Grade 12 Geography

Human Geography
WILLIAM MUCHIMBA

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Preface

Geography is a very important subject that enables us better understands the distribution of
human and physical features. At the time when human activities such as deforestation,
agriculture, mining, power generation etc are harming the environment. Geography stands tall in
championing the wise exploitation of natural resources in a manner that foster the stewardship of
the environment. This book has been written under the bandage of the Zambian geography senior
syllabus. It cover provide a complete and comprehensive coverage of the grade 12 part of the
syllabus. The book presents a factual, accurate, and coherent coverage of the contents. Where
necessary, graphs, tables and maps are used for illustration.
The book has chapters which include agriculture, forestry, wildlife and tourism, mining, power
and energy, transport and communication and processing and manufacturing industries. The first
three chapters (agriculture, forestry, wildlife and tourism) cover contents which only based on
Zambia. The last four chapters (mining, power and energy, transport and communication and
processing and manufacturing industries) cover contents on both and the sub-region. It is my
hope that the booklet will foster compression rather memorization of concepts.

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Contents
Preface ................................................................................................................................... ii
CHAPTER ONE .........................................................................................................................1
AGRICULTURE ........................................................................................................................1
1.0 Introduction ..................................................................................................................1
1.1 Land tenure ........................................................................................................................1
1.3 Irrigated agriculture ...........................................................................................................2
1.7 Zambia’s agriculture potential ............................................................................................6
CHAPTER TWO ........................................................................................................................8
FORESTRY ................................................................................................................................8
1.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................8
1.2 Classification of forest .......................................................................................................8
2.3 Factors that influence the exploitation of forests............................................................... 10
2.4 Problems Facing Forestry in Zambia ................................................................................ 10
CHAPTER THREE................................................................................................................... 16
WILDLIFE AND TOURISM .................................................................................................... 16
1.1 Wildlife in Zambia ........................................................................................................... 16
1.1.1 Reasons why Zambia is rich in wildlife ......................................................................... 17
1.2 Importance of wildlife...................................................................................................... 18
1.3 Tourism ............................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
3.4 Tourist attractions and destinations .................................................................................. 21
3.6 Challenges the tourism industry ....................................................................................... 27
Chapter 4 .................................................................................................................................. 30
Mining in Zambia and sub-region.............................................................................................. 30
4.1 What is mining? ............................................................................................................... 30
4.3 Mining methods ............................................................................................................... 31
4.4 Impact of mining ............................................................................................................. 34
4.5 Case studies ..................................................................................................................... 36
4.5.2 Gold mining in South Africa gold ................................................................................. 40
5.5.3 DIAMOND MINING IN SOUTH AFRICA.................................................................. 43
4.5.4 Coal Mining Zimbabwe ................................................................................................ 43

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 4.5.5 Oil mining in Angola .................................................................................................... 46
Chapter 5 .................................................................................................................................. 49
Power and energy in Zambia and sub region ............................................................................. 49
1.1 Hydro power generation................................................................................................... 49
1.1 Factors necessary for a selection site for a hydroelectric station ....................................... 49
Chapter 6 .................................................................................................................................. 53
Transport and Communication in Zambia and Sub-Region ........................................................ 53
CHAPTER 7 ............................................................................................................................. 65
PROCESSING AND MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES IN ZAMBIA AND SUB-REGION 65
7.1 Manufacturing ................................................................................................................. 65
7.2 The textile industry in Zimbabwe ..................................................................................... 66
7.3 Iron and Steel Industry in South Africa ............................................................................ 69
7.4 Automobile Industry in Kenya ......................................................................................... 72

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 CHAPTER ONE

AGRICULTURE

1.0 Introduction

Agriculture is the domestication of plants and animals to obtain sustenance or economic gain.
The ultimate purpose agriculture is food production, other human needs such as clothing,
medicines, tools, artistic display, dwelling, and feed for animals, or for economic gain or profit.

1.1 Land tenure

Land tenure systems are rules or regulations on the ownership of land. Land in Zambia is
classified into two categories – State land and customary land.

1.1.1 Customary land tenure

Customary land is administered by the Chiefs using the customary laws and norms applicable to
different jurisdictions and subject to Zambian laws and natural justice. Customary systems are
often based on traditional, unwritten, and locally relevant rules about how to use and allocate
land and resources.

1.1.2 State land

State land means land owned, controlled, or operated by a department, agency or institution. The
following are lands designated as state land

- Urban area- Town or city

- National park
- Gazette roads
- Leasehold

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Leasehold is an ownership of a temporary right to hold land for a period of 99 years. A leasehold
is essentially a qualified right to occupy land for a fixed term which may or may not be renewed.
The leaseholder is essentially a tenant of the State, to which rent is paid. A freehold estate in land
(as opposed to leasehold) is where the owner of the land has no time limit to his period of
ownership. Freehold tenure was abolished in Zambia, thus all land is vested into the president.
Customary land likewise can be converted to leasehold.

Commercial farms in Zambia are mainly located on State Land, which incorporates the land with
the best potential. Smallholders are more evenly distributed throughout the country on
Customary Land, on soils with lower potential and in areas more remote from markets.

1.3 Irrigated agriculture

Irrigation is the agricultural process of applying controlled amounts of water to land to assist in
the production of crops. Irrigated agriculture falls under the category of plantation agriculture. A
plantation is an estate or a large piece of land in which a certain type of crop or plant is grown
and processed. Characteristics of Plantation Agriculture:

 Plantation estates are very large, covering several of hectares. For example Nakambala
sugar estate in Southern Province of Zambia covers.
 Plantations are also capital intensive. Many plantations use a lot of money in their
investments.
 There is specialization of single crop in plantation agriculture especially soya beans and
wheat. In other estates tea, bananas, sugar cane and maize are grown.
 Crops on plantations are normally intended or grown for export.
 It practiced under Leasehold tenure

1.3.1 Distribution of irrigated agriculture

Plantation agriculture is confined within areas close to line of rail from Kalomo to Mkushi.
Nonetheless, irrigated agriculture is also practiced far away from line of rail. Plantations are
sporadically spread in other portions of the country such as the Kawambwa Tea Estate in
Kawambwa district.

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Reasons why the area close to the line of rail has developed irrigated agriculture:

1. Relief: The region lies on a plateau, thus it generally flat. This promotes cultivation
without difficulties and the use of machines.
2. Good Transport provision. The region has a good transport network of rail and roads.
3. Fertile soils: the region is rich with plateau soils.
4. Favorable climate: the region receives moderate rains.
5. Large market for produce: the region close to the rail of line is also close to population
clusters in the nation particular Lusaka and Copperbelt.

1.4 Environmental impact of agriculture

No matter what methods are used, agriculture always has some negative impact on the
environment. The following are they ways in which agriculture negatively impact the
environmental:

 Deforestation: Agriculture is the leading cause of deforestation

 Soil degradation: Soil degradation is the decline in soil quality or fertility. Causes of soil
degradation include salting, water logging, compaction, pesticide contamination, and
application of fertilizers.
 Climate change: Climate change brought by agriculture comes through deforestation,
methane release especially from livestock and the burning of fuels to processes and
transport agriculture produce.
 Soil erosion: Erosion affects productivity because it removes the surface soils, containing
most of the organic matter, plant nutrients, and fine soil particles, which help to retain
water and nutrients in the root zone where they are available to plants.
 Pollution: Pesticides, fertilizers and other toxic farm chemicals can poison fresh water, ,
air and soil.
 Wasteful water consumption: Agriculture consumes more the 70% of the water generated
by human beings.

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Irrigation alone has the following negative effects

i. Leaching: This is the downward washing of soluble nutrients from the upper horizon
of the soil to horizon which may not be reached by plants roots.
ii. Salinization: This is the accumulation of salts on the upper horizon of the soil. This
process is achieved via capillary action.
iii. Water logging: This is the spillage or over run flow of water over the surface.
iv. Subsidence: This is the depletion of groundwater due to over use.

1.5 Bad agriculture practices

i. Poor tillage method: Tillage is used for seedbed preparation, weed suppression, soil
aeration, and burying heavy crop residue, leveling the soil. Deep and frequent tillage
disrupts soil structure, accelerating surface runoff and soil erosion.
ii. Overstocking: Overstocking leads to soil compaction, increased soil erosion.
iii. Monoculture: This practice of growing a single crop, or livestock species in a field.
The disadvantages include:
 Biodiversity loss: Monoculture does not support other flora and fauna.
 Depletes nutrients and water content: Intensive monoculture depletes soil and leaves
it vulnerable to erosion.
 Increase soil erosion: repetitive use of fertilizers can lead to soil erosion, which makes
it difficult for plants to grow.
 Becomes very venerable to fluctuating market prices.
Advantages
 Simplicity: It is much easier and straightforward to cultivate one kind of crop or breed
one type of animal since the famer gains expect knowledge on the cultivation a
particular crop due to experience.
 High efficiency: Some crops maybe best favorable for particular regions. For example
rice is best grown in flooded plains, hence planting alternatives crops may not yield
desired results.
 There is less competition for sunlight, nutrients, and space from other species.

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1.6 Soil conservation

Soil conservation is a set of farming techniques and practices to avoid degradation, erosion and
depletion in particular.

1) Crop rotation: Crop rotation refers to the sequence of crops grown in a specific
field, including cash crops, cover crops and green manures.
- Increases soil fertility
- Aids in pest management
- Spread labor needs over time
- Reduce risks caused by market conditions.
2) Relay intercropping: This is a technique in which different crops are planted at
different times in the same field, and both (or all) crops spend at least part of their
season growing together in the field. An example would be dropping cover-crop seed
into a soybean crop before it is mature.
3) Contour farming: Planting along the natural contours of the land. On slopes with no
contours, water runoff quickly without the soil properly absorbing it and carrying the
top fertile soil with it, therefore, leaving a non-fertile land up the slope.

4)

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 5) Strip cropping: This is the presence of two or more crops in the same field, planted
in strips such that most plant competition is within each crop rather than between
crops.
6) Conservation Tillage: The conservation tillage aims at addressing wind and water
erosion by covering the earth with vegetation (either crops or their residues) and
limiting the number of tilling operations.
7) Terrace Cultivation: Terrace farming is the building a series of step like benches
slope to control runoff and minimize soil erosion or the degree of slope. This type of
cultivation is practiced specially in hilly areas. The hill and mountain slopes are cut to
form terrace sand the land is used in the same way as in permanent agriculture. Since
the availability of flat land is limited terraces are made to provide small patch of level
land. The other Objectives of terracing are
- to improve soil structure
- Increase infiltration rate,
- and Storage of water by water harvesting occasionally

1.7 Zambia’s agriculture potential

Agriculture is the primary source of livelihood at least 60 % of the population.

i. Central location: the country is land locked, thus it poses as a market hub.
ii. Water availability: the country boasts of 40 % fresh water in the region.
iii. Vast land: Zambia has vast exploited arable land
iv. Transport facilities: improved transport provisions in terms of road could lead to easy
access to market.
v. Climate: the climate of Zambia is favorable for growing many crops such as maize, rice,
wheat, etc.
vi. Government policy: Government policies such as buying crops through Food Reserve
Agency (FRA), reduced tax on agriculture, promotion of conversation farming promotes
agriculture.

