size of the as the east Australian current, carrying
Pacific Ocean. warm equatorial waters into temperate
ocean waters.
• The current turns in eastward direction
North Pacific Ocean towards New Zealand under the full
• The North Equatorial Current flows in force of the westerlies in the Tasman
westward direction with a compensating Sea and mixes with part of the cold
Equatorial Counter Current moving in West wind drift as the South Pacific
the opposite direction. current.
• Because of the greater expanse of • Blocked by the tip of Southern Chile,
the Pacific and the absence of an the current turns in northward direction
obstructing land mass the volume of along the Western coast of South
water is much greater as compare to America as the cold Peruvian or
that of the Atlantic equatorial ocean Humboldt current.
current. • The cold ocean water chills any wind
• The N-E Trade Winds blow the North that blows on-shore so that the coasts
Equatorial ocean current off the coasts of Chile and Peru are practically
of the Philippines and Formosa into rainless.
the East China Sea as the Kuro Siwo or • This zone is rich in microscopic oceanic
Kuroshio current. animals and plants that attract huge
• Warm waters of Kuro Siwo current are shoals of fish.
carried polewards as the North Pacific • Eventually, the cold Peruvian current
Drift, keeping the various ports of the merges with the South equatorial
Alaskan coast ice-free in winter season. current and completes the cycle of
• The cold Alaskan Current or Bering circulation of current in the South
Current creeps in southward direction Pacific Ocean.
from the narrow Bering Strait and is
joined by the Okhotsk ocean Current
to meet the warm Kuroshio (Japan Currents in the Pacific Ocean
Current)as the Oyashio. • North Equatorial Current (Warm)
• Eventually, the cold ocean water sinks • South Equatorial Current (Warm)
beneath the warmer ocean waters of
the North Pacific Drift. The part of it
• Counter Equatorial Current (Warm)
drifts in eastward direction as the cold • Kuroshio System (Warm)
Californian Current near the coasts of • Oyashio Current (Cold)
the western U.S.A. and merges with the
North Equatorial Current to complete • California Current (Cold)
the clockwise circulation of north • Peruvian or Humboldt Current (Cold)
Pacific ocean. • East Australian Current (Warm)
• North Pacific Drift (Warm)
161
Circulation of the Indian Ocean to bring rain to coastal regions and

even interiors. E.g. Summer Rainfall in
• The Equatorial Current, turning British Type of climate.
southward direction past Madagascar
• Warm ocean currents move parallel
as the Agulhas or Mozambique Ocean
to the east coasts of the continents
Current, mixes with the West Wind Drift,
in tropical and subtropical latitudes
moving to eastward direction and turns
of the globe. This results in rainy and
equator wards as the west Australian
warm climates. These regions lie in
ocean current.
the western margins of the subtropical
• In the North Indian Ocean region, anticyclones.
because of the changes of monsoon
winds there is a whole reversal of the
direction of currents between summer Desert formation:
and winter.
• Cold ocean currents have a direct
• In summer between June to October influence on desert formation in
month, when the major dominant west coast areas of the tropical and
wind is the South-West Monsoon, the subtropical continents.
ocean currents are blown from a south-
westerly direction as the South West • There is fog and most of the regions are
Monsoon Drift. arid because of desiccating effect (loss
of moisture).
• This is overturned in winter season,
beginning from December, when the
North-East Monsoon blows the ocean Fishing:
currents from the north-east direction
as the North-East Monsoon Drift. • Blending of warm and cold ocean
currents bear the richest fishing grounds
• The ocean currents of the North Indian in the world.
Ocean region, reveals most convincingly
the dominant effects of winds on the • E.g. Canada (Mixing of Labrador current
circulation of ocean currents. and Gulf Stream), Grand Banks around
Newfoundland and North-Eastern
• 4.6.1. Currents in the Indian Ocean Coast of Japan (mixing of Oyashio and
• The North East Monsoon Drift Kuroshio currents).
• The South West Monsoon Drift • The mixing of contrasting cold and
• North Equatorial Current (Warm) warm ocean currents supports to
replenish the Oxygen and favor the
• South Equatorial Current (Warm) growth of planktons which are the
• Somali Current (Cold) primary food for fish population in the
• Mozambique Current (Warm) sea water.
• Madagascar Current (Warm) • The most excellent fishing grounds of

the world exist primarily in these mixing
• Agulhas Current (Warm) zones of ocean waters.
• West Australian Current (Cold)
Navigation:
Effects of Ocean Currents • Ocean currents are referred to by their
Rains: drift.
• Generally, the ocean currents are
• Warm ocean currents are responsible
162
strongest near the surface and may push ocean water away from the shore
reach speeds over five knots (1 knot = and establish a divergence at the
~1.8 km). [At depths, currents are usually coastal regions, which is replaced by
slow with speeds less than 0.5 knots]. ocean water from depth.
• Ships usually follow routes which are • Upwelling process brings water to the
assisted by ocean currents and winds. surface of the ocean, that is enriched
with nutrients that are important for
primary productivity that ultimately
Upwelling and helps richly
ecosystems.
productive marine
Downwelling in the • So, Upwelling zones are often measured

