UNIT 5

BUOYANCY AND STABILITY

Whenever an object is floating in a fluid or when it is completely submerged in the fluid, it is subjected
to a buoyant force that tends to lift it upward, helping to support it. Buoyancy is the tendency of a fluid
to exert a supporting force on a body placed in the fluid. There is need to understand the concept of
buoyancy and make calculations to determine the net forces exerted on objects immersed in fluids or
the position of an object when it is floating. Also, the need to learn about the stability of floating or
submerged bodies to ensure that they will stay in the preferred orientation even when subjected to
external forces that tend to tip them over.
Stability the ability of a body in a fluid to return to its original position after being tilted about a
horizontal axis.
BUOYANCY
A body in a fluid, whether floating or submerged, is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the
fluid displaced. The buoyant force acts vertically upward through the centroid of the displaced volume.
𝑭𝒃 = 𝜸𝒇 𝒗𝒅 (1)

Where
𝐹𝑏 = Buoyant force
𝛾𝑓 = Specific weight of the fluid

𝑣𝑑 = Displaced volume of the fluid

When a body is floating freely, it displaces a sufficient volume of fluid to just balance its own weight.
The analysis of problems dealing with buoyancy requires the application of the equation of static
equilibrium in the vertical direction, ∑ 𝑭𝒗 = 0, assuming the object is at rest in the fluid. The following
procedure is recommended for all problems, whether they involve floating or submerged bodies.
Procedure for Solving Buoyancy Problems
1. Determine the objective of the problem solution. Do you want to determine a force, a weight,
a volume, or a specific weight?
2. Draw a free-body diagram of the object in the fluid. Show all forces that act on the free body
in the vertical direction, including the weight of the body, the buoyant force, and all external
forces. If the direction of some force is not known, assume the most probable direction and
show it on the free body.
3. Write the equation of static equilibrium in the vertical direction, ∑ 𝑭𝒗 = 0, assuming the positive
direction to be upward.
4. Solve for the desired force, weight, volume, or specific weight, remembering the following
concepts:
a. The buoyant force is calculated from Fb = 𝜸fVd.
b. The weight of a solid object is the product of its total volume and its specific weight;
that is, w = 𝜸V.
c. An object with an average specific weight less than that of the fluid will tend to float
because w < Fb with the object submerged.

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 d. An object with an average specific weight greater than that of the fluid will tend to
sink because w > Fb with the object submerged.
e. Neutral buoyancy occurs when a body stays in a given position wherever it is
submerged in a fluid. An object whose average specific weight is equal to that of the
fluid is neutrally buoyant.
Example Problem 1: A cube 0.60 m on a side is made of bronze having a specific weight of 88.9
kN/m3. Determine the magnitude and direction of the force required to hold the cube in equilibrium
when completely submerged (a) in water and (b) in mercury. The specific gravity of mercury is 13.54.
Solution
Consider part (a) first. Imagine the cube of bronze submerged in water
do Step 1 of the procedure
Assuming the bronze cube will not stay in equilibrium by itself, some external force is required. The
reason is to find the magnitude of this force and the direction in which it would act that is, up or down.
Step 2
Draw a free body diagram of the cube, showing the three forces acting on the cube in the vertical
direction as shown in fig. 1

• The weight of the cube w, acting downward through its center of gravity
• The buoyant force Fb, acting upward through the centroid of the displaced volume
• The externally applied supporting force Fe

(a)Force acting on the cube (b) Two-dimensional body-free diagram

Figure 1 Free-body diagram of a cube

Step 3
Assuming positive force is acting upward, then the equation will be
∑ 𝐹𝑣 = 0

𝐹𝑏 + 𝐹𝑒 − 𝑤 = 0 (2)

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Step 4
solve this equation algebraically for the desired term,
𝐹𝑒 = 𝑤 − 𝐹𝑏 (3)
Calculate w,
w = 𝛾𝐵 V
V = (0.60)3 = 0.60 x 0.60 x 0.60 = 0.216 m3
w = 𝛾𝐵 V = 88.9 x 0.216=19.20 kN
Find buoyant force Fb
Fb = 𝛾fVd
In this case 𝛾f is the specific weight of the water (9.81 kN/ m3), and the displaced volume Vd is equal
to the total volume of the cube, which we already know to be 0.216 m3. Then, we have

Fb = 𝛾fVd = 9.81 x 103 x 0.216 =2.12 kN

Now we can find Fe
𝐹𝑒 = 𝑤 − 𝐹𝑏 = 19.20−2.12=17.08 kN
Notice that the result is positive. This means that our assumed direction for Fe was correct. Then the
solution to the problem is that an upward force of 17.08 kN is required to hold the block of bronze in
equilibrium under water.
(b) In mercury

(a) Assuming cube would sink (b) Assuming cube would float
Figure 2 Two possible free-body diagrams

Either of the two free-body diagrams is correct as shown in Fig. 2, depending on the assumed direction
for the external force Fe. The solution for the two diagrams will be carried out simultaneously so you
can check your work regardless of which diagram looks like yours, and to demonstrate that either
approach will yield the correct answer.