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Review questions

1. State the advantages and disadvantages

a) Customary land tenure
b) Leasehold land tenure
2. Explain why irrigated agriculture is practiced under leasehold land tenure.
3. Mentions two methods using for irrigating crops by plantation estates
4. Discuss the five factors that favoured the establishment of Nakamabala sugar estates.
5. Explain four negatitive social consequences of plantation farms.
6. Mention four reasons why Western Province has limited irrigated agriculture?
7. Discussion the four importances of soil tillage.
8. Why is soil erosion bad?
9. Discuss four ways on how agriculture might lead to the decline in soil fertility.
10. Discuss ways of addressing the agriculture challenges.

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 CHAPTER TWO

FORESTRY

2.1 Introduction

A forest is a type of vegetation or a plant community dominated by trees. It also covered by

some grasses and shrubs. The study and management of forests and timber production is
referred to as forestry.

2.2 Classification of forest

Forests in Zambia are broadly classified as indigenous or exotic forest. Indigenous forest
comprise of trees that grows by means of seed dispersal and native to a particular ecosystem. An
exotic species is one which is introduced into an ecosystem from outside. This usually involves
human intervention. The differences are presented in the table below:

Table 2.1 shows differences between exotic and indigenous forest

Indigenous Exotic forest

grow by natural means of seed cultivated forests
dispersal
Usually grow on both customary and o Usually grown on under leasehold land
state land particular in national parks. tenure
Do not grow in pure stand Grown in pure stand
Native to the local area Not native to the local area
Examples Mubanga, Mukwa, Mutondo Examples include balsa, beech,
hickory, mahogany, maple, oak, teak,
and walnut

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Forest trees are classified as hardwood or softwood. On the picture below hardwood is illustrated
by tree on the left hand side while a soft is illustrated a tree on the right hand side.

Hardwood Softwood
Density Most hardwoods have a Most softwoods have a lower
higher density than most density than most hardwoods.
softwoods.
Uses Hardwoods are more likely Softwoods have a wide range
to be found in high-quality of applications and are found
furniture, decks, flooring, in building components (e.g.,
and construction that needs windows, doors), furniture,
to last. paper, Christmas trees, and
much more
Growth Hardwood has a slower Softwood has a faster rate of
growth rate. growth
Shedding of Deciduous Evergreen
leaves
Fire Resistance Strong Poor

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2.3 Factors that influence the exploitation of forests

The exploitation of indigenous forest is influenced by both human and natural factors as
discussed below:

 Vast forest lands: Zambia has vast lands containing different tree species which could
be exploited for both commercial and subsistence purposes.
 Transport facilities: Some indigenous forests are found in areas without proper transport
provision. Thus, the transportation of trees is a challenge in those regions.
 Trees do not grow in pure stand: Loggers often target specific tree species,
nonetheless, trees species are found scattered in some forest thus exploitation is
challenging.
 Land tenure: Land tenure policies imply that in some regions or areas the exploitation of
forest is prohibited.
 Deforestation: some tree species which are highly demanded on commercial purposes
have declined in number due to selective deforestation. Thus, the harvesting of some tree
species is a challenge.
 Other factors include government policies, available technology, demand or market,
terrain etc.

2.4 Problems Facing Forestry in Zambia

In many parts of the world, especially in the tropics, the primary forest cover has disappeared
leaving and what exist today are secondary forests. On the other hand, natural forests still exist in
areas of limited human influence. The following are the major threats to forests in Zambia.

1. Bush fires: The fire destroys some adult trees and burns the branches, trunks and leaves
of others. It also burns the undergrowth. Nonetheless, it must also be noted that bush fire
have equally positive effects of this means that more sunlight can then reach the soil and
seeds that were waiting for a fire release them can germinate.
2. Poor management: Poor management of forests e.g. clear cutting which may lead to
harvesting of immature trees in future, government officials carrying out illegal logging
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 and government in the past having not been strict in forest conservation of forests which
led to destruction of large areas of forests
3. Pests and diseases: Pests and diseases outbreak which can result in destruction of large
tracts of land with valuable tree species.
4. Climate change: Climatic events such floods, storm and drought have negative impact
on the natural forests.
5. Invasive weeds: Weeds are defined as plants that interfere with human activities.
Invasive weeds are a type of weed species that has been brought to our country from
another part of the world, and have begun to spread into our environment where they
interfere with the ecosystem.
Mimosa pigra: A thorny shrub native to tropical America can grow up to six metres high
and forms dense stands that squeeze out other native forms of vegetation.
Water hyacinth: A native of South America, water hyacinth is a free-floating aquatic
plant that generally grows to 0.5 m in height but sometimes to nearly 1 m.
Salviniamolesta (Kariba weed): is an aquatic fern, native to south-eastern Brazil. It is a
free floating plant that does not attach to the soil, but instead remains buoyant on the
surface of a body of water.
Lantana camara: This species of flowering plant; native to the American tropicswhich
is difficult to eradicate. It isa serious invader of disturbed and overgrazed areas, in
woodland, disturbed ground and in formerly cultivated areas

Impacts of invasive species

These plants present a great threat which includes:

 Loss of biodiversity – When invasive weeds enter an ecosystem they replace the
indigenous plants that have historically grown there. This can lead to local extinctions of
indigenous plant species.
 Ecological imbalance – When invasive weeds replace indigenous plants they cause an
ecological imbalance by changing natural cycles.
 Prevention of access – Some invasive weeds such as the prickly-pear have spines or
thorns. When these species take over an area and form thickets that are impenetrable.
This can prevent access to water supplies, grazing areas and shade trees.

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 Soil erosion – Invasive species are easily ripped out by strong winds or floods. This will
leave the soil exposed and susceptible to soil erosion.
 Reduced water resources – Many invasive weeds threaten our water resources. When
these species invade ecosystems, they replace indigenous species that have a lower water
requirement.
 Create dense floating mats – Invasive weeds that grow in water, such as water hyacinth,
can form thick mats when they invade a water source. This can block irrigation pumps,
reduce the flow of water along canals, and even cause livestock to drown.
 Increase agricultural input costs – Nearly all of the worst agricultural weeds are invasive
weed species. Controlling these weeds is expensive and time consuming.
6. Deforestation: Deforestation is the permanent removal of forest cover and replacement it
with different land use. The major causes of deforestation include
- Agriculture
- Human settlement
- Road construction
- Hydro-power dam constructions
- Logging
- Food gathering and hunting
- Wood fuel

A wise man once said

“Only when the last tree has been cut
down, the last fish been caught, and
the last stream poisoned, will we
realize we cannot eat money.”

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 Effects of deforestations

- Increased soil erosion: Forests provide an anchor to soil against moving agents such
wind and water, when forests are removed the soil brome venerable to erosion.
- Loss of habit: clearing forests means destroying homes to other animal species such
as birds, reptiles, mammals etc.
- Decline in soil fertility: Vegetation adds humus which makes the soil fertile, thus
when there is less vegetation the soils become less fertile.
- Increased flooding: Floods increase in the absence of forests because vegetation
reduces the flow of waters into streams.
- Reduced nutritional value: forests provide vital nutrients to some rural
communities
- Promote the spreads of invasive weeds: deforested areas are more prone to
deforestation than forested areas.
Other effects include reduced ground water, increased dusts, lack of materials in the
use of domestics’ purposes, loss of scenic beauty etc.

Bad weather

Bush fires
Pests

Threats to
forests
Deforestation

Poor management

Invasive weeds

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2.5 Management and Conservation of Forests

Conservation of forests is protection of forests against interference and destruction by man while
forest management is effective planning and control of forests and forest resources.

2.5.1 Conservation Measures

1. Afforestation and reafforestation: Reforestation is the process of planting trees in a forest

where the number of trees has been decreasing. Afforestation is when new trees are
planted or seeds are sown in an area where there were no trees before, creating a new
forest.
2. Agricultural methods should be improved so as to encourage proper land use methods
like Agroforestry.

Agroforestry (intercropping of various crops with trees) has the following advantages:

 Supplies wood resources

 Provides animal fodder

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  Provide food e.g. fruits e.g. mangoes and avocadoes for good health and nutrition
 Acts as wind breakers and
 Shade for crops.
3. Setting aside some areas and declaring them as protected areas.

2.5.2 Management Measures

Forest Management: It comprises the overall administrative, economic, legal and social aspects
of forest regulation.

1. Research to determine which tree species are suitable for which area and how to combat
pests and diseases outbreak.
2. Carrying out public campaigns through mass media on the importance of forests.
3. Use of alternative sources of energy e.g. sun, wind, biogas and water to reduce the rate of
tree felling.
4. Use of energy saving stoves to reduce the rate of over exploitation of wood fuel.
5. Improvement on cutting practices by selective falling of trees and replanting more trees
than those cut.
6. Control of pests and diseases which affect trees.

Review exercise

1. What is seed dispersal?

2. Discuss four merits native forests over indigenous forest in the exploitation of timber.
3. Mention four factors that hinder the exploitation of timber in Western province?
4. Discuss four disadvantages of native forest?
5. How does deforestation negatively affect rural communities?
6. Explain why early bush fires are encouraged while late bush fires are discouraged?
7. Why is deforestation occurring in Zambia?

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 CHAPTER THREE

WILDLIFE AND TOURISM

3.1 Wildlife in Zambia

Zambia has incredible and diverse wildlife which include large mammals, birds, reptiles and
primates. About 30 percent of the country has been dedicated to protecting its unique wildlife. A
wealth of wildlife is found mostly in Nation parks and Game Reserve (Game Management
Area). A national park is game rich area set aside for the propagation, protection and
conservation of wild life in their natural habitat and in which human settlement is prohibited.
Games reserve a wildlife sanctuary where people are allowed to live in it. Game management
ensures the availability of wildlife for the purpose of obtaining the maximum quantity of game
products. At the same time, game management maintains a stable wildlife population that best
ensures the survival of each species. Zambia has more than 40 games reserves such Nchila
Wildlife Reserve, Luena Wildlife Reserve, Mulobezi Game Reserve etc.

Wildlife is also found outside National parks and games reserves. Game ranching comprises the
maintenance of wild animals in defined areas delineated by fences. There are many game
ranches in Zambia which include;, Munda Wanga in Chilannga, Kaliolio in Siavonga, Nyakolwe
in south Luangwa Valley Eastern Province. A game sanctuary is a specific area established to
give protection to a specific animal community which is either threatened with extinction only
found in a particular area.

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3.1.1 Reasons why Zambia is rich in wildlife

Vast land: Zambia is a relative large country that can accommodate both people and
wildlife.
Water bodies: Zambia is also highly endowed with abundant water resources which
rivers, lakes and wetlands. These drain national parks and game reserves thus, providing
water to wild animals.
Favorable climate: Animals tend to choose territories with favorable climate, were
Zambia’s climate hush, most of the animals would have migrated away.
Government interventions: The Zambian government has been on guard to ensure that
wildlife is protected and managed well.

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 Availability of pasture: Zambia is rich with variety of vegetation which provides food
for the Wild animals.

3.2 Importance of wildlife

Wildlife plays an essential role in the ecological and biological processes. The following are
some importance of wildlife:

Economic importance: The wild life can be used to earn money through tourism, selling
etc.
Ecological importance: Wildlife helps in maintaining the balance of nature. Some of the
biological processes in which wild species play a key role are pollinization, germination,
seed dispersal, soil generation, nutrient cycling, habitat maintenance, and pest control.
Promote health and refreshment: Being around wildlife and nature is good for mental
health: People who live close to natural environments and wildlife are found to be more
active, emotionally strong, and physically healthier.
Job creation: Protecting wildlife creates more jobs.
Cultural significance: The wildlife of Zambia has rooted effects on religion, art,
sculpture and literature. Many mythological stories and children's stories are based on
wildlife.
Pharmaceutical importance: Many modern remedies contain one or more ingredients
derived from a wild plant or animal.
Improving soil health and fertility: Wild animals play a key role in enhancing the
health and fertility of soil by improving its nutrients. Their dung and urine helps replenish
the nutrient content of the soil by providing it with enriching minerals.