Ocean
by their productivity because of the
inflow of nutrients to the surface by
upwelling currents. E.g. the rich fishing
• Upwelling and downwelling in the ocean zones along the west coasts of Africa
water describe the mass movements and South America are supported by
of the ocean, which have an effect on year-round coastal upwelling.
both surface and deep currents.
• These movements are very crucial in
delivering Oxygen to depth, stirring the Downwelling
ocean, distributing heat and bringing
nutrients to the surface of the ocean
• Downwelling process happens
when surface waters come together
water.
(converge), pressing the surface
water in downward direction. Areas
of downwelling have low productivity
Upwelling because of the nutrients get used up and
• Upwelling process is associated with the they are not continuously resupplied by
movement of cold, deep, often nutrient- the nutrient-rich cold water, from below
rich water to the surface mixed layer; the surface.
and downwelling process is related • Seasonal downwelling and upwelling
to the movement of surface water to also take place near the West Coast
deeper depths. of the United States. In winter season,
• It happens when surface waters winds move from the south to the north,
diverge (move apart), enabling upward resulting in downwelling. In the summer
movement of water. Some of the most season, winds blow from the north to
significant upwelling zones are along the south and water flows offshore,
the coasts of continents. In these resulting in upwelling along the coast.
coastal upwelling areas, surface winds
163
Tsunami:
• “Tsunami” is a Japanese word which means “harbor wave,”. Unlike the normal Ocean
waves which form due to winds or tides, the tsunami waves are formed due to the
underwater activities line earthquake, landslide, volcano eruption, etc.
• According to the Global Historical Tsunami Database, since 1900, over 80% of likely
tsunamis were generated by earthquakes.
• Tsunamis waves have a much larger wavelength than wind waves.
• After underwater activity the displaced water starts to move as a wave. At this
point, as it is located in deep water it has a very low amplitude and it can move as
fast as a jet plane.
• As the wave starts moving towards the shore the water gets shallower and shallower.
• Tsunami carry on huge masses of water. When they get closer to the shoreline,
the volume of the tsunami remains constant, with decreasing wavelength and
increasing amplitude. Due to this the height of the shallower water increases.
Image 13.5: Formation of Tsunami wave.
164
CHAPTER - 14
OCEAN TEMPERATURE AND SALINITY
Ocean Temperature Variation due to Hemisphere

• There is uneven distribution of land and
Introduction water over the earth.
• The study and research of the • Northern hemisphere of the earth
temperature of the oceans is very is warmer as compared to southern
significant for determining the hemisphere. It is due to large land
Movement of huge volumes of water mass in northern hemisphere and high
(vertical and horizontal ocean currents), specific heat of water, that causes
climate of coastal region and type and slower heating of it.
distribution of marine organisms at
different depths of oceans, etc.
Role of Prevailing winds
• Insolation (Incoming Solar Radiation)
is the main energy source for ocean (Longitudinal variation of
temperature. temperature)
• Oceans perform a vital role in the • The offshore winds (Winds blow towards
regulation of energy and temperature the ocean from the land) drive warm
regulation on the earth. Ocean water surface of water away from coast. It
warms slowly in comparison of land leads to upwelling of cold water from
due to its specific heat of the water. below.
• Average temperature of ocean = 3-5 • The onshore winds increase the
degree Celsius. temperature at coast by piling up warm
• However, average surface temperature water near it.
of ocean water is 25 degrees.
Role of Ocean currents
Factors affecting the • Oceanic currents describe the flow of
Temperature distribution on water from one location to another.
Ocean water • Warm ocean currents: It Increases the

temperature of cold areas (like Gulf
Latitude stream).
• Surface water temperature reduces • Cold ocean currents - It Lowers the
from the equator towards the pole. temperature in cold regions (like Canary
current).
• It is because of the declining intensity
of insolation per unit area while moving
towards pole. Open and Enclosed sea
• But highest temperature is not found
near the equator (reflection of Sun rays • Temperature at Lower latitude regions
due to high cloud over) instead but = Enclosed sea > Open sea.
noticed at the tropics. • Temperature at Higher latitude regions
165
= Open sea > Enclosed sea. Thermocline.

• Around 90% of the total volume of
water is situated below the thermocline
Physical features of the sea surface: in the deep ocean.
• Boiling point of the ocean water rises • One thing we can notice that the
with increasing salinity and vice versa. maximum Temperature of the oceans
• Salinity increased --> Boiling point is always noticed around the surface
increased --> Evaporation decreased. water because they directly receive the
heat from the Sun and the same heat
is spread to the lower portions of the
Daily range of temperature ocean water through the procedure of
conduction.
• Maximum temperature during day time
and minimum temperature in night • Therefore, it results into decrease of
time. Temperature with the increasing depth,
but the rate at which temperature
• Water in tropical regions has higher reduces is not uniform throughout.
diurnal range (because of less cloud)
as compared to equatorial waters as • The temperature reduces very rapidly
heating and cooling of water is rapid up to the depth of 200 m and after
under the clear sky. that, the level of decrease of water
temperature is slowed down.
Annual range of temperature

