Biol 2401 21251

Study guide
Lecture test # 2
Chapter 6
Differences and similarities between hyaline cartilage, elastic cartilage, and fibrocartilage:
Hyaline cartilage
▪ Provides support, flexibility, and resilience
▪ Most abundant type; contains collagen fibers only
▪ Articular (joints), costal (ribs), respiratory (larynx), nasal cartilage (nose tip)
– Elastic cartilage
▪ Similar to hyaline cartilage, but contains elastic fibers
▪ External ear and epiglottis
– Fibrocartilage
▪ Thick collagen fibers: has great tensile strength
▪ Menisci of knee; vertebral discs
7 Important functions of bones
1. Support
▪ For body and soft organs
2. Protection
▪ Protect brain, spinal cord, and vital organs
3. Movement
▪ Levers for muscle action
4. Mineral and growth factor storage
▪ Calcium and phosphorus, and growth factors reservoir
Blood cell formation
▪ Hematopoiesis occurs in red marrow cavities of certain bones
6. Triglyceride (fat) storage
 ▪ Fat, used for an energy source, is stored in bone cavities
7. Hormone production
▪ Osteocalcin secreted by bones helps to regulate insulin secretion, glucose levels, and
metabolism
Appositional growth & interstitial growth
Cartilage grows in two ways:
– Appositional growth
▪ Cartilage-forming cells in perichondrium secrete matrix against external face
of existing cartilage
– New matrix laid down on surface of cartilage
– Interstitial growth
▪ Chondrocytes within lacunae divide and secrete new matrix, expanding
cartilage from within
– New matrix made within cartilage

Intramembranous ossification

 Bone develops from fibrous membrane

 Bones are called membrane bones

Endochondral ossification

 Bone forms by replacing hyaline cartilage

 Bones are called cartilage (endochondral) bones
 Form most of skeleton
 Forms essentially all bones inferior to base of skull, except clavicles
 Begins late in month 2 of development
  Uses previously formed hyaline cartilage models
 Requires breakdown of hyaline cartilage prior to ossification
 Begins at primary ossification center in center of shaft
 Blood vessels infiltrate perichondrium, converting it to periosteum
 Mesenchymal cells specialize into osteoblasts

Epiphyseal plate & growth in length of long bones

Spongy bone: Appears poorly organized but is actually organized along lines of stress to help
bone resist any stress
– Trabeculae, like cables on a suspension bridge, confer strength to bone
▪ No osteons are present, but trabeculae do contain irregularly arranged
lamellae and osteocytes interconnected by canaliculi
▪ Capillaries in endosteum supply nutrients
Microscopic anatomy of bone
Gross anatomy of compact bone
Osteon (Haversian system) – anatomy and function
– An osteon is the structural unit of compact bone
– Consists of an elongated cylinder that runs parallel to long axis of bone
▪ Acts as tiny weight-bearing pillars
– An osteon cylinder consists of several rings of bone matrix called lamellae
▪ Lamellae contain collagen fibers that run in different directions in adjacent
rings
▪ Withstands stress and resist twisting
▪ Bone salts are found between collagen fibers
Central (Haversian) canal [structures running through it]
Central (Haversian) canal runs through core of osteon
▪ Contains blood vessels and nerve fibers
– Perforating (Volkmann’s) canals: canals lined with endosteum that occur at right angles to
central canal
▪ Connect blood vessels and nerves of periosteum, medullary cavity, and central canal
Lacunae: small cavities that contain osteocytes
Canaliculi: hairlike canals that connect lacunae to each other and to central canal
– Osteoblasts that secrete bone matrix maintain contact with each other and osteocytes via
cell projections with gap junctions
– When matrix hardens and cells are trapped the canaliculi form
▪ Allow communication between all osteocytes of osteon and permit nutrients and
wastes to be relayed from one cell to another