3.3 Threats to wildlife

Zambia’s wildlife faces a number of challenges and threats. These include

 Poaching: Poaching is the illegal hunting or killing of wild animals. Poaching is a

serious problem especially for large mammals like Elephants, Rhinos and giraffe are
among endangered species due to poaching.

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 Bush Fires: bush fires not only destroy vegetation, but as wild animals. Bush fires
sometimes kill animals that are unable to escape when they occur. Bush fires also destroy
trees which are habitants to wildlife.
 Climate change: Climate change events like droughts results into the loss of pasture and
drying of rivers which sustains wild animals.
 Tourism: While tourism may sometimes lead to the protection of animals. Noise and
light pollution created by tourist developments does also interfere with game animals.
 Illegal settlements: Nationals parks are not be inhabited by people, but sadly people are
now settling in some parts of national parks.
 Human-wildlife conflict: Once the wildlife animals enter human territory and destroy
properties, threatening survival of humans and crops, the angered inhabitants will sought
vengeance by killing the wildlife.
 The other threats include deforestation, invasive weeds, pollution, diseases etc.

Human-wildlife
conflict

Illegal settlements
Poaching

Threats to
wildlife
Deforestation

Tourism

Invasive weeds

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3.4 What the Zambian government has done to protect wildlife?
Conservation means to prevent waste of a resource. Wildlife conservation can be defined as the
practice of protecting animal species and their habitats. Which includes protecting both the
animals and their habitat?

1. Has established The Department of National Parks & Wildlife (DNPW) which is
mandated under the Zambia Wildlife Act No. 12 of 1998 to manage and conserve
Zambia’s wildlife.
2. Enacting laws which protect wildlife like forbidding poaching or forbidding people to
settle in national parks.
3. Education the public on the importance of wildlife like through the integrating these ideas
into the school curriculum.
4. Designating certain areas as national parks so as to well protecting wildlife.
5. Corroborating with nongovernmental organizations that are concerned with the warfare
of animals. These organization include Nature Conservancy, Game Rangers, World
Wildlife Fund (WWF), United Nations etc.
6. Promotion of eco-tourism: eco-tourism is the development and management of tourism
while conserving the environment/enjoying what nature provides while protecting it.

3.5 Tourism

Tourism refers to the travel of people away from home to other place for recreation, leisure,
religious, family, or business purposes, usually of a limited duration. A physical or cultural
feature of a place that can satisfy tourists’ leisure based need is referred to as destination. There
are two categories of tourism, namely, domestic and international tourism. Domestic tourism
involves travel within the same country while international tourism involves travel outside
country.

Tourism is among the world’s largest industries which prompt regular mass movement of people.
Zambia is among the favorite tourist destination.

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Factors that have contributed to the tourism growth in Zambia

Proximity: Zambia is centrally located i.e. is not very far from the rest of the world.
Favorable Climate: The Zambia's climate is moderate i.e. it is neither too hot nor too
cold.
Political stability: Since her independence in 1964, Zambia has enjoyed political
stability.
Hospitality of the Zambian people: Zambian people are welcoming and friendly, thus
this makes tourists to feel at home and wish to come again.
Numerous tourist attractions: Zambia has many tourist attractions like national parks,
traditional ceremonies, sand beaches etc.
Weak currency: Zambian currency compared with European or Western countries is
very poor or weak.
Advertisement that has been done by the government and the private sectors.
Holiday entitlement in many rich nations has increased over the past century. This
means that people can take more holidays during the year and swells the number of
tourists.
The aid from European countries has also enhanced the tourism development process in
the country

3.6 Tourist attractions and destinations

Any resources, facilities or events that attract tourists to a particular place are called attractions.
People travel to tourist attractions for pleasure, looking for tourist resources, facilities and events
that provide them with entertainment and interest. ‘Destinations’ are larger areas that include a
number of individual attractions together with the support services required by tourists.
Attributes of tourist attractions include quality, authenticity, uniqueness, drawing power, and
activity options.

Zambia is a land of diversity with numerous attractions.

1. Historic resources: Zambia has several historical and archeological spread across it.
Some the historical resources displayed in Table 3.1 below

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 Historical and archeological sites found in Zambia
1. Mumbwa Caves — in Central Province these caves contain burial sites and evidence
of iron smelting and are the site of the Kaonde people's Musaka Jikubi Ceremony
2. Nsalu Cave & Rock Painting, Serenje District — 12,000-year-old rock paintings 30
km north of Kanona.
3. Ing-ombe Ilede, Lusitu, is an archaeological site near the town of Chirundu.
4. Thandwe Rock Shelter, Chipata District, rock paintings.
5. Nyambwezu Rock Shelter, Mwinilunga District, at Nyambwezu Falls, with paintings
similar to Chifubwa Stream Cave, probably about 3,000 years old.
6. Sebanzi Hill, Lochinvar National Park, Monze: 2.7 km WSW of the ranch House, the
site of a large Iron Age Village, apparently occupied by the ancestors of the Tonga
tribe from about A.D. 1100.
7. Niamkolo Church, Mpulungu — the oldest surviving church building in Zambia,
dating from 1895, near Mpulungu on Lake Tanganyika.
8. Fort Monze — 1890s, one of the earliest colonial police posts, 12km SSW of Monze.
9. Chirundu Fossil Forest — 50,000-year-old fossil trees, 21 km west of Chirundu
10. Slave Tree, Ndola − a large fig tree at Moffat Avenue and Livingstone Road, where
slaves were bought and sold by Swahili slave traders.
11. Football Heroes Burial Site, Independence Stadium, Lusaka, where 30 victims of the
1993 Gabon Air Disaster are buried including the 18 members of the Zambia national
football team.
12. Barotse Plains Cultural Landscape in Mongu. Western Province
13. Zambezi Source, Mwinilunga District: source of the Zambezi River and a botanical
reserve, part of Zambezi Source National Forest.

2. Traditional ceremonies: Zambia has a rich cultural heritage and therefore has a number
of cultural sites that could be visited. It holds a number of traditional ceremonies
including the Kuomboka (in the Western Province); Ncwala (in the Eastern Province);
Likumbi Lyamize (in the North Western Province); Shimunenga (in the Southern
Province) and Mutomboko (in Luapula Province).

22
3. Biodiversity: Zambia is also highly endowed with abundant wildlife in both flora and
fauna.
4. Geophysical-landscape: These include mountains, gorges, big rocks, rock formations,
caves, rivers, water bodies, scenic views.
5. Museums. Zambia has six museums which are
o Choma Museum in Choma
o Railway Museum in Livingstone
o David Livingstone Museum in Livingstone
o Copperbelt Museum
o Moto Moto Meseum
o Lusaka Museum (National Heritage)
6. Buildings: Some infrastructure such as lodges, hotels and other pleasure are tourist
attractions.

23
3.7 Impact of tourism
Social impacts

Social impacts are how tourism activities negatively or positive affects the community well
beings of individuals and families.

Social Costs Social Benefits

Brings in outside dollars to support
community facilities and services that May attract visitors whose lifestyles
otherwise might not be developed. and ideas conflict with the
Encourages civic involvement and community's. An example may be the
pride. visitors' use of drugs and alcohol.
Provides cultural exchange between May lead to an increase in sexually
hosts and guests. transmitted diseases.
Encourages the preservation and Loss of traditional values and culture
celebration of local festivals and through imitation of visitor behaviour
cultural events. or cultural diffusion resulting from
Facilities and infrastructure developed normal, everyday interaction.
for tourism can also benefit residents. Acculturation is the process of
Encourages the learning of new modifying an existing culture through
languages and skills. borrowing from the more dominant of
cultures.
May create crowding and congestion.
May compete with residents for
available services, facilities, and
existing recreation opportunities.
Can involve violations of human
rights. People have been displaced from
their land and beaches have been
reserved for hotel guests while access is
barred to local people.

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Environmental impacts

Environmental impact refers to the direct effect of socio-economic activities and natural events
on the components of the environment.

Benefits Costs

 Fosters conservation and  May threaten specific natural

preservation of natural, cultural and resources such as beaches and coral
historical resources. reefs or historical sites.
 Encourages community  May increase litter, noise, and
beautification and revitalization. pollution.
 Could be considered a clean  Brings increased competition for
industry. limited resources such as water and
land, resulting in land degradation,
loss of wildlife habitats and
deterioration of scenery. Tourism
seasonality
 Directly contributes to sewage and
solid waste pollution.
 Emissions generated by forms of
transport are one of the main
environmental problems of tourism.
 Wildlife disturbance effects: Visitors
can intrude upon wildlife in a variety
of ways, from their visual presence
to their movement, noise, and
behaviour.

25
Economic impacts
Economic impacts to the total amount of additional expenditure generated within a defined area,
Benefits
 Helps diversify and stabilize the local
economy.
 Provides governments with extra tax
revenues each year through
accommodation and restaurant taxes,
airport taxes, sales taxes, park entrance
fees, employee income tax etc.
 Creates local jobs and business
opportunities. These include those jobs
directly related to tourism (hotel and
tour services) and those that indirectly
support tourism (such as food
production and housing construction).
 The multiplier effect:
o Brings new money into the
economy. Tourist money is
returned to the local economy as
it is spent over and over again.
o Helps attract additional
businesses and services to
support the tourist industry.
Tourist multiplier effect
 Is labour-intensive.
 Earns valuable foreign exchange.
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Costs
 Tourism development of infrastructure
(airports, roads, etc.) can cost the local
government a great deal of money.
 May inflate property values and prices of
goods and services.
 Leakages:
 If outside interests own the tourism
development, most of the economic
benefits will leave the community.
 Considerable amount of foreign
exchange revenues leaks back out of
the destination countries for tourism-
related imports.
Tourist multiplier effect
 Employment tends to be seasonal. Workers
may be laid off in the winter season.
Tourism seasonality
 Many jobs in the tourism industry are poorly
paid. This is a particular problem in LEDCs
where the local workforce lack the skills to fill
the better paid management positions.
 Tourist numbers can be adversely affected
by events beyond the control of the destination
e.g. terrorism, economic recession. This is a
big problem in LEDC countries dependent on
 tourism.
Tourism dependency

  Tourism follows a "product life

cycle", with a final stage of decline,
where the destination no longer offers
new attractions for the tourist, and the
quality has diminished with the rise of
competition and tourist saturation.

3.8 Challenges the tourism industry

The Zambian tourism faces a number of challenges

 Marketing strategies: The Ministry dealing with trade has had little fairs and exhibition
in the act of marketing the tourist’s destinations.
 Poor transport networks: some of the roads connecting the tourist’s destinations are not
tarmacked or are dilapidated.
 Stiff Competition: competition from other countries with the same attractions
 Shortage of capital to develop tourism industry
 Poaching has led to extinction of some animals

Ways of Addressing the Negative Impact of Tourism

1. Diversification of revenue sources such that when the tourism industry collapses they do
not suffer economic difficulties.
2. Laws and policies should be put in place that ensures the revenue accrued from tourism
benefits the local community and the government in general.
3. Tourists should be directed to obey the culture and traditions of the host communities.
4. Promotion to conserve and preserve the environment.
5. The laws, rules and regulations should be enacted and enforced to combat criminal
incidences, child labour, drug abuse, and prostitution.
6. New tourist attractions should be established and developed so as to reduce pressure
exerted to already established attractions.