Vertical distribution of Temperature
• Bigger size of ocean is related to:
Better mixing of water and heat + Slow • The Temperature profile of oceans
heating. Hence, lower annual range of over middle and low latitudes can be
temperature. expressed as a three-layer system from
surface to the bottom.
• Pacific Ocean has Lower annual range
of temperature than Atlantic Ocean. » First layer: Represents the top layer
of warm oceanic waters. It is around
500 meters thick with the range of
Horizontal and Vertical Temperature between 20–25° c. This
Distribution of Temperature layer is present during the entire year in
Tropical/low latitudinal areas, but it is
Basic information about the ocean present only during summer in the high
temperature latitudes of the earth.
• The Temperature–depth profile for » Second/Thermocline Layer: It lies
the ocean waters reveal how the below the first layer and is featured
Temperature reduces with increasing by rapid decrease in Temperature with
depth. The profile also shows the increasing depth and is 500 -1,000 m
Boundary region between the surface thick.
waters and the deeper layers. » Third layer -It is very cold and stretches
• Mostly the boundary usually begins at up to the deep ocean floor. Near the
around 100–400 meters below the sea Arctic and Antarctic circles, the surface
surface and extends several hundreds water Temperatures are close to 0° C
of Km. and therefore the Temperature change
• This boundary region is known as with the depth is very slight. In this
166
region only one layer of cold water as the upper limit to demarcate as
appears, which extends from surface to 'brackish water'.
deep ocean floor. • Even small difference in ocean surface
salinity (i.e., concentration of dissolved
salts) can have dramatic impact on the
Horizontal distribution of water cycle and ocean circulation.
Temperature
• The average Temperature of ocean
surface water is around 27°C and it Various Sources of salts in ocean water
slowly reduces from the equatorial • Sediments carried by rivers.
region towards the poles. • Submarine volcanism at Oceanic
• The level of decrease of temperature Ridge.
with increasing latitude is normally • Chemical reaction between rocks of
around 0.5°C/latitude. geothermal vent of volcano and cold
• The mean Temperature is around 22°C water.
at 20° latitudes, 14° C at 40° latitudes • Erosion of oceanic rocks.
and 0° C near poles. The ocean water
in the Northern hemisphere record
relatively higher Temperature as Factors affecting the salinity of
compare to the Southern hemisphere.
sea/ocean waters
• However, the highest Temperature is
not recorded at the equator but slightly • Factors which increase the salinity
towards North of it. The mean annual (due to increase in salt concentration
Temperatures for the Northern and by extracting freshwater from the
Southern hemisphere are around 19° C ocean).
and 16° C respectively.
» Evaporation process is responsible for
• This difference is because of the unequal removing the water molecules from the
distribution of land and water in the
ocean’s surface waters, leaving the salt
northern and southern hemispheres.
content behind.
» Formation of ice as freezing of ice
Ocean Salinity leaves salt in the water.
» Advection of more saline ocean water.
Introduction » Blending with more saline deep water
• Throughout history of earth, certain (Because of the ocean currents).
procedures have served to make the » Solution of salt deposits.
ocean salty. The erosion of rocks
delivers minerals, including salt, into the • Factors which decreases the
ocean. salinity (due to the decrease in salt
concentration by incorporating
• Salinity is an valuable property of freshwater into the ocean):
ocean water and it is calculated by the
total amount of salt (in gm) dissolved in » Different forms of Precipitation on
1,000 gm (1 kg) of ocean water. the ocean surface waters, adds water
• It is usually manifested as parts per molecules.
thousand ( ‰) or ppt. » Melting of frozen ice dilutes the
• Salinity of 24.7 ‰ has been regarded concentration of salt in the water.
167
» Advection of less saline water. • Baltic Sea - Records low salinity due
» Mixing with less saline deep water (Due to influx of fresh river waters in large
to the ocean currents). quantity.
» Inflow of fresh water from land. • The Mediterranean Sea - Very

higher salinity due to high process of
evaporation.
Horizontal Distribution of • Black Sea - Salinity is very low in Black
Sea because of enormous freshwater
Salinity brought by Rivers.
• The salinity for normal open ocean • Indian Ocean - The mean salinity of
fluctuates in between 33 ‰ and 37 ‰. the Indian Ocean is 35 ‰.
In the Land locked Red Sea water, it
is as high as 41 ‰, on the other side,
• Bay of Bengal - The low salinity trend
is noticed in the Bay of Bengal due to
in estuaries and the Arctic, the salinity
influx of fresh river water by the River
changes from 0 - 35 ‰, seasonally. In
Ganga.
hot and dry areas, where evaporation
is high, sometimes the salinity reaches • Arabian Sea: As compared to Bay of
to 70 ‰. Bengal, the Arabian Sea shows higher
salinity for the reason related to high
• Highest salinity is noticed near tropics.
evaporation and low influx of fresh
• It reduces towards equator and pole. water.
» Equator = Heavier rains cause
incorporation of freshwater.
Vertical Distribution of Salinity
» Poles = Less evaporation prevents
removal of water molecule from the • Salinity gets altered with depth,
surface. However, the way it changes depends
upon the location of the sea/ocean.
• Pacific Ocean - The salinity difference • Salinity at the surface water increases
in the Pacific Ocean is mostly because
by the loss of water to ice or evaporation
of its shape and larger areal extent.
or reduces by the influx of fresh waters
Salinity reduces from 35 ‰- 31 ‰
e.g. from the Rivers.
near the western parts of the Northern
hemisphere due to the arrival of melted • Salinity at greater depth is very much
water from the Arctic area. Similarly fixed, because there is no way that
after 15° - 20° South, it reduces to 33 water is ‘lost’ by evaporation, or the salt
‰. is ‘added.’
• Atlantic Ocean - The mean salinity of • There is a noticeable difference in the
the Atlantic Ocean is around 36 ‰. salinity between the deep zones and
The highest salinity is noticed between surface water of the sea and ocean.
15°-20° latitudes. Highest salinity (37 Water with low salinity rests above the
‰) is observed between 20° N-30° N higher salinity dense ocean water.
and 20° W - 60° W. It gradually reduces • Mostly Salinity increases with depth
towards the North region. and there is a distinct zone known as
• The North Sea - Despite its location the halocline, where salinity increases
in higher latitudes, it records higher very sharply.
salinity due to more saline water carried • If we keep the other factors being
by the North Atlantic Drift. constant, increasing salinity of seawater
168
causes its density to increase. High volume increases) which therefore