Hematopoietic tissue in bones

Major bone markings (projection, depression, opening hole and their importance
5 different types of cells of bone: origin, function
Chemical composition of bone
Hydroxyapatite/hardening of bones
Difference between bone resorption, deposition
Hormones involved in regulating bone remodeling
Osteoclast activity/hormone influence
Bone fracture classification
Hematoma details of steps
Osteoporosis, its importance, its risk factors & preventive treatments
Hip bone rich in bone marrow
Steps in bone fracture repair
hypercalcemia
calcitonin
Chapter 7
Function of axial skeleton
Components of the axial skeleton?
The nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses
Sphenoid bone Sella turcica, pituitary gland: connection
cranial bones: function
Vertebral column: regions, curvatures, intervertebral discs, abnormal curve
carpal tunnel syndrome
Thigh, leg, and foot bone names and their general features
Differences between male and female pelvises
Chapter 8
structural classification of joints
Functional classification of joints
Fibrous joints & cartilaginous joints
Synovial joints: structure, importance,
Synovial joints and movement types
(Refer to figure 8.3 for structural components of synovial joint)
Knee joint, Shoulder joint, Elbow joint, Hip joint
Symphyses: intervertebral joints, public symphysis
Arthritis, Osteoarthritis, Rheumatoid arthritis, and Gouty arthritis
Head of humerus-acetabulum
Bones articulating in the shoulder joint
Examples of special movements
Lyme disease
osteoarthritis
Chapter 9 (Most technical and challenging chapter so far. There will be some 15-17 questions
from this chapter)
Skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscles: basic anatomy and function
Four special characteristics, five functions of the muscles
[Remember the change of muscle cell parts:
Muscle fiber = muscle cell
Sarcolemma = plasma membrane
Sarcoplasm = cytoplasm
Sarcoplasmic reticulum (endoplasmic reticulum)
Transverse tubule or T tubule (additional structure in muscle cell carries nerve impulse
deep down to the sarcoplasm).
Myofiber (muscle cell) – 80 % myofibrils
Myofibrils contain myofilaments:
thick filaments, thin filaments]
The molecular composition of myofilaments: myosin, actin
Sarcoplasmic reticulum and T tubules - relationships
Sliding filament model of contraction; four requirements for a skeletal muscle fiber to
contract
Details of nerve stimulus and events at the neuromuscular junction
Creatine phosphate
Power stroke
The role of acetylcholine
Acetylcholinesterase - role
Generation of an action potential across the sarcolemma
Excitation-contraction coupling
Muscle fiber contraction: cross bridge cycling
Sliding filament model of contraction
Sequence of events for muscle contractions?
Cross bridge formation
Troponin, tropomyosin roles in muscle contraction
The motor unit
Direct phosphorylation of ADP by creatine phosphate; anaerobic pathway: glycolysis and
lactic
acid formation; aerobic respiration
Muscle fatigue; excess post exercise oxygen consumption
Contraction of smooth muscle, types of smooth muscles, their differences, function, and its
importance
Vasodilation and muscle tissues involved in
Functional roles of sarcoplasmic reticulum (endoplasmic reticulum), Transverse tubules
Know Figure 9.1
Know Figure 9.2
Figure 9.3 (Know the details of cross bridge cycle on p.297 of your lecture book)
anaerobic metabolic pathway
myoglobin
Figure 9.8 (study the steps (events) at the neuromuscular junction
(Note that motor end plates are on sarcolemma (plasma membrane of muscle and not on the
axonal end bulb of the nerve)
Chapter 10
Agonist (prime mover), antagonist, fixator, synergist
Naming of the skeletal muscles
Fascicle arrangement and muscle shape
Muscle as lever systems: Lever, fulcrum, effort, and load: first, second, and third-class levers
Table 10.1 & 2: Muscles of facial expression; mastication and tongue movement
Table 10.5: Deep Muscles of the Thorax: Breathing
Figure 10.11a & b: Muscles of respiration.
Diaphragm muscle - phrenic nerve connection
Three prime movers of arm: Pectoralis major, Latissimus dorsi, Deltoid
Trapezius, levator scapulae, rhomboid: scapula connection
Main chewing muscle
Muscles used to smile.
Muscles acting on the tongue
Sternocleidomastoid origin (connections) to bones