27
7. The local people should be involved in tourism activities so that they benefit in
conserving the tourist attractions like wildlife conservation areas, etc.
8. There should be integration of tourist activities with the protection of the environmental
condition through the eco-tourism approach.
9. Promoting Ecotourism: Ecotourism is a form of tourism involving responsible travel to
natural areas, conserving the environment, and improving the well-being of the local
people.
10. Footpath erosion is common in many national parks and steps have to be taken to repair
paths and prevent ugly scars appearing.
Methods of protecting footpaths include:
- marking routes to direct visitors away from sensitive or eroded areas
- fencing off eroded paths for a short time to let them recover
- reinforcing the surface with harder materials, eg re-constructing the path in stone or
gravel

28
Review questions

1. Why are most national parks found in wetland regions?

2. Draw the map of Zambia and indicate two traditional ceremonies in each province.
3. State three reasons why National parks have been established in Zambia.
4. Give three reasons why it is necessary to preserve historical sites.
5. Account for the ecological importance of wildlife.
6. Give four reasons why wildlife conservation is encouraged in Zambia?
7. Differentiate between domestic and international tourism.
8. Account for the tourism potential in Northern Province.

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 Chapter 4

Mining in Zambia and sub-region

4.1 What is mining?

Mining is the extraction of valuable minerals from the earth’s crust. Based on scale, mining can
categorized as either small scale or commercial mining. Small scale mining is the extraction of
materials that cannot be grown or synthesized in the lab such as sand, salt and minerals.
Commercial mining is the large scale extraction of minerals for economic gains. Commercial
mining is a complex process that is beyond extraction of minerals. In reality, mining operation
has five stages as discussed below:

1. Prospecting: This stage relies on secondly sources such as published literature or local
people’s knowledge on the occurrence of minerals.
2. Exploration: This stage involves carrying out measurements and surveys in order know
the amount minerals available. This also involves feasibility studies and impact
assessment studies. In this stage will tell whether a mine should be established i.e. it will
be economic and there will less damage to the environment.
3. Development: Once exploration has proved a mine can yield profit with less social and
environmental impact, then development start. Development, involves acquiring of
mining licenses, designing, construction and putting of machinery.
4. Production: This stage involves the actual mining operations such extraction, processes
and transportations.
5. Closure and reclamation: Mines have limited lifespan. These are two reasons for
closing a mine:
The ore is depleted
Low metal prices make operations unprofitable

Reclamation aims to bring a site to a condition similar to its premining condition.

Modern mining processes involve prospecting for ore bodies, analysis of

the profit potential of a proposed mine, extraction of the desired
materials, and final reclamation of30the land after the mine is closed
4.2 The factors influencing the exploitation of minerals

Mineral exploitation means the act of extracting a mineral resource from a mine with the aim of
producing mineral materials in order to meet different needs and uses. The following are the
factors influencing the exploitation of minerals:

1. Availability of capital: Mining is an expensive venture hence it requires huge capital

investment.
2. Transportation Facilities: For a successful mining transportation facilities are very
essential. Not only for the mining but it is also necessary for mined ores to be
transported at the sites of their use. Ores are relatively bulky and heavy.
3. Technology: Technological changes pertaining to mining methods, manufac-turing
processes and the like may change once worthless deposits are converted into
esteemed commercial ores. The technique of geological survey has now been
changed.
4. Accessibility: The accessibility of a region where the particular mineral deposit
occurs is of great significance. The terrain and climate determine accessibility which
helps or hinders the mining operations.
5. Land tenure: In some areas lands laws and policies may prohibit the extraction of
minerals in some places such as national parks, or forest reserves.
6. Richness or Grade of the Ore: The abundance or otherwise the absence of minerals
determines in a large measure their commercial exploitation.
7. Other Factors: Among other factors (a) cheap labour supply, (b) government policies,
(c) mining method, (d) competition from other sources, (e) Size of Deposit

4.3 Mining methods

Depending on where the minerals and metals are located, there are different ways of extracting
them. Formations in Which Minerals Occur include

Veins and Lodes: Occurrence of minerals in crevices, cracks or faults in igneous rocks.
They are said to occur in veins if they occur there in small quantities e.g Quartz, Chlorite,

31
 Mica. Said to occur in lodes if they occur there in large quantities e.g. zinc, copper and
silver.
Seams/Layers/Beds: Occurrence of minerals as sedimentary or as a result of
compression of accumulated organic or inorganic material e.g. coal and halite.
Alluvial Deposits: Occurrence of minerals while mixed with materials such as sand,
gravel, silt, etc. These were minerals which were detached from the veins by weathering
and carried away by streams and rivers and got deposited e.g. gold, diamond and
platinum.
Weathering Products: Minerals formed by deep weathering of rocks then leaching
carried minerals from the top to lower layers where they accumulated e.g. aluminium,
nickel, iron and manganese.
Oil pools/Wells: Occurrence of minerals in pools or wells in sedimentary rocks e.g.
petroleum and natural gas

There are broadly three mining methods which include surface mining, underground, and placer
mining.

1. Surface mining

Surface mining is a form of mining in which the soil and the rock covering the mineral deposits
are removed. Surface mining is best suited to extract minerals that are close to the surface of the
earth. Types of surface mining

a) Open-pit mining: Mining technique of extracting rock or minerals from the earth by
their removal from an open pit or borrow.
b) Strip mining: Removal of the overlying vegetation, rock, and soil (overburden) above a
layer or seam in order to reach the exposed mineral.
c) Contour strip mining: Mining is a version of strip mining that follows the contours of
outcrops and hilly terrains.
d) Mountaintop removal: A form of coal mining in which the tops of mountains are
literally blasted off to access seams of the exposed mineral.

Take home
Various methods are used in activity depending on the occurrence of
32
the concerned easiness of the method and how cheap it is.
 2. Underground mining

Underground mining is best suited to extract minerals that are located deep under the surface of
the earth. Types of underground mining include:

a) Shaft Method -Method employed when the mineral bearing rock doesn’t out crop.
b) Drift/Adit Mining- Method employed when the mineral deposit can be reached from the
valley sides.

c) Drilling- Method employed in exploitation of petroleum. Oil and natural gas are brought
to the surface under their own pressure or by pumping.
3. Placer mining

Placer mining is the method of separating valuable metals from sediments through sifting. Placer
mining often takes place in riverbeds, sands and environments where there is a natural
accumulation of sediments. Common minerals gathered using placer mining includes platinum,
tin and diamonds.

The other mining methods include panning, by-product processing, and In-situ mining:

33
4.4 Impact of mining

Mine exploration, construction, operation, and maintenance may result in land-use change, and
may have associated both positive and negative impacts on environments, economy and social
aspects.

Benefits of mining

 Royalties and taxes: Mining activities generate revenues for governments through
Royalties and taxes.
 Job creation: The mining process results in the creation of job opportunities for the local
people and attracts other professionals in the market.
 Boost business activities: Mining results in the rise of business activities and the rise of
per capita income.
 Enormous earning: Mining for exportation purposes results in high enormous earnings
to people working in the mines and boosts the financial sector.
 Extract essential sources of energy: Mining results in the extraction of raw materials
like oil, coal, gas, iron ores, and minerals providing efficient use of energy.
 Development of social amenities: Mining in an area facilitates the development of social
services like schools, healthcare, water for the employees working in the area and their
families.
 Development of infrastructure: It leads to the development of the means of transport
and communication in the area. The extracted raw materials need to be transported for
further processing leading to improved means of transport.
 Steer technological development: Advanced mining tools are used to safely create
underground subway tunnels and pipes. Earth-moving technologies and environmental
control systems are also needed to manage water flow, temperature, and airflow in
mining areas.
 Provides essential resources: Mining provides us with essential goods and services for
use in our everyday life like cookware and electronic components.

34
 Spur economic growth: Selling of gold, coal, other mined materials, and job
opportunities boost the economic growth of the country. It leads to the generation of
income to the local government which directly contributes to the economic growth.
 Environmental stewardship: Advanced technological tools are being used in the mining
sector to safeguard environmental impacts. It also promotes environmental awareness
through rehabilitation programs in the mining areas

Cost of mining

 Displacement: The establishment of mines results in the displacement of local natives.

 Inconvenience: Mines disturbs local residents through noise, dusts, water spillage and
smokes
 Diseases: Mining towns become herbs of epidemic diseases such as HIV/AIDs and other
STIs.
 Social disorder: The creation mafia groups such the Jerabos in Zambia.
 Creation of shanty compounds: People conglomerate around mining towns thus, shanty
compounds develop.
 Jobs are not stable: Mining jobs are not stable thus people easily loss employment
 Women aren’t consulted when companies negotiate access to land, compensation or
benefits.
 Deforestation: During Surface mining large portions of land are cleared to pave way for
its operations.
 Pollution: Mining operation releases toxic chemicals which contaminate the land, air and
water.
 Wildlife loss: mining operation through the release of toxic chemical harm wildlife
especially fish.
 Soil degradation: the soil become degraded through erosion, compaction and pollution
 Creation sinkholes: A sinkhole is a depression or hole in the ground caused by some
form of collapse of the surface layer.
 Lead to bad healthy: Chemicals emitted from mining processes such as sulpher dioxide
are harmful to healthy. Also The handling some minerals such are harmful to healthy. For

35
 example exposure to coal mine dust causes disease also known as black lung disease or
black lung.
 Mining accidents: Mines are prone to accidents such as landslides, fires, collapse of the
mine, flooding etc

4.5 Case studies

4.5.1 Copper mining Zambia

Copper is a reddish metal with a face-centered cubic crystalline structure. In moist air it slowly
forms a greenish surface film called patina. The ores, properties and uses of copper are
summarized in table 4.1

Table 4.1 shows the characteristics of copper

Copper ores Chemical Physical properties Uses

 native copper (99.9) 
 Chalcocite (79.9)
 Malachite (57.7)
 Tenorite (79.9)
 Azurite (55.1)
 Cuprite (88.8)
 Chrysocolla (37.9)
properties
good conductor  Reddish-orange  Currency
of electricity and  It is malleable,  Cooking pots
heat  Ductile  Wiring/Electronic
 has low chemical  alloyed to make  Jewelry
reactivity bronze and brass  Military bullets

Copper is found in every continent but the leading mining countries are Chile, Peru, China, the
Democratic Republic of the Congo, the United States, Australia, Russia, Zambia, Mexico, and
Kazakhstan respectively. Copper is mostly mined using open cast while in some areas shaft
methods are used.

There are primary two methods used in copper processing i.e. hydrometallurgy and
Pyrometallurgy. Hydrometallurgy process is less expensive while pyrometallurgy process is
more expensive.

36
Hydrometallurgy

Processing of Oxide Ore. Oxide ores are generally processed using hydrometallurgy. This
process uses aqueous (water-based) solutions to extract and purify copper from copper oxide
ores at ordinary temperatures, usually in three steps:

1. Heap leaching: chemicals such (dilute sulfuric acid) are sprayed though heap to dissolve
copper from the ore.
2. Solvent extraction: This technique of separating copper solvent from other liquids.
3. Electrowinning: Copper is recovered from a solution by means of electrolytic chemical
reaction.