salinity seawater mostly sinks below decreases the salinity.
the lower salinity water which leads to • If the temperature of water declines, its
stratification by salinity. density increases, but only to a certain
point.
• At a temperature of 4°C, pure water
Relation Between Salinity, achieves its maximum or peak density,
Temperature and Density cooled further it expands and becomes
less dense as compared to the
• Note: -Density, Salinity and Temperature
surrounding water which is why when
of water are correlated. Therefore, any
water freezes at 0°C, it floats.
change in the Temperature or density
influences the salinity of ocean water. • Density = Mass/Volume.
• Example = Let the mass of a definite
Density, g/cc 32 33 34 Salinity, water body is 20 and volume is 10, which
1.023 1.025 1.027 0 5 10 Temperature° C gives density is equal to 2. If the volume
0 0
Pycnocline Thermocline increases to 20 keeping mass constant,
Haloocline
the density reduces to 1.
1 1
Positive relationship between

Depth, km
Depth, km
2 2 Salinity and density

• As the density rises, the salt proportion
in the water (also known as salinity),
3 3
increases.
• The ocean water is continuously
4 4
churning underneath and bringing
variety of nutrients up to the top.
Image 14.1: Variation Salinity, Density & Tem- • The difference in density of cold water
perature of Ocean Water as opposed to density of warmer water
is responsible for ocean currents and
upwelling process.
Inverse Relationship Between • Warmer ocean water floats while cold
(4° C), dense (1 g/cm3) seawater sinks,
Temperature and Density so ocean temperatures also fluctuate
• As temperature rises, the space between across the surface and into the depths.
water molecules increases (hence
169
PREVIOUS
YEAR
QUESTIONS
170
Mains (a) Both A and R are true and R is the

correct explanation of A
1. Discuss the geophysical characteristics (b) Both A and R are true but R is NOT a
of Circum- Pacific Zone. [2020] correct explanation of A
2. The process of desertification does not (c) A is true but R is false
have climate boundaries. Justify with (d) A is false but R is true
examples. [2020]
3. Define mantle plume and explain its role
in plate tectonics. [2018] 3. Assertion (A) : Existence of human life on
Venus is highly improbable.
4. How does the Juno Mission of NASA help
to understand the origin and evolution Reason (R): Venus has extremely
of the Earth? [2017] high level of Carbon Dioxide in its
atmosphere. [2005]
5. Explain the formation of thousands of
islands in Indonesian and Philippines (a) Both A and R are true and R is the
archipelagos. [2014] correct explanation of A
6. Why are the world’s fold mountain (b) Both A and R are true but R is NOT a
systems located along the margins of correct explanation of A
continents? Bring out the association (c) A is true but R is false
between the global distribution of Fold (d) A is false but R is true
Mountains and the earthquakes and
volcanoes. [2014]
7. What do you understand by the theory of 4. Assertion (A) : Wind patterns are
continental drift? Discuss the prominent clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere
evidences in its support. [2013] and anti-clockwise in the Southern
Hemisphere.
8. Major hot deserts in northern
hemisphere are located between 20-30 Reason (R) : The directions of wind
degree north and on the western side of patterns in the Northern and the
the continents. Why? [2013] Southern Hemisphere are governed by
the Coriolis effect.
(a) Both A and R are true and R is the
Prelims (b) Both A and R are true but R is NOT a

1. Where is the volcanic mountain, Mount (c) A is true but R is false
St. Helens located? [2005]
(d) A is false but R is true
(a) Chile (b) Japan (c) Philippines (d) United
States of America
5. Where are the Balearic Islands located?
[2005]
2. Assertion (A): The same face of the
Moon is always presented to the earth. (a) Mediterranean Sea (b) Black Sea (c)
Baltic Sea (d) North Sea
Reason (R): The Moon rotates about
its own axis in 23 and half days which
is about the same time that it takes to 6. Which one of the following pairs is not
orbit the earth. [2005] correctly matched? [2005]
171
(a) Bahamas: Nassau Reason (R) : The diameter of the planet

(b) Costa Rica: San Jose Mars is less than that of earth. [2006]
(c) Nicaragua: Balmopan Codes:
(d) Dominican Republic: Santo Domingo (a) Both ‘A’ and ‘R’ are individually true and
‘R’ is the correct explanation of ‘A’.
(b) Both ‘A’ and ‘R’ are individually true but
7. Consider the following statements: ‘R’ is not the correct explanation of ‘A’.
[2005]
(c) ‘A’ is true but ‘R’ is false.
1. The Axis of the earth’s magnetic
field is inclined at 23 and half to the (d) ‘A’ is false but ‘R’ is true.
geographic axis of the earth.
2. The earth’s magnetic pole in the 11. What is the average distance
Northern Hemisphere is located on a (approximate) between the Sun and
Peninsula in Northern Canada. the earth? [2007]
3. The earth’s magnetic equator passes (a) 70 × 105 km.(b) 100 × 105 km
through Thumba in South India. (c) 110 × 106 km.(d) 150 × 106 km
Which of the statements given above is/
are correct?
12. Consider the following statements:
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2 and 3 only [2007]
(c) 2 only (d) 3 only 1. Either of the two belts over the
oceans at about 30° to 35° N and S
8. Consider the following statements: Latitudes is known as Horse latitude.
[2005] 2. Horse latitudes are low pressure
1. Total land area of earth is belts. Which of the statements given
approximately 1475 lakh square km. above is/are correct?
2. Ratio of land area to water area of (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d)
earth is approximately 1:4. Neither 1 nor 2
3. Maximum percentage of earth’s

