GAS EXCHANGE

1. GAS EXCHANGE
I. Gas exchange is the uptake of molecular oxygen from the environment and the discharge of carbon dioxide to
the environment.
II. It is often called respiratory exchange or respiration but it should not be confused with cellular respiration.
III. Oxygen is needed in tissues for aerobic cellular respiration to occur and extract ATP from food.
IV. Carbon dioxide must be released to prevent physiological pH in tissues from being very acidic. In plants,
however, the carbon dioxide that is released as a by-product of cellular respiration may again be taken
up for the process of photosynthesis.
2. Some basic principles influencing gas exchange:
I. The respiratory surface or organ is part of an animal’s body where gases are exchanged with the environment.
To allow for gas exchange, it must be moist, large enough, and protected from desiccation.
II. Respiratory systems rely on the diffusion of gases down pressure gradients.
A. Partial pressures for each gas in the atmosphere can be computed; for example, the partial pressure
of oxygen is 160 mm Hg.
B. Fick’s Law states that the amount of diffusion of a gas across a membrane is proportional to the
surface area and the difference in partial pressure between the two sides and inversely proportional
to the thickness of the membrane.
III. Surface-to-volume ratio
A. As an animal grows, the surface area increases at a lesser rate than its volume, making diffusion of
gases into the interior more difficult
B. Animals must have a body design that keeps internal cells close to the surface (e.g. flatworms) or
must have a system to move the gases inward.
IV. Ventilation
A. It refers to the movement of the respiratory medium (air or water) over the respiratory surface.
B. Bony fish moves the gill covers (operculum) for water-carrying oxygen to flow across the gill.
C. Humans move the muscles of the thorax to expand and contract the chest cavity and move air in and
out of the lungs.
V. Respiratory Pigments or Proteins
A. Adaptations of animals for gas exchange include respiratory pigments that bind and transport gases.
B. The respiratory pigment of vertebrates is hemoglobin while that of invertebrates ( e.g. arthropods and
mollusks) is hemocyanin.
C. Blood cannot carry sufficient oxygen and carbon dioxide in dissolved form to meet the body’s
requirements; hemoglobin helps enhance its capacity.
3. Describe structures for gas exchange in plants:
I. Stomates in leaves
II. Lenticels in stems
III. Root hairs in aerial roots
IV. Pneumatophores or the lateral roots of mangroves
4. Describe respiratory surfaces or organs in invertebrates:
I. Cell surface or cell membrane – especially used in unicellular organisms
II. Integumentary exchange – refers to the general body surface or skin used by animals with a high surface-to-
volume ratio; e.g. flatworms and earthworms. Amphibians also use their skin in addition to their lungs as
a gas exchange surface
III. External Gills – used by invertebrates that live in aquatic habitats; gills are highly folded, thin-walled,
vascularized epidermis that projects outward from the body; e.g. crayfish, lobster, sea star, nudibranch
IV. Tracheal system in arthropods – utilizes fine air-conducting tubules to provide gaseous exchange at the
cellular level; it is not dependent on a circulatory system; e.g. insects, spiders
5. Describe respiratory surfaces in vertebrates:
I. External Gills – thin, vascularized epidermis that project from the body surface of a few amphibians; e.g. larval
salamander
II. Internal Gills – rows of slits or pockets in adult fishes positioned at the back of the mouth such that water that
enters the mouth can flow over them as it exits just behind the head.
A. Water flows over the gills and blood circulates through them in OPPOSITE DIRECTIONS.
B. This mechanism, called countercurrent flow, is highly efficient in extracting oxygen from water,
whose oxygen content is lower than air.
III. Lungs – internal respiratory surfaces shaped as a cavity or sac; lungs provide a membrane for gaseous
exchange; since they are not in direct contact with all other parts of the body, lungs require a circulatory
system to transport gases to the rest of the body; found in birds, reptiles, and mammals.
A. Air moves by bulk flow into and out of the lung.
B. Gases diffuse across the inner respiratory surfaces of the lungs.
C. Pulmonary circulation allows the diffusion of dissolved gases across lung capillaries
 D. In body tissues, oxygen diffuses from blood → interstitial fluid → cells; the pathway of carbon dioxide
is in reverse
E.All lungs receive deoxygenated blood from the heart and return oxygenated blood to the heart.