Pyrometallurgy

Processing of Sulfide Ore: Sulfide ores are generally processed using pyrometallurgy. Uses
physical steps and high temperatures to extract and purify copper from copper sulfide ores,
usually in four steps:

1. Froth flotation: The removing of some impurities from copper based on the density
properties.
2. Thickening: Copper is thickened by filtering water.
3. Smelting: Copper concentrate is sent through the smelting furnace (1260°C)
converted into molten liquid
4. Electrolysis: Copper is recovered from a molten by means of electrolytic chemical
reaction.

37
Zambia has a long history of mining, predominantly in copper and cobalt. Zambia also hosts
small-scale gold, coal, manganese and zinc deposits. In recent years, exploration has
significantly expanded throughout Zambia to include prospecting for non-traditional minerals
such as nickel and uranium, with some exploration for diamonds. Zambia is also renowned for
its gemstones and ranks as one of the world’s leading producers of high-quality stones.
Historically, mine development has been concentrated in an area known as Copperbelt Province.
The Copperbelt mines are renowned for their high-grade deposits.

Landmark in mining history

i. The copper mining industry in Zambia as we know it now began in the 1920s.
ii. Although copper had been produced at Kansanshi and Bwana Mkubwa in 1908 and
1911, respectively, the first commercial mine in Zambia was established in Luanshya
in 1928.

38
 iii. The industry was nationalized in 1973 and remained in government hands for just
over 24 years. During this period, the industry experienced a serious decline in
production levels.
iv. The privatization process began in 1996, and by the year 2000, all mining assets had
been sold.
v. Privatization of the mining sector was necessitated by the poor performance of the
sector and the need to attract private investment.

The najor copper mines are shown in the Table 4.2 below:

Table 4.2 shows the main Copper mines in Zambia

Company Mines Type District

Barrick Gold Corporation Lumwana open pit Solwezi
Mopani Copper Mines  Mufulira Mine Underground Mufulira
 Nkana Mine Both underground Kitwe
and open pit
Rokana Mine  Mindola underground Kitwe
Konkola Copper Mines  Nchanga Copper open pit Chingola.
Mines
 Nampundwe Mine Underground Shibuyunji
 The Konkola Mine open pit Chililabombwe
EMR Capital Group  Lubambe copper underground mine Chililabombwe
mine
China Nonferrous Metal  Roan Antelope underground mine Luanshya
Mining Group Copper Mines
First Quantum Minerals  Kalumbila underground mine Kalumbila
 Sentinel mine underground mine Solwezi

39
Challenges facing mining sectors

- Depleting deposites: Old mines are declining in productivity due to the depletion of
deposits.
- Conflict between the mining firms and government. There are despites between
mining firms and the government in terms taxes, worker’s working conditions,
environemental adherance etc.
- HIV/Aids: Mining towns have become a hub of the HIV
- Evironmental pressure: Further exploiatation of mineral is hindered due to
environmental presure such as forbbiding mining in National parks and game reserves.
- Poor perfomace of the economy: Mining is increasling becoming expensive due to the
weak currency.

4.5.2 Gold mining in South Africa gold

Gold has several qualities that have made it exceptionally valuable throughout history. It is
attractive in colour and brightness, durable to the point of virtual indestructibility, highly
malleable, and usually found in nature in a comparatively pure form. The uses of gold include
the production jewelry, electronics and computers, dentistry and medicine, aerospace, medals
and awards. Gold is mined using four different methods placer mining, surface, byproduct
mining and shaft method.

Gold Ore Processing involves the following

- Ore is crushed to a fine powdery dust. Mixed with water until it is fluid mud.
- Cyanide is added to dissolve gold.
- The fluid is runoff with gold dissolved leaving behind waste salts.
- Zinc dust is added to filter gold for solidification.
- Gold sinks as it is denser.
- Gold is smelted and cast into ingots.

40
South Africa is home to some of the world's largest gold mines and accounts for approximately
4.2% of the world's production of the precious metal. Gold was first discovered near Olefins
River travail in 1868. But actual mining began in 1886 at Witwatersrand which is still the major
mining area. The gold in the Witwatersrand Basin area was deposited in ancient river deltas,
having been washed down from surrounding gold-rich greenstone belts to the north and west.
Orange Free State is another gold mining rich area centered on Odendaalsrus. The main mining
area is the Witwatersrand and others are Ogendaalrus and lydenburg. Gold is also found in the
Free State and the North West Province

41
Factors favouring gold mining in South Africa

i. South Africa has large gold reserves

ii. South Africa's gold region is well known and well explored – knowledge of the area
is extensive.
iii. South Africa has a well-developed infrastructure (roads and railway lines) which
assists mines to do business.
iv. The industry has its own local refinery, the globally recognized Rand Refinery.

Challenges of gold mine industry in South Africa

1. Environmental issues: Gold mines, even abandoned ones, are still poisoning thousands
of people in South Africa due to high concentrations of heavy metals, radiation and
contaminated water.
2. Illegal gold mining boom: mining towns are under siege from illicit syndicates who
continue working in abandoned and disused mine tunnels.
3. Electricity and water supply: The industry has experienced costly electricity supply
constraints and water shortages.
4. Skills shortages: The gold mining sector experiences a skills shortage, particularly of
mechanised mining skills.
5. HIV/AIDS: HIV/AIDS has become endemic among South African and migrant mine
workers alike.
6. Depth and temperature: South Africa's gold sector is a world leader in deep-level gold
mining. Deep-level underground mining, however, brings with it risks and hazards which
require constant commitment and adherence to safety and health standards and
procedures. High temperatures and high humidity levels in some underground mines
create difficult working conditions and can decrease productivity.

42
5.5.3 DIAMOND MINING IN SOUTH AFRICA

South Africa is the third world producer of diamond, the first is DRC and the second is the
former USSR. Others are Botswana, Ghana, and Sierra Leone etc. Diamond is the hardest
mineral. In South Africa mining began in 1871 at Kimberly. The methods involved in the mining
process are placer method for alluvial diamond and shaft method for the diamond found in the
deep ground. Diamond is used for making jewels, manufacturing the drilling bits, making cutting
instruments like for cutting glass, diamond dust for polish. Places or areas where diamond is
produced in South Africa are;

- Kimberly cape province

- Transvaal
- Port mus burg
- Orange free states(Pretoria)

Problems facing diamond mining in South Africa

 Price fluctuation in the world market which causes low profit making.
 Labour unrest, no peace, misunderstanding among blacks and whites.
 Shortage of food among workers caused by overpopulation around mining centers.
 Competition from other mining countries.

4.5.4 Coal Mining Zimbabwe

Coal is readily combustible sedimentary rock which was formed from remains of vegetative
matter through the process known as coalification. Coal is classified as a nonrenewable energy
source because it takes millions of years to form. Coal extraction methods vary depending on
whether the mine is an underground mine or a surface mine. Low rank coals, such as lignite and
sub-bituminous coals, are typically softer, friable materials with a dull, earthy appearance; they
are characterized by high moisture levels and a low carbon content, and hence a low energy
content. Higher rank coals are typically harder and stronger and often have a black vitreous
lustre.

43
Grade Carbon (%) application
Anthracite 86%–97%  Mainly used by the metals industry.
 Space fuel
 Domestic fuel
Bituminous 45%–86%  used to generate electricity
 fuel and raw material for making coking coal
 use in the iron and steel industry

Subbituminous 35%–45%  used to generate electricity
 fuel and raw material for making coking coal

Lignite 25%–35%  generate electricity

 small amounts are used in agriculture
 jet fuel
 jewelry

Coal mining in Zimbabwe commenced in 1902 at what was then Wankie Colliery. Zimbabwe’s
coal measures, like those of the Sub-region, are an integral part of the Karoo Sequence deposited
over a 100 year period. Zimbabwe has vast high grade coal deposits occurring as fossilized
carbon. Zimbabwe is entirely reliant on coal for energy, and a substantial portion of the country’s
coal reserves are found in the Hwange district, with the Hwange Colliery Company operating as
the oldest coal mine. Coal is exported in large quantities to neighboring Zambia and Congo
where it is used to smelt copper ore.

44
45
Challenges facing the coal mining

- Climate change treaties: Zimbabwe is signatory to climate change treaties such the COP
21 which require the replacement of fossil like coal.
- Technological factors: Mining industry still drags in terms of technology advance
occurring elsewhere. For example, Riozim’s Sengwa coal mine suffered unsuccessful
recapitalisation and aging equipment.
- Environmental legislation: Environmental laws are stiffening for the mining sector.
Recently, the country has banned coal mining in the national parks.
- Limited exploration: Zimbabwe is endowed with significant coal resources, particularly
in the north-west and southern regions, nonetheless it had less exploration of coal
deposits.
The other challenges include erratic power supply, inefficient rail transportation, the
rising cost of production, constraints in the supply of services, illiquidity in the financial
services sector and difficulties in raising long-term capital are slowing progress.

4.5.5 Oil mining in Angola

Oil is classified as light, medium, heavy or extra heavy. Petroleum’ (oil) is the raw material for
many chemical products that we use in our daily lives, including pharmaceuticals, solvents,
fertilizers, pesticides and plastics. Oil is produced (extracted) using different methods depending
on geology and location. Conventional oil is extracted from underground reservoirs using
traditional drilling and pumping methods. After recovering the oil, it is sent to refineries to create
refined products we use every day, such as gasoline. Crude oil is processed by refining using a
technique called fractional distillation. Petroleum refineries change crude oil into petroleum
products for use as fuels for transportation, heating, paving roads, and generating electricity and
as feedstocks for making chemicals. Natural gas is found with petroleum deposits and is released
when crude oil is brought to the surface.

Petroleum was first discovered in 1955. Angola has become one of the largest exporters of
petroleum in sub-Saharan Africa, and production has nearly tripled since independence. Oil
production in Angola comes almost entirely from offshore fields off the coast of Cabinda and

46
deepwater fields in the Lower Congo Basin. Production is largely concentrated off the coast of
Cabinda, although there is some onshore production near Soyo and Luanda, and prospecting
extends as far south as Kuanza Sul. Major international oil exploration and production
companies active in Angola include Total, Chevron, Exxon Mobil, and BP. Other international
players include ENI and Equinor.

Factors that led to the development of oil mining in Angola

- a high rate of exploration success,

- Relatively low operating costs.
- There are large reserves of petroleum and natural gas, concentrated in the maritime zones
off the Cabinda exclave and the Congo River estuary.
- The quality of the crude oil is generally good, with low sulfur content.
- became a member of Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries in 2007

Challenges facing oil mining in Angola

 Angola imports about 80% of all its refined petroleum products because of the lack of
domestic refining capacity. Angola has one existing refinery in Luanda.
 The increasingly competitive global market and lower oil price environment.
 Years of underinvestment have resulted in a relentless fall in production that is
undermining government finances. For example, the state owned Oil Company Sonangol
is failing to make profits.
 OPEC regulations: OPEC regulations limits of annual production annual out.

47
Review questions

1. Explain the meaning of feasibility studies.

2. Explain why the Witwatersrand region has a lot of gold deposits?
3. Why is illegal mining bad?
4. Account some challenges that small scale mining companies face in Zambia.
5. How did privatization help the mining industry in Zambia?
6. Explain how the establishment Kalumbila Mine benefited the locals?
7. Account how Angola has benefited from its Oil mining industry?
8.