water is in the Pacific Ocean. 13. Consider the following statements:
Which of the statements given above is/ [2007]
are correct? 1. Annual range of temperature is
(a) 1 and 3 (b) 2 and 3 greater in the Pacific Ocean than
that in the Atlantic Ocean.
(c) 1 only (d) 3 only
2. Annual range of temperature is
greater in the Northern Hemisphere
9. In which one of the following oceans than that in the Southern
Diamantine Trench is situated? [2006] Hemisphere.
(a) Pacific Ocean (b) Atlantic Ocean (c) Which of the statements given above
Indian Ocean (d) Arctic Ocean is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d)
10. Assertion (A): To orbit around the Sun Neither 1 nor 2
the planet Mars takes lesser time than
the time taken by the earth. 14. Consider the following statements:
172
[2008] available for use amounts to about

1. Albedo of an object determines its less than 1% of the total water
visual brightness when viewed with found.
reflected light. 2. Of the total fresh water found on
2. Albedo of Mercury is much greater the planet Earth 95% is bound up in
than the albedo of the Earth. polar ice caps and glaciers.
Which of the statements given above Which of the statements given above
is/are correct? is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only (a) 1 only
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 (b) 2 only

(c) Both 1 and 2
15.For India, China, UK and USA, which one (d) Neither 1 nor 2
of the following is the correct sequence
of the median age of their population? 20. A new type of El Nino called El Nino
[2008] Modoki appeared in the news. In
(a) China< India < UK < USA this context, consider the following
(b) India < China < USA < UK statements: [2010]
(c) China< India < USA < UK 1. Normal El Nino forms in the Central
Pacific Ocean whereas El Nino
(d) India < China < UK < USA Modoki forms in Eastern Pacific
16. In order of their distances from the Ocean
Sun, which of the following planets lie 2. Normal El Nino results in diminished
between Mars and Uranus? [2008] hurricanes in the Atlantic Ocean but
(a) Earth and Jupiter El Nino Modoki results in a greater
(b) Jupiter and Saturn number of hurricanes with greater
frequency.
(c) Saturn and Earth
Which of the statements given above
(d) Saturn and Neptune is/are correct?
17. Which one of the following planets has (a) 1 only (b) 2 only
largest number of natural satellites or
Moons? [2009] (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
(a) Jupiter (b) Mars

(c) Saturn (d) Venus 21. Which one of the following reflects
back more Sunlight as compared to
other three? [2010]
18. In the structure of planet Earth, below (a) Sand desert
the mantle, the core is mainly made up
of which one of the following? [2009] (b) Paddy crop
(a) Aluminium (b) Chromium (c) Iron (d) (c) Land covered with fresh snow
Silicon (d) Prairie land
19. Consider the following statements: 22. A geographic region has the following
[2010] distinct characteristics: [2010]
1. On the planet Earth, the fresh water 1. Warm and dry climate
173
2. Mild and wet winter

3. Evergreen Oak trees 26. La Nina is suspected to have caused
The above features are distinct recent floods in Australia. How is La
characteristics of which one of the Nina different from El Nino?
following regions? 1. La Nina is characterized by
(a) Mediterranean unusually cold ocean temperature
in equatorial Indian Ocean whereas
(b) Eastern China El Nino is characterized by unusually
(c) Central Asia warm ocean temperature in the
(d) Atlantic coast of North America equatorial Pacific Ocean.
2. El Nino has adverse effect on south-
west monsoon of India, but La Nina
23. What causes wind to deflect toward has no effect on monsoon climate.
left in the Southern Hemisphere? [2010]
(a) Temperature is/are correct?
(b) Magnetic field (a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(c) Rotation of the earth (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
(d) Pressure
27. What is difference between asteroids
24. If a tropical rain forest is removed, it does and comets?
not regenerate quickly as compared 1. Asteroids are small rocky planetoids,
to a tropical deciduous forest. This is while comets are formed of frozen
because: [2011] gases held together by rocky and
(a) the soil of rain forest is deficient in metallic material.
nutrients 2. Asteroids are found mostly between
(b) propagules of the trees in a rain forest the orbits of Jupiter and Mars, while
have poor viability comets are found mostly between
Venus and Mercury.
(c) the rain forest species are slow-growing
3. Comets show a perceptible glowing
(d) exotic species invade the fertile soil of
tail, while asteroids do not. [2011 - I]
rain forest.
is/are correct?
25. A layer in the Earth’s atmosphere
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1 and 3 only
called ionosphere facilities radio
communication. Why ? [2011] (c) 3 only (d) 1,2 and 3
1. The presence of ozone causes the
reflection of radio waves to earth. 28. Westerlies in southern hemisphere are
2. Radio waves have a very long stronger and persistent than in northern
wavelength. hemisphere. Why? [2011]
Which of the statements given above 1. Southern hemisphere has less
is/are correct? landmass as compared to northern
hemisphere.
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
2. Coriolis force is higher in southern
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
hemisphere as compared to
174
northern hemisphere. Select the correct answer using the