6. Compare breathing mechanisms in vertebrates:

I. Amphibians ventilate their lungs by positive pressure breathing which forces air down the trachea.
II. Birds use a system of air sacs as a blower to keep air flowing through the lungs in one direction only,
preventing the mixing of incoming and outgoing air.
III. Mammals ventilate their lungs by negative pressure breathing which pulls air into the lungs when the volume
of the lungs expands as the rib muscles and diaphragm contract. However, the incoming and outgoing air mix, decreases
the efficiency of ventilation.

7. Describe the human respiratory system:

I. Air enters or leaves the respiratory system through nasal cavities where the air is filtered by hair and cilia,
warmed by blood vessels, and moistened with mucus.

8. Discuss the coordination of gas exchange and circulation:

I. Oxygen Transport
A. Oxygen diffuses down a pressure gradient from the lungs into the blood plasma → red blood cells →
binds to hemoglobin (4 molecules per hemoglobin to form oxyhemoglobin).
B. Hemoglobin gives up its oxygen in tissues where the partial pressure of oxygen is low, blood is
warmer, partial pressure of carbon dioxide is higher, and pH is lower; these four conditions occur in
tissues with high metabolism
II. Carbon Dioxide Transport
A. Carbon dioxide diffuses down its partial pressure gradient from the tissues into the blood plasma
and red blood cells → air in alveoli.
B. Seven percent is dissolved in plasma, 23% binds with hemoglobin to form carbaminohemoglobin,
and 70% is in bicarbonate form.
C. Bicarbonate and carbonic acid formation is enhanced by the enzyme carbonic anhydrase, which is
located in the red blood cells.
III. Coordination of airflow with blood flow:
A. Gas exchange in the alveoli is most efficient when airflow equals the rate of blood flow.
B. Local controls within the lungs correct imbalances in air and blood flow by constricting or dilating both
bronchioles and arterioles.
9. Explain the control of respiration in vertebrates:
I. The nervous system controls oxygen and carbon dioxide levels for the entire body by regulating the rate and
depth of breathing.
II. The brain monitors the pH of the cerebrospinal fluid through sensors (reflecting carbon dioxide concentration
in the blood).
III. Secondary control is exerted by sensors in the aorta and carotid arteries that monitor blood levels of oxygen
as well as carbon dioxide (via blood pH).
10. Describe some respiratory adaptations to extreme conditions such as low-oxygen environments:
I. Animals that inhabit high altitudes have larger hearts and lungs, and hemoglobin with a high affinity for
binding oxygen.
II. Many diving animals have unusually high hematocrits (ratio of the volume of packed red blood cells to the
volume of whole blood) and also muscles with high amounts of myoglobin (an oxygen-binding protein
found in muscle cells)
11. Cite some respiratory problems and their impact on public health:
I. In a respiratory disorder like asthma, the muscles around the bronchioles contract more than usual, increasing
resistance to airflow.
II. Emphysema is an abnormal condition of the lungs marked by decreased respiratory function; associated with
smoking or chronic bronchitis or old age.
III. Smoking tobacco products is one of the leading global causes of death and is strongly linked to cancer,
cardiovascular disease, stroke, and emphysema.
IV. Pneumonia is an infectious disease involving inflammation and fluid buildup in the lungs.

WORKSHEET 7
Questions
1. Why is the position of lung tissues within the body an advantage for terrestrial animals?
2. After a heavy rain, earthworms come to the surface. How would you explain this behavior in terms of an earthworm’s
requirements for gas exchange?
3. How does an increase in the carbon dioxide concentration in the blood affect the pH of the
cerebrospinal fluid?