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 Chapter 5

Power and energy in Zambia and sub region

5.1 Hydro power generation

Hydropower utilizes the falling water under the force of gravity to turn turbines and generators
that produce electricity. In order to generate electricity using HEP, a large reservoir is created,
usually by damming a river to create an artificial lake or reservoir. Water is channeled through
tunnels in the dam. The energy of water flowing through the dam's tunnels causes turbines to
turn. Generators convert the kinetic energy into electricity.

5.2 Factors necessary for a selection site for a hydroelectric station

The location a hydroelectric station is very crucial. It is not possible to build a hydroelectric
power plant at a random location as the plant will require specific conditions to be functional.
The following are necessary conditions for putting hydro-power station:

 Sufficient Water: The flow of the water to the place where the dam is located should be
sufficient enough to fill the dam. Hydroelectric dams are usually big, and this makes
them lose a lot of water through evaporation. The flow of the water from the river should
be high enough to accommodate this loss of water without affecting the amount of
electric power produced.
 River Path: The best location for a hydroelectric station should be along the path of a
river. It should be at least at the river canyon or at the place where the river narrows. This
enables the collection of the water or the diversion of the river.
 Geological Structure: The HEP station should be located in a place where the land or
the rock structure on which the dam will be built on is strong enough to hold the weight
and the force of the water in the dam. The walls should have the capability of holding and
sustaining both visible and invisible forces, whether man-made or natural. The rock

49
 structure should have the ability of bearing an earthquake and it should not allow seepage
of water since this weakens the dam. The walls should be waterproof to avoid being
weakened by water.

Advantages of HEP

 During generation there is no fuel that burned, so there is minimal pollution.

 Once the power lines have been installed it is easy to transport.
 Hydro systems can offer multiple co-benefits including water storage for drinking and
irrigation, drought-preparedness, flood control protection, aquaculture and recreational
opportunities.
 HEP produces enough power output, which can meet demands in industry, houses, mines
etc.
 Water in the dam or river is recharged rainfall which is a renewable resource

Disadvantages of HEP


 Results deforestation: The establishments of hydro-power electricity require the
construction of dams, which in turn drains a huge area of forest land.
 Relocation and displacement: The construction of large dams has resulted in the
displacement or resettlements people who inhabit the area to be submerged by water.

Hydro-electricity is the most important energy source in the Zambia after wood fuel contributing
about 10 percent to the national energy supply. There are currently three main electricity
companies in Zambia – the public utility ZESCO (Zambia Electricity Supply Cooperation), the
Copperbelt Energy Corporation (CEC) and the Lusemfwa Electricity Company. Zambia has a
number of potential sites on smaller rivers suitable for local small-scale power generation
especially in the Northern and the North-Western parts of the country because of their
topography, the geology of the ground and the highest rainfall in the country.

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5.3 Challenges and prospect of HEP

HEP has both of challenges as well better future prospects. These are discussed below:

 Climate variability: HEP relies on significant precipitation which in turn recharges rivers.
However, there are times reservoirs for HEP are low due to droughts. This trend results
into low output and shortages of power. The effect of climate change is like to exacerbate
this challenge.
 Fluctuating currency: The poor performing kwacha makes the purchase of equipment
needed for HEP transmission and generation expense.
 Invasive weeds: Invasive weeds like hyacinth at times hinders with the smooth the
generation of electricity.
 The uneven distribution of the population: Zambia’s population is unevenly distributed as
some communities isolated. Further, physical impediments such as swamps, escarpments,

51
 lakes and flood plains makes the distribution of hydro- power a challenge to insolated
communities.
 Unplanned settlements: More than half of the urban dwellers live in scanty, or ghetto
compounds which are mostly unplanned or poorly planned. This creates a challenge in
the proper distribution of electricity to such settlements.
 Growing population and energy consumption: The country’s main electricity distributor
ZESCO is under pressure to meet the electricity demand of the growing population.

5.4 HEP in Southern Africa

Firewood, charcoal and animal wastes are the main energy sources in Southern Africa.
Nonetheless, the region has extensive potential in the renewable energy sector especially hydro-
power due to its abundant natural resources. In some countries like Angola, hydropower
development is considered a priority, as reflected in its energy security policy and the country’s
overall 2025 strategy. The major power stations in Southern Africa include Coborabossa in
Mozambique, North-Kariba in Zambia, South-Kariba in Zimbabwe, Inga in Congo DR, and
Hendricks Verwoerd in South Africa.

Despite its vast natural resources, access to electricity across Africa is limited and unevenly
distributed.

 Hydro-electricity has the potential of alleviating poverty in the Region.

 Hydro-projects could provide basis for industrialization and social and economic
development.
 These benefits include water supply, irrigation, navigation, fisheries and tourism.

 Alternative electricity sources: Zambia mostly relies on hydro-electricity, nonetheless,

other electricity sources such as solar and thermal power gaining momentum. This will
reduce the power shortage which the country at times experiences.

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 Chapter 6

Transport and Communication in Zambia and Sub-Region

6.1 Importance of transport

Transport refers to the activity that facilitates physical movement of goods as well as individuals
from one place to another. Transport is a multidimensional activity whose importance is:

 Historical: Transport modes have played several different historical roles in the rise of
towns.
 Social: Transport modes facilitate access to healthcare, welfare, and cultural or artistic
events, thus performing a social service.
 Political: transport facilities such as roads, rail and rivers serves as political boundaries
which separate districts, provinces and countries.
 Economic: Transport provides employment opportunity to individuals as drivers,
conductors, pilots, cabin crew, captain of the ship, etc.
 Makes available goods to customers: Transport makes possible movement of goods from
one place to another with great ease and speed.

Despite the manifest advantages of transport, its environmental consequences are also
significant. They include air and water quality, noise level and public health. The other
environmental impacts of transport facilities include deforestation, soil erosion, soil compaction
and biodiversity loss.

6.2 Transport modes

The modes of transport can be broadly divided into three categories: Land transport, Water
transport and Air transport. Pipelines, cable transportation, and space transportation are examples
of other modalities. Human-powered transport and animal-powered transport are sometimes
regarded as their own mode, but never fall into the other categories. Means of transport, on the

53
other hand, refers to the transport facilities used to carry people or cargo, according to the chosen
mode (

6.2.1 Rail transport

Rail transport is a means of transferring passengers and goods on wheeled vehicles running on
rails, which are located on tracks. In Zambia two types of trains are found. One is passenger train
and other is goods train. While passenger trains carry both human beings and a limited quantity
of goods, the goods trains are exclusively used for carrying goods from one place to another.

Advantages

 Dependable: The greatest advantage of the railway transport is that it is the most
dependable mode of transport as it is the least affected by weather conditions such as
rains, fog etc. compared to other modes of transport.

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  Larger Capacity: The carrying capacity of the railways is extremely large. Moreover, its
capacity is elastic which can easily be increased by adding more wagons.
 Safety: Railway is the safest form of transport. The chances of accidents and breakdowns
of railways are minimum as compared to other modes of transport.
 Economics: The railways provide greater employment opportunities for both skilled and
unskilled labour.
 Cheaper Transport: It is a cheaper mode of transport as compared to road and air
transport.
 Better Organized: The rail transport is better organised than any other form of transport.
It has fixed routes and schedules. Its service is more certain, uniform and regular as
compared to other modes of transport.

Demerits

 The construction of railways is very difficult and costly in mountainous region whereas it
can be easily done in areas of flat land.
 Monopoly in nature.
 Huge capital required for construction maintenance.
 Lack of Flexibility: Its routes and timings cannot be adjusted to individual requirements.
 It involves much time and labour in booking and taking delivery of goods through
railways as compared to motor transport.
 It involves heavy losses of life as well as goods in case of accident.

Zambia had at least five rail links which include:

a) Zambia Railways Limited with services between Kitwe and Livingstone only.
b) TAZARA Railway from New Kapiri Mposhi to Kasama-Dar es Salaam.
c) Maamba Colliery Railway, Choma to Masuka, built to carry coal.
d) The Mulobezi Railway (also known as Zambezi Sawmills Railway) is a narrow gauge
line constructed to carry timber from Mulobezi to Livingstone.
e) Chipata-Mchinji - connects to Malawi Railways.

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6.2.2 Road Transport

Roads are the means that connect one place to another on the surface of the land. The means of
road transport may be divided into three types’ man driven, animal driven and motor driven.

a) Human Porterage

Human-powered transport is the transport of person(s) and/or goods using human muscle power
by using hand carts, trolleys, bicycles or motorcycles. This mode of transport has merits and
demerits as discussed below:

Merits

 Is capable of traversing various terrains and surfaces.

 Under financial constraints, can be the only viable means of transport.
 Readily available all the time.
 It is the safest means of transport.
 It not affected by congestion
 it has less no harm to the environment
Demerits
 Footpaths increases soil erosion
 It is extremely slow and laborious
 It depends on physical fitness of a person
 It is only suitable for carrying light goods over a short distance.
b) Animal transport

Animal transport involves the use of domesticated animals to carry goods and people on their
back or pull loaded carts (drought animals). Animal transport is predominately used in rural
areas. Oxen and donkeys are widely used in Southern, Eastern, Western and Central
provinces of Zambia.

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 Merits

 Animals are capable of been used in adverse (harsh or hostile) conditions such as
deserts, waterlogged regions.
 Animals are quicker than human
 Animals can sense danger.
 They are safer /accidents are rare.

Demerits

 Animals used are often native to the local region.

 Might not be allowed in some places in towns due to regulations.
 Animals may be attacked by wild animals.
c) Motor driven

Road transport usually refers to motor driven mechanism on the road. A road is an identifiable
route way or path between two or more places. Roads are broadly classified as either metalled
roads or unmetalled. Metalled are those roads which are made up made of bitumen of coal,
cement or concrete and are suitable for every season. Unmetalled road are those road which are
made in the absence of cement and concrete and sometimes made even of sand and laid as
extended roads and are not suitable for every season. Metalled usually comprise of Highways (a
main road, especially one connecting major towns or cities). On the other hand, unmetalled
usually comprise of feeder roads (a smaller roads which connects to a bigger road). The
concentration of roads in a country is measured by road density. Road density is influenced
factors such as economic activities, politics, terrain and resources of a country. This mode of
transport has merits and demerits as discussed below:

Advantages

 Suitable for Short Distance: It is more economic and quicker for carrying goods and
people over short distances.
 It is a flexible mode of transport as loading and unloading is possible at any destination.
It provides door-to-door service.

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  Road and motor transport act as a feeder to the other modes of transport such as railways,
ships and airways.
 It requires low capital investments.
Disadvantages
 Motor transport is not as reliable as rail transport. During rainy or flood season, roads
become unfit and unsafe for use.
 There are more chances of accidents and breakdowns in case of motor transport.
 It is not suited for long distance as it is not economical.
 Transportation of heavy goods or goods in bulk by road involves high cost.

Road transport faces number of challenges such destruction of roads and bridges by floods,
congestions in some urban areas, vandalism, lack of bridges on some roads and limited or no
environmental management during construction. The road network of Zambia is also used
heavily by neighboring countries to provide shorter and reliable path to different ports of Africa.
Another challenge with the road sector is that is overburdened due to low railway usage there is
high degradation of the road network.