Which of the statements given above codes given below:
is/are correct? (a) 1 and 2
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only (b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 (c) 1, 3 and 4
(d) None of the above can be cited as
29. What could be the main reason/ evidence
reasons for the formation of African
and Eurasian desert belt? [2011] 32. Consider the following factors: [2012]
1. It is located in the sub-tropical high 1. Rotation of the Earth
pressure cells.
2. Air pressure and wind
2. It is under the influence of warm
ocean currents. 3. Density of ocean water
Which of the statements given above 4. Revolution of the Earth

is/are correct in this context ? Which of the above factors influence
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only the ocean currents?
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1, 2 and 3
(c) 1 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4
30. The jet aircrafts fly very easily and

smoothly in the lower stratosphere. 33. Normally, the temperature decreases
What could be the appropriate with the increase in height from the
explanation? [2011] Earth’s surface, because: [2012]
1. There are no clouds or water vapour 1. the atmosphere can be heated
in the lower stratosphere. upwards only from the Earth’s surface
2. There are no vertical winds in the 2. there is more moisture in the upper
lower stratosphere. atmosphere
Which of the statements given above 3. the air is less dense in the upper
is/are correct in this context? atmosphere
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only Select the correct answer using the
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 codes given below:
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
31.Which of the following is/are cited by (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
the scientists as evidence/evidences for
the continued expansion of universe? 34. Which one of the following is the
[2012] characteristic climate of the Tropical
1. Detection of microwaves in space Savannah Region? [2012]
2. Observation of redshift phenomenon (a) Rainfall throughout the year
in space (b) Rainfall in winter only
3. Movement of asteroids in space (c) An extremely short dry season
4. Occurrence of supernova explosions (d) A definite dry and wet season
in space
175
35. Which one of the following pairs is (c) 2, 4, 5 and 6 only

correctly matched? [2013] (d) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6
Geographical Feature Region
(a) Abyssinian Plateau : Arabia 39. The most important fishing grounds
(b) Atlas Mountains : North-Western Africa of the world are found in the regions
(c) Guiana Highlands : South-Western Africa where [2013]
(d) Okavango Basin : Patagonia (a) warm and cold atmospheric currents
meet
(b) rivers drain out large amounts of
36. Variations in the length of daytime and freshwater into the sea
nighttime from season to season are
due to [2013] (c) warm and cold oceanic currents meet
(a) the earth’s rotation on its axis (d) continental shelf is undulating
(b) the earth’s revolution round the Sun in

an elliptical manner 40. Which of the following is/are unique
(c) latitudinal position of the place characteristic/ characteristics of
equatorial forests? [2013]
(d) revolution of the earth on a tilted axis.
1. Presence of tall, closely set trees
with crowns forming a continuous
37. On the planet earth, most of the canopy
freshwater exists as ice caps and 2. Coexistence of a large number of
glaciers. Out of the remaining species
freshwater, the largest proportion
[2013] 3. Presence of numerous varieties of
epiphytes
(a) is found in atmosphere as moisture and
clouds Select the correct answer using the
codes given below.
(b) is found in freshwater lakes and rivers
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) exists as groundwater
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
(d) exists as soil moisture
41.The annual range of temperature in

38. Consider the following pairs: [2013] the interior of the continents is high as
1. Electromagnetic radiation compared to coastal areas. What is/
2. Geothermal energy are the reason/reasons? [2013]
3. Gravitational force 1. Thermal difference between land

and water
4. Plate movements
2. Variation in altitude between
5. Rotation of the earth continents and oceans
6. Revolution of the earth 3. Presence of strong winds in the
Which of the above are responsible interior
for bringing dynamic changes on the 4. Heavy rains in the interior as
surface of the earth? compared to coasts
(a) 1, 2, 3 and 4 only Select the correct answer using the
(b) 1, 3, 5 and 6 only codes given below.
176
(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only 1. Gravitational force of the Sun

(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 2. Gravitational force of the Moon
3. Centrifugal force of the Earth
42. “Climate is extreme, rainfall is scanty Select the correct answer using the
and the people used to be nomadic code given below.
herders.” [2013] (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
The above statement best describes (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
which of the following regions?
(a) African Savannah
46. “Each day is more or less the same,
(b) Central Asian Steppe the morning is clear and bright with a
(c) North American Prairie sea breeze; as the Sun climbs high in
(d) Siberian Tundra the sky, heat mounts up, dark clouds
form, then rain comes with thunder and
lightning. But rain is soon over.” Which
43. Which of the following phenomena of the following regions is described in
might have influenced the evolution of the above passage? [2015]
organisms? [2014 - I] (a) Savannah (b) Equatorial
1. Continental drift (c) Monsoon (d) Mediterranean
2. Glacial cycles
Select the correct answer using the 47. In the South Atlantic and South-Eastern
code given below. Pacific regions in tropical latitudes,
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only cyclone does not originate. What is the
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 reason? [2015]
(a) Sea surface temperatures are low
44. Consider the following statements (b) Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone

[2015 - I] seldom occurs
1. The winds which blow between 30° (c) Coriolis force is too weak
N and 60° S latitudes throughout (d) Absence of land in those regions
the year are known as westerlies.
2. The moist air masses that cause 48. What explains the eastward flow of the
winter rains in North-Western region equatorial counter-current? [2015]
of India are part of westerlies.
(a) The Earth’s rotation on its axis
is/are correct? (b) Convergence of the two equatorial
currents
(a) 1 only
(c) Difference in salinity of water
(b) 2 only
(d) Occurrence of the belt of calm near the
(c) Both 1 and 2 equator
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
49. Which of the following is/are tributary
45. Tides occur in the oceans and seas due tributaries of Brahmaputra? [2016]
to which among the following? [2015] 1. Dibang
177
2. Kameng Towns sometimes mentioned in news -