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The following are the correct equations of equilibrium. Notice the differences and relate them to the
figures:

𝐹𝑏 + 𝐹𝑒 − 𝑤 = 0 ∕ 𝐹𝑏 −𝐹𝑒 − 𝑤 = 0
Now, solve for Fe.
𝐹𝑒 = 𝑤 − 𝐹𝑏 ∕ 𝐹𝑒 = 𝐹𝑏 − 𝑤
w =19.20 kN
Fb = 𝛾mVd

𝛾m= 13.54 x 9.81 =132.83 kN/m3

Fb = 𝛾mVd = 132.83 x 103 x 0.216 =28.69 kN
𝐹𝑒 = 𝑤 − 𝐹𝑏 ∕ 𝐹𝑒 = 𝐹𝑏 − 𝑤

Fe = 19.20 − 28.69 = −9.49 𝑘𝑁 ∕ Fe =28.69 – 19.20 = +9.49 kN

Notice that both solutions yield the same numerical value, but they have opposite signs. The negative
sign for the solution on the left means that the assumed direction for Fe in Fig. 2(a) was wrong.
Therefore, both approaches give the same result.
The required external force is a downward force of 9.49 kN
Because the specific weight of the cube is less than that of the mercury, it would tend to float without
an external force. Therefore, a downward force, as pictured in Fig. 2(b), would be required to hold it in
equilibrium under the surface of the mercury.
Problem 2: A brass cube 0.8 m on a side weighs 900 N. We want to hold this cube in equilibrium under
water by attaching a light foam buoy to it. If the foam weighs 3.64 kN/m3, what is the minimum required
volume of the buoy?
Solution

Figure 3 Free-body diagram for brass and foam together

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Calculate the minimum volume of foam to hold the brass cube in equilibrium
The equilibrium equation is
∑ 𝐹𝑣 = 0

𝑭𝒃𝑩 + 𝑭𝒃𝑭 − 𝒘𝑩 − 𝒘𝑭 = 𝟎
𝑤𝐵 = 900 N

𝛾𝐹 = 3.64 𝑘𝑁/𝑚3

𝛾𝑤 = 9.81 𝑘𝑁/𝑚 3

𝑉𝑑𝐵 = 0.8 × 0.8 × 0.8 = 0.512 𝑚 3

𝐹𝑏𝐵 = 𝛾𝑤 𝑉𝑑𝐵 = 9.81 x 103 x 0.512 = 5022.7 = 5.02 kN
𝑤𝐹 = 𝛾𝐹 𝑉𝑑𝐹
𝐹𝑏𝐹 = 𝛾𝑤 𝑉𝑑𝐹
FBb + FBf − wB − wF = 0
5022.7 + 𝛾𝑤 𝑉𝑑𝐹 − 900 − 𝛾𝐹 𝑉𝑑𝐹 = 0
𝛾𝑤 𝑉𝑑𝐹 − 𝛾𝐹 𝑉𝑑𝐹 = 5022.7 − 900
(𝛾𝑤 − 𝛾𝐹 )𝑉𝑑𝐹 = 4122.7
4122.7 4122.7
𝑉𝑑𝐹 = (𝛾 = (9.81−3.64)103 = 0.668 m3
𝑤 −𝛾𝐹 )

This means that if 0.668 m3 of foam were attached to the brass cube, the combination would be in
equilibrium in water without any external force. It would be neutrally buoyant.
BUOYANCY MATERIALS
The design of floating bodies often requires the use of Lightweight materials that offer a high degree of
buoyancy. In addition, when a relatively heavy object must be moved while submerged in a fluid, it is
often desirable to add buoyancy to facilitate mobility. The buoyancy material should typically have the
following properties:
a. Low specific weight and density
b. Little or no tendency to absorb the fluid
c. Compatibility with the fluid in which it will operate
d. Ability to be formed to appropriate shapes
e. Ability to withstand fluid pressures to which it will be subjected
f. resistance and damage tolerance
g. Attractive appearance
Foam materials are popular for buoyancy applications. They are made up of a continuous network of
closed, hollow cells that contain air or other light gases to yield the low specific weight. The closed
cells also ensure that the fluid is not absorbed. The following tests are performed to evaluate the
performance of foams: density, tensile strength, tensile elongation, tear strength, compression set,
compressive deflection, thermal stability, thermal conductivity, and water absorption. The details of the
tests are prescribed in ASTM D 3575, Standard Test Methods for Flexible Cellular Materials Made
from Olefin Polymers. Other standards apply to other materials.

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STABILITY OF COMPLETELY SUBMERGED BODIES
A body in a fluid is considered stable if it will return to its original position after being rotated a small
amount about a horizontal axis. Two familiar examples of bodies completely submerged in a fluid are
submarines and weather balloons.
It is important for these kinds of objects to remain in a specific orientation despite the action of currents,
winds, or manoeuvring forces.
Condition of Stability for Submerged Bodies
The condition for stability of bodies completely submerged in a fluid is that the center of gravity of the
body must be below the center of buoyancy.
The center of buoyancy of a body is at the centroid of the displaced volume of fluid, and it is through
this point that the buoyant force acts in a vertical direction. The weight of the body acts vertically
downward through the center of gravity.
The sketch of an undersea research vehicle shown in Fig. 4 has a stable configuration due to its shape
and the location of equipment within the structure. Figure 4(a) shows the approximate cross-sectional
shape of the vehicle with the cg and the cb shown in their respective positions along the vertical
centerline of the hull. Figure 4(b) shows the hull with some angular displacement with the total weight
w acting vertically downward through the cg and the buoyant force Fb acting vertically upward through
the cb. Because their lines of action are now offset, these forces create a righting couple that brings the
vehicle back to its original orientation, demonstrating stability. If the cg is above the cb, the couple
created when the body is tilted would produce an overturning couple that would cause it to capsize.
Solid, homogeneous objects have the cg and cb coincident and they exhibit neutral stability when
completely submerged, meaning that they tend to stay in whatever position they are placed.

(a) Normal orientation (b) Tilted position showing couple that will “
right” the sub.
Figure 4