6.2.3 Pipelines transport

Pipeline transport is the long-distance transportation of a liquid or gas through a system of pipes.
This mode of transportation is mostly used for transport of crude and refined petroleum products
such as oil and natural gas. However pipelines are also useful for transporting other fluids such
as water, slurry, sewage, and beer. This is the most convenient as well as economical mode of
transport for petroleum as well as natural gas in comparison to road and rail transport, provided
the volume to be transported is large. But the cost of installation and maintenance requires large
capital investment.

Advantages

 complete automation of loading and unloading operations

 Low operating costs, and environmental friendliness.
 Pipelines are ideal for unidirectional flow of goods and inflationary influences have
minimal effect on the transport cost.

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  Pipeline transportation safe and reliable, continuous strong.

Disadvantages
 Pipelines can be the target of vandalism or sabotage.
 Pipeline transportation faces the challenges in steady and smooth operation with need of
constant surveillance and monitoring.
 Pipeline from input the magnitude of the amount of the highest traffic among small, so in
the early field development, the use of pipeline transportation difficulties, but also to
road, rail, sea and land transportation as a transition.
 The construction of pipelines, gas stations and oil storage device has to spend huge
investment.

Zambia’s only oil pipeline is the Tazama pipeline which extends from the Indian Ocean port of
Dar es Salaam, in Tanzania to the industrial city of Ndola, Zambia. TAZAMA stands for
Tanzania Zambia Mafuta. "Mafuta" means "Oil" in Kiswahili. Due to age and lack of regular
maintenance, the Tazama pipeline suffers corrosion and develops leaks from time to time and the
under performance of the Indeni. The Indeni oil refinery in Zambia has suffered from frequent
shutdowns due to insufficient feedstock supply, power outages, lack of maintenance, accidents
and strikes.

6.2.4 Air transport

Zambia has four international airports, five airstrips and five secondary airfields that serve the
domestic and international flights. The main airport is Lusaka Kenneth Kaunda International
Airport. Other smaller airports include Livingstone and Mfuwe, Ndola along with secondary
airfields including Kasama, Kitwe, Chipata, Mongu, Mansa and Solwezi.

Advantages

 Air transport is a fast and efficient system which is especially suited to passenger traffic,
offering comfort and high quality service.
 Air transport involves the use of direct routes.

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  It is suited to high quality, expensive and perishable cargoes for which speed is essential;
aircraft may also carry freight too small to interest the providers of other transport
systems.
 It can often reach areas inaccessible to other modes of transport.
 It offers complete freedom of movement and this provides potentially flexible routes and
services (although most air movements are channelled along strict routes and political
factors may restrict both landing and flight paths).
 It is free from surface hindrances such as inaccessible mountains, dense forests, marshy
lands or flooded areas.
 It is very useful at the time of natural or any other calamities for saving people or
supplying goods of their basic requirements immediately.

Disadvantages

 Air transport is very expensive and as a result of this, it disqualifies all heavy, bulky or
low-value cargoes.
 Aircraft are expensive to build and operate; it requires elaborate provisions in the form of
airport facilities, controlling systems and maintenance.
 It depends on weather conditions and therefore can provide and unreliable services.
 As aircraft becomes larger, the number of airports capable of being used is declining.
This reduces flexibility. There is a growing difficulty of finding suitable sites for airport
building as well.
 Some airports are far away from urban centres and this offsets the advantage of speed and
convenience.

The majority of Zambia’s international passenger and cargo traffic is carried by non-Zambian
airlines including Kenya Airways, Ethiopian Airways, Rwanda Air, Emirates, South African
Airways, Fastjet and SA Airlink. Proflight, a privately owned Zambian-registered airline,
provides international services to Lilongwe and Durban, with domestic services between Lusaka
and Livingstone, Ndola, Mfuwe, Kasama and Solwezi.

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6.2.5 Water transport

Water transport refers to movement of goods and passengers on waterways. Water transport is broadly
grouped as either inland waterways or ocean transport.

Water transport in Zambia is presently not significant although it is critical to some places in the
Western, Northern, and Luapula Provinces where it is one of the main forms of transport. Among
the key harbours and ports in Zambia are Mpulungu on Lake Tanganyika, Mulamba on Zambezi
River, Siavonga on Lake Kariba, Nchelenge on Lake Mweru, and Samfya on Lake Bangweulu.
The country has abundant navigable lakes and rivers but the development of the sector has been
inhibited by challenges such as the presence of rapids and potholes in some rivers, the presence
of invasive weeds, lack of political will and no critical link to railways.

Apart from harbours and ports, Zambia has a wide network of canals which are also inadequately
maintained and as a result are not navigable enough to serve their purpose. Among these canals
is the Rivungu-Shang’ombo canal, which has significant economic impetus to enhance domestic
and international trade with Angola. One notable quest by the Zambian government to improve
inland waterways was in 2010, when Government procured two dredging machines from Finland
at the cost of K7 billion for the rehabilitation and maintenance of canals and channels.

Constraints to air transport

 A relatively small but growing tourist market dependent on African (largely Southern
African) visitors, which in turn is constrained by inadequate tourism infrastructure and
product choices.
 Lack of a fully liberalised air traffic market.
 High airfares and operating costs (the consequence of low passenger numbers).
 A shortage of foreign exchange and unstable exchange rates.
 A shortage of trained aviation personnel particularly in specialist occupations.
 Domestic market airfares are relatively high in comparison with similar routes and
markets in other parts of the world.

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  Bureaucratic restrictions prevent full competition across ground/cargo handling markets.

Water transport

Water transport refers to movement of goods and passengers on waterways. Water transport is
broadly grouped as either inland waterways or ocean transport. The inland water transport is the
system of transport through all navigable rivers, lakes, and man-made canals. Rivers that are
naturally navigable are called natural waterways. Canals and canalized rivers belong to the
category of ‘Artificial Waterways’.

Merits of water transport

 It is a relatively economical mode of transport for bulky and heavy goods.

 It is the cheapest means as compared to other means of transport because it involves no
expenditure on construction other than maintenance.
 It is a safe mode of transport with respect to occurrence of accidents.
 The cost of maintaining and constructing routes is very low as most of them are naturally
made.
 It promotes international trade.

 Cost effective: It is so cheap to send an email to another country than making a phone
call.
 Eliminates the cultural gap: The internet has helped to bridge the gap. People from
different nations can easily communicate with each other, allowing the exchange of
ideas and views.
 Much cheaper and quicker to transfer information around.
 Globalization: The internet has indeed brought people closer, and also helped in
economic growth. It has also brought down geographical and language boundaries.
 More business opportunities: Internet Communication has made it easier for
businesses to be automated allowing customers to contact them 24/7.

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Disadvantages

Overruling cultures: While the internet has made the universe a global village, some cultures
have consumed others.

6.3 Major transport in southern Africa

The Ocean waterways carry a lot of the world’s trade, the majority of the bulky goods, materials,
and passengers pass through ocean waterways from one country to another at the cheapest cost.
Various forms of vessels sail in the high seas. There are a number of shipping ports in Southern
region of Africa which include Durban, Port of East London, Port of Mossel Bay, Port of Port Elizabeth,
Port of Ngqura of South Africa. Tanzania has also sea ports which include Port of Dar es Salaam, Port of
Bagamoyo, Port of Mtwara, Port of Tanga,

1. The passenger Liners: These vessels carry mainly passengers, mails, and highly valued
goods. However, these types of vessels operate on scheduled routes.
2. Cargo Liner: These vessels combined freight with passengers; they also keep to
scheduled routes like the passenger liners. Cargo liners are well suited for the
transportation of perishable goods because of the provision of inbuilt refrigerators in most
of them.
3. Tramps: They are other kinds of vessels used in high areas that are dependent cargo
boats that have no scheduled time and place. These vessels only sail when they have
enough cargo to carry. Tramps are only designed for carrying goods.
4. Oil Tankers and refrigerated Ships: These vessels are only designed for carrying oil
and perishable goods such as fish, meat, dairy products, and wines.

With the exception of Nigeria, sub-Saharan Africa is the region with the lowest density of pipelines in
the world. This is mainly because of the low density of petroleum markets in sub-Saharan Africa.
Transport of products by pipelines is limited to only a few product pipelines. The prominent pipelines
include, East African Crude Oil Pipeline, Chad–Cameroon pipeline, Nembe Creek Trunk Line in
Nigeria, Transnet Pipelines in South Africa and Sumed pipeline in Egypt.

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6.4 Communications modes

64
 CHAPTER 7

PROCESSING AND MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES IN ZAMBIA AND SUB-

REGION

7.1 Manufacturing

Production of goods in large quantities after processing from raw materials to more valuable
products is called manufacturing. Manufacturing belongs to secondary sector in which the
primary materials are processed and converted into finished goods. Major industries of Zambia
include copper mining and processing, construction, emerald mining, beverages, food, textiles,
chemicals, fertilizer and horticulture.

7.2 Importance of manufacturing industries for Zambia

 It helps in modernizing agriculture, reduces heavy dependence on agricultural income by

providing jobs in non-agricultural sectors.
 Industries help in creating jobs and generating more income.
 Export of manufactured goods expands trade and brings in foreign exchange.
 Industrial development brings prosperity to the country.
 It encourages improvement of social service.
 Diversification of the economy; Industries reduce the reliance on one type of product
 It reduces expenses on imports
 It leads to self-sufficiency. The country reduces its reliance on imported goods hence its
economy becomes stable
 Development of transport and communication like roads railway lines, ports etc

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7.3 The textile industry in Zimbabwe

As is the case in other sectors of the economy, manufacturing in Zimbabwe can be divided into
two eras—(i) from independence in 1980 until the late 1990s—a time of expansion, and (ii) from
that time until 2008—a time of crisis and severe decline when the manufacturing sector declined
by more than 30%. The major manufacturing industries include Furniture manufacturing,
Metallurgy, Timber processing, Agro-processing, Textiles & clothing and mineral processing.

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One of the renowned industries in Zimbabwe is the textile industry. The textile and clothing
sub-sectors plays an extremely significant role in Zimbabwe in terms of employment, share in
value addition, foreign exchange earnings and contribution to Gross Domestic Product (GDP).
The sector provides vital commodities such as shirts, trousers, suits, dresses, hats, stockings
and underwear, blankets, towels. Textiles processing of Zimbabwean grown cotton from cotton-
thread spools through the weaving of cloth, to the manufacturing of clothes ready for wear by
consumers.

Spinning process: Spinning is a procedure of producing/converting fiber materials in yarns. On

an initial stage it goes through the blowroom where the size of cotton becomes smaller by the
help of machinery followed by carding.

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Weaving process: Weaving is second level after spinning. Here, the yarn from spinning section
is sent further for doubling and twisting. It is than processed for shifting of yarn in convenient
form of package containing sufficient yarn length.

Dyeing + Printing + Finishing Process: Dyeing as well as printing of fabrics are usually carried
before the application of other finishes to the product in dyeing mills. It provides colour to fabric
and also improves the appearance of it. The product is then converted from woven to knitted
cloth known as finishing. Finishing is specifically carried after dyeing or printing to give a
specific look.

Garment Manufacturing Process: Garment manufacturing is the end procedure converting

semi-finished cloth into finished cloth. There are various steps completed by garment
manufacturing companies for the production of cloth. These processes include- Designing,
Sampling, Costing, Maker Making Cutting, Sewing Washing, Finishing, Packing, Final
Inspection, Dispatch and much more.

The following are the factors that influence the establishment of the textile industry in
Zimbabwe:

 Sufficient power: Like any other industry cotton textile industry also requires constant
and cheap sources of power. Zimbabwe has two major electricity plants which include
Hwange thermal plant and kariba South hydro-eclectic power station.
 Raw Material: The country has sufficient raw materials which are provided by the
agricultural sector.
 Labour: Basically, cotton textile industry was a labour-intensive industry. The
Zimbabwe clothing worker is highly skilled and able to produce clothing to world
standard requirements and importantly at competitive prices.
 Markets: the central location and landlockedness of Zimbabwe provide a marketing
advantage of which it can supply to the region.
 Infrastructure: Zimbabwe has relatively good infrastructure such as the Trans-African
Highway road and the rail network.

Textile manufacturing was once an important industry in Zimbabwe. But the clothing lines
became uncompetitive in the face of cheap imports, which flooded the market.
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The period between 2000- 2010 has been difficult for the textile and clothing sectors. This sector
saw a number of companies closing and a number of people employed by this sector losing their
jobs. The other challenges in the Zimbabwe textile industry include:

- Design capabilities: Most of the garment manufacturers have no designers to speak of,
especially in men's garments.
- Technology and productivity: In most of the firms have outdated plant and machinery
to a few companies that can boast of the most modern plant by any standards. Thus, there
are problems of low production quality because of old machinery.
- Poor economic performance: the weak economy meant that textile industry was poor
funded, thus its performance declined.
- Other challenges: Other challenges include raw material sourcing since there are no
local suppliers of fabric, high wage bills and illegal imports.

Many local textile and apparel manufacturers are calling for government support to ban cheap
polyester knitted fabric and finished blankets entering the country, and to adjust the tariffs.
Zimbabwe’s government has also banned the import of second-hand clothing, and proposed to
introduce a ‘manufacturers’ rebate duty’ on critical inputs imported by approved textile
manufacturers covering spare parts, yarns and unbleached fabrics, among others. This has been
made possible by a number of factors including improved training of labour, improvements in
production programming and reducing the varieties and styles produced in the production runs.

7.4 Iron and Steel Industry in South Africa

The iron and steel Industry is the basic industry since all the other industries — heavy, medium
and light, depend on it for their machinery. Steel is needed to manufacture a variety of
engineering goods, construction material, defence, medical, telephonic, scientific equipment and
a variety of consumer goods. Iron and steel is a heavy industry because all the raw materials as
well as finished goods are heavy and bulky entailing heavy transportation costs. Iron ore, coking
coal and lime stone are required in the ratio of approximately 4: 2: 1. Some quantities of
manganese, are also required to harden the steel.

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 Processes of Manufacture of Steel

Blast furnace pig iron

Iron ore is melted. Molten material is

Transport of the raw Limestone is fluxing poured into moulds
material to the plant material which is added. called pig
Slag is removed. Coke is
burnt to heat the ore

Shaping metal Steel making

Pig iron is further purified by

Rolling, casting,
melting and oxidizing the
pressing and forging
impurities. Manganese,
Nickel, chromium are added

The South African iron ore cluster is geographically split into two halves, with the more iron
focused players operating in the East served by the ports of Cape Town and Port Elizabeth and
more diversified locals in the west, served by the port of Durban. South Africa is the largest steel
producer in Africa, producing 52% of the total crude steel production of the continent. In South
Africa steel plants are located at Transvaal and New Castle. key players in the South African iron
and steel industry include AMSA, Scaw Metals Group, Cape Gate (Pty) Limited, Columbus
Stainless (Pty) Limited, South Africa Steelworks, and Unica Iron and Steel (Pty) Limited.

FACTORS that influence iron and steel

- The country is politically stable

- has a well-capitalized banking system
- well-developed regulatory systems as well as research and development capabilities,

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 - an established manufacturing base,
- The country has six ports that transport ores.
- South Africa’s educational institutions offer advanced training. Witwatersrand, School of
Mining Engineering provides mining-specific degrees.
- Growing domestic and regional demand for steel products.

The largest steel end user industries in South Africa are the building and construction and
manufacturing sectors.

Challenges of the iron and steel industry

- Rail Infrastructure: South Africa has not improved its rail infrastructure since 1980.
The inefficient rail network with insufficient capacity inflates these transport costs, thus
hindering companies’ competitiveness in international markets.
- LABOR RELATIONS: Strikes are common,
- High production costs due to inefficiencies and the country’s ageing plants caused in part
by a lack of investment.
- The increases in electricity and gas prices, high rail and port charges and the fact that
adequate amounts of affordable scrap metal are not available all contribute to the difficult
conditions.

Recent developments that have occurred in the South African iron and steel industry is the
introduction of the electric furnace. Image result for advantages of electric furnace in steel
production

Advantages of electric arc furnaces

 capabable of producing the full range of steel grades.

 Does not dependent on a particular type of charge (scrap, sponge, iron, pig iron, hot
metal),
 Low capital outlay.
 Melting process can be programmed and automated.
 High efficiency and flexibility.

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7.5 Automobile Industry in Kenya

Automobiles provide vehicle for quick transport of good services and passengers. The
Automotive industry in Kenya is primarily involved in the assembly, retail and distribution of
motor vehicles. There are a number of motor vehicle dealers operating in the country. Kenya's
Automotive Sector is well established, compared to its East African counterparts. Dating back to
the 1960s with the local assembly of the Volkswagen Beetle, the Sector has grown to 5 major
assemblers. Kenya is currently attempting to completely build its own cars. The majority of the
motor vehicle assemblers are in Nairobi and Mombasa. The other centers are found in Eldoret,
Kisumu and Lodwar.

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Major assemblers

- General Motors East Africa (GMEA) - Nairobi

- Associated Vehicle Assemblers Ltd (AVA). – Mombasa
- Associated Motors (AM) - Nairobi
- Toyota Kenya Ltd (TKL)- Mombasa
- TVS Motors Kenya- - Nairobi
- DT Dobie for Volkswagen - Nairobi
- Transafrica Motors Ltd-Mombasa

Factors that favours the development of automotive industry in Kenya

 There is a big market for vehicles in the East Africa Community and COMESA regions.
 Coastal location makes it easy Kenya to receive vehicles parts from overseas.
 Long history of industrialization and business activities of overseas Indians.
 The Kenyan automotive strategy is drafted with a strong private initiative.
 Duty-free export to EAC’s member countries is beginning via the customs union
agreement (however, the market size of neighboring countries is not very big).
 Kenya faces no foreign exchange problem.

Challenges facing the Kenyan automotive industry in Kenya

- The established dealers face intense competition from imported second-hand vehicles,
mainly from Japan and United Arab Emirates.
- Another issue is that there is more demand for second-hand vehicles rather than new ones
because Kenya is generally a lower middle-income country.
- Keeping up with changing technology.

The Kenya Motor Industry Association (KMI), the representative body of the corporate
participants in the motor industry, has been lobbying hard to reverse this trend. There are
investment opportunities in assembling of motor vehicle components.

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7.6 Malawi processing in Malawi
Malawi was the first country in Africa to grow tea on a commercial scale, which started at
Mulanje in the 1880s. It is also the second largest tea producer in Africa after Kenya and
produces approximately 10% of African tea. Tea is one of the country’s most important
industries and main export crops. The tea industry is the largest formal sector employer in
Malawi. The types of tea include Flavored teas, Specialty teas, White Tea etc.

The main buyers of Malawi tea, including traders, packers, and retailers, are involved, and the
main development organizations, certification schemes, civil society actors, and trade unions in
the sector are engaged in the program. Tea factories are abundant in Malawi and are among the
prime consumers of electricity in the country. Most of the estates are owned by foreign
companies and are based in the districts of Mulanje and Thyolo the principle tea growing regions
in the South (East) of Malawi. Shire highlands are a leading tea producing region in the country.

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Factors that favour Tea production in Malawi

- Impressive terrains and favorable weather that supports growth of tea.

- tropical
- it has tropical climate suitable for growing tea
- it has Nutrient rich soil

Tea processing

The Malawi Tea 2020 program actively involves stakeholders from every part of the tea value
chain.

1. Plucking: Tea leaves and flushes, which include a terminal bud and two young leaves,
are picked from tea plant bushes typically twice a year during early spring and early
summer or late spring.
2. Withering / wilting: Withering is used to remove excess water from the leaves and
allows a very slight amount of oxidation.
3. Disruption: The leaves may be lightly bruised on their edges by shaking and tossing in a
bamboo tray or tumbling in baskets.
4. Oxidation: For teas that require oxidation, the leaves are left on their own in a climate-
controlled room where they turn progressively darker.
5. Fixation / kill-green: heating tea leaves, in order to stop the tea leaf oxidation at a
desired level.
6. Sweltering / yellowing: Unique to yellow teas, warm and damp tea leaves from after kill-
green are allowed to be lightly heated in a closed container, which causes the previously
green leaves to turn yellow.
7. Rolling / shaping: The damp tea leaves are then rolled to be formed into wrinkled strips,
by hand or using a rolling machine which causes the tea to wrap around itself.
8. Drying: Drying is done to finish the tea for sale. This can be done in a myriad of ways
including panning, sunning, air drying, or baking. Baking is usually the most common.
9. Aging / curing: While not always required, some teas require additional aging,
fermentation, or baking to reach their drinking potential.
10. Sorting: Tea sorting can help remove physical impurities, such as stems and seeds.

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Challenges

- 60% of people working as laborers and those living around the estates are illiterate and
this perpetuates the cycle of poverty.
- High prevalence rate of HIV/AIDS, which has decimated the labor force.
- Low wages paid to workers on tea estates incite tensions in terms of social and economic
responsibilities in both tea production and procurement.
- Harassment and sexual discrimination remains a challenge in all estates and women are
victims.
- The Malawian government renders minimal support to tea farmers.
- Malawi is highly vulnerable to climate change, which affects where and how tea can be
grown.
-

7.7 Industrial Pollution and Environmental Degradation

Although industries contribute significantly to Sub-region’s economic growth and development,

the increase in pollution of land, water, air, noise and resulting degradation of environment that
they have caused, cannot be overlooked. Industries are responsible for four types of pollution: (a)
Air (b) Water (c) Land (d) Noise. The polluting industries also include thermal power plants.

1. Air pollution is caused by the presence of high proportion of undesirable gases, such as
sulphur dioxide and carbon monoxide.
2. Water pollution is caused by organic and inorganic industrial wastes and affluents
discharged into rivers.
3. Thermal pollution of water occurs when hot water from factories and thermal plants is
drained into rivers and ponds before cooling.
4. Noise pollution not only results in irritation and anger, it can also cause hearing
impairment, increased heart rate and blood pressure among other physiological effects.

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7.8 Control of Environmental Degradation

Here are some ways through which industrial pollution can be reduced:

 Minimising the use of water by reusing and recycling it.

 Harvesting rainwater to meet water requirements.
 Treating hot water and effluents before releasing them in rivers and ponds.
 Particulate matter in the air can be reduced by fitting smoke stacks to factories with
electrostatic precipitators, fabric filters, scrubbers and inertial separators.
 Smoke can be reduced by using oil or gas instead of coal in factories.
 Machinery can be redesigned to increase energy efficiency and reduce noise.
 Machinery and equipments can be fitted with silencers to prevent noise pollution.

 nt noise pollution.

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