3. Lohit Country
Select the correct answer using the 1. Aleppo - Syria

code given below. 2. Kirkuk – Yemen
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only 3. Mosul – Palestine
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 4. Mazar-i-sharif – Afghanistan
Which of the pairs given above are
50. With reference to ‘Indian Ocean Dipole correctly matched?
(IOD)’ sometimes mentioned in the (a) 1 and 2 (b) 1 and 4 (c) 2 and 3 (d) 3 and 4
news while forecasting Indian monsoon,
which of the following statements is/
are correct? [2017] 54. Consider the following statements:
[2018]
1. IOD phenomenon is characterized
by a difference in sea surface 1. The Earth’s magnetic field has
temperature between tropical reversed every few hundred
Western Indian Ocean and tropical thousand years
Eastern Pacific Ocean. 2. When the Earth was created more
2. An IOD phenomenon can influence than 4000 Million years ago, there
an El Nino’s impact on the monsoon. was 54% Oxygen and no Carbon
Dioxide.
Select the correct answer using the
code given below: 3. When living organisms originated,
they modified the early atmosphere
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only of the Earth.
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 Which of the statements given above
is/are correct?
51.Mediterranean Sea is a border of which (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d)
of the following countries? [2017] 1, 2 and 3
1. Jordan 2. Iraq 3. Lebanon 4. Syria
Select the correct answer using the 55. Consider the following statements:
code given below: [2018]
(a)1, 2 and 3 (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 3 and 4 only 1. Most of the world’s coral reefs are in
(d) 1, 3 and 4 only tropical waters.
2. More than one-third of the world’s
52. Which of the following has/have shrunk coral reefs are located in the
immensely/dried up the recent past due territories of Australia, Indonesia
to human activities? [2018] and Philippines.
1. Aral Sea 2. Black Sea 3. Lake Baikal 3. Coral reefs host far more number of
animal phyla than those hosted by
Select the correct answer using the tropical rainforests.
code given below:
(a)1 only (b) 2 and 3 (c) 2 only (d) 1 and 3 is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only(b) 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only(d)
53. Consider the following pairs: [2018] 1, 2 and 3
178
Which of the pairs given above are

56. Consider the following pairs: [2018] correctly matched?
Regions sometimes mentioned in news (a) 1, 2 and 4 only (b) 1, 3 and 4 only (c) 2
- and 5 only (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5
Country
1. Catalonia - Spain 60. With reference to Ocean Mean
2. Crimea - Hungary Temperature (OMT), which of the
following statements is/are correct?
3. Mindanao - Philippines [2020]
4. Oromia - Nigeria 1. OMT is measured up to a depth of
Which of the pair given above are 26°C isotherm which is 129 meters
correctly matched? in the south -western Indian Ocean
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 3 and 4 only (c) 1 and 3 only during January –March.
(d) 2 and 4 only 2. OMT collected during January –
March can be used in assessing
whether the amount of rainfall in
57. On 21st June, the Sun [2019] monsoon will be less or more than a
(a) does not set below the horizon at the certain long -term mean.
Arctic Circle Select the correct using the code given
(b) does not set below the horizon at below:
Antarctic Circle (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d)
(c) shines vertically overhead at noon on Neither 1 nor 2
the Equator
(d) shines vertically overhead at the Tropic 61.Consider the following statements:
of Capricorn [2020]
58. Why are dewdrops not formed on a 1. Jet streams occur in the Northern
cloudy night? [2019] Hemisphere only.
(a) Clouds absorb the radiation released 2. Only some cyclones develop an eye.
from the Earth’s surface.
3. The temperature inside the eye of
(b) Clouds reflect back the Earth’s radiation. a cyclone is nearly 10°C lesser than
(c) The Earth’s surface would have low that of the surroundings.
temperature on cloudy nights. Which of the statements given above
(d) Clouds deflect the blowing wind to is/are correct?
ground level (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 2 only (d) 1 and 3 only
59. Consider the following pairs: [2019] 62. Consider the following pairs: [2020]
Sea Bordering country • River Flows into
1. Adriatic Sea : Albania 1. Mekong : Andaman Sea
2. Black Sea : Croatia 2. Thames : Irish Sea
3. Caspian Sea : Kazakhstan 3. Volga : Caspian Sea
4. Mediterranean Sea : Morocco 4. Zambezi : Indian Ocean
5. Red Sea : : Syria Which of the pairs given above is/are
179
correctly matched? 1. D 2. C 3. A 4. A 5. A 6. C 7. B 8. A 9. C 10.

(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only D 11. D 12. A 13. B 14. A 15. B 16. B 17. A 18.
(c) 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2 and 4 only C 19 B 20. B 21. C 22. A 23. C 24. A 25. B 26.
D 27. B 28. A 29. A 30. C 31. A 32. B 33. C
34. D 35. B 36. D 37.C 38. D 39. C 40. D 41.
A 42. B 43. C 44. C 45. D 46. B 47. A 48. A
49. D 50. B 51. C 52. A 53. B 54. C 55. D 56.
C 57. A 58. B 59. B 60. B 61. C 62. C
180
REFERENCES
References:
https://oceanservice.noaa.gov
https://ncert.nic.in/
https://www.livescience.com/
https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/interior/
https://earth.usc.edu/
https://solarsystem.nasa.gov
http://thebritishgeographer.weebly.com/the-
https://southamptonweather.co.uk climate-of-tropical-regions
https://www.space.com/
Image References:
https://www.geomorphology.org.uk/what-
geomorphology Image 2.1:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
https://igws.indiana.edu/RocksAndMinerals c o m m o n s / t h u m b /c /c b / P l a n e t s 2 0 1 3 .
svg/300px-Planets2013.svg.png
https://theozonehole.org
Image 4.6: NIOS
https://www.isro.gov.in
Image 4.10: NIOS
https://www.nationalgeographic.org
Image 5.14: NIOS
https://pnsn.org/outreach/earthquakesources/
volcanic Image 7.1:
https://www.esc.cam.ac.uk/research/ commons/thumb/c/c4/Rockcyc.jpg/350px-
Rockcyc.jpg
h t t p : // w w w . p h y s i c a l g e o g r a p h y . n e t /
fundamentals Image 8.1: NIOS
https://www.qld.gov.au/environment/land/ Image 8.7: NIOS

management/soil/soil-explained
Image 8.8: NIOS
https://www.sciencedirect.com
Image 8.9: NIOS
https://www.britannica.com
Image 9.1: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
https://www.noaa.gov/ wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Oblique_
181
rays_03_Pengo Image 10.11:

.svg/800px-Oblique_rays_03_Pengo.svg.png https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/9/9b/El_Ni%C3%B1o_Conditions.
jpg
Image 9.5: NIOS
Image 10.12:
Image 9.6: NIOS
commons/thumb/6/64/Jetcrosssection.
Image 10.2: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ svg/
Atmosphere_of_Earth
1920px-Jetcrosssection.svg.png
Image 10.5: NIOS

Image 10.13: NIOS
Image 10.8: NIOS

Image 11.2: NIOS
182
AUTHOR'S NOTE
This book tries to exhaustively cover the complete syllabus of UPSC CSE Preliminary &
Mains examination in an integrated approach for “Physical geography”. The purpose is
to enable the learners to correctly approach and solve the questions asked and thereby
achieve top ranks in UPSC CSE Examination.
Despite being exhaustive, we have tried to be as precise and accurate as we can to

supplement your smart study. We have tried to include recent events within and outside
India relevant for the CSE examination and present it in a manner in which UPSC
examination demands. The current issues have been linked with the static portion of the
syllabus (wherever possible) so as to develop a better understanding and have a better
grasp over the subject. The aim is to ensure that learners develop a knack of identifying
important subjects and topics from newspapers and magazines thereby saving their
precious time that usually gets wasted in reading the irrelevant stuff.
All this will not only prepare learners for the examination but also give a better
understanding of events happening around us in the society, polity, economy, global
affairs and prepare them for the challenges that they will have to tackle after clearing
the examination.
However, there is always scope for further improvement. It may so happen that learners
might have some suggestions about further improving the quality of the book. Such
suggestions would not only help us in assisting better but also the future learners to
do well. Any such suggestions would be welcome and can be communicated at
upscnotessuggestions@unacademy.com
Nikhil Ganta, Mayur Kale, Suraj Singh and Rahul Patil have contributed to the creation
of the content in the book. With their profound experience in the field of UPSC and in
the field, they were responsible for selection of topics, content creation and editing of
the content in the notes.
We wish you all the success in your efforts towards UPSC CSE Examination.
Team UNACADEMY
UPSC | Physical Geography
183
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THE EARTH AND THE UNIVERSE

Introduction billions of galaxies, solar systems, stars

• It is composed of Hydrogen (73%), • Venus is the hottest planet in entire solar

Planets • Saturn is second largest planet and is

Distance from Sun Orbital Velocity Period of

The Shape of the

sphere. mast mast

• The Earth is flattened at both ends Spherical Earth Flat Earth

• Thus, a normal year is taken to be of • In Mid-summer (21st June) there is

overhead Sun. Beyond the tropics, the

Latitude and • Because of the spherical shape of

in degrees, along the equator, west or 20° S

• In the globe, longitudes are series of 90° S

• Each longitude cuts through the

0° time zones. Each of them differs in 1

International Date Line

Image 1.6: International Date Line

THE ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF THE

Introduction Binary Theories:

Steady State Theory

Cosmic microwave background (CMB):

• There are in general two types of planets

from the inside of the earth is called

THE EARTH’S CRUST AND INTERIOR

Structure of the • The outside layer i.e. Crust is extremely

The Crust in Earth's surface cools, it becomes

• The discontinuity in between the crust

67% of the earth’s mass is occupied by 6378 Km

• The core is isolated from the mantle by p he

• The Core comprises of two sub-layers: ASTHENOSPHERE

the outer core and the inner core. UPPER MANTLE

• The outer core is in liquid state and GUTTEN BURG DISCONTINUITY

around 2,200 km (1,367 miles) thick. OUTER CORE

• The liquid metal of the outer core

the surface of Earth towards the centre

and Welsh mountains in Britain, » When a body of sedimentary rock

mantle, or the expansion or contraction

sedimentary rock on the seafloor gets

appears above sea level as a range of Image 3.5: Type of Folding

mountains are also called mountains of • On its cooling and solidifying

• These mountains are shaped when GRABEN GRABEN

into the crust. FAULT

Image 3.7: Development of block mountains

Volcanic Mountains existing elevated regions of the land.

Rocky mountains in the northwestern Volcanic Plateaus

and abrasion by winds, the plateaus Earth.

move beach materials like sand or are called peneplains (practically

DISTRIBUTION OF OCEAN AND

CONTINENTAL period in which a super-continent

DRIFT THEORY Panthalassa.

prior (Mesozoic Era) and the landmasses

each other. NORT H ASIA NORT H

• Later, Gondwanaland and Laurasia

kept on breaking into a few more SOUT H

smaller continents which exist today. ANTARCTIC A

Earth - 100 million Years Ago Earth - Today

Stages of Mainland Float Image 4.1: Continental Drift of plates

• First stage: During the Carboniferous

Argument for the Continental of these three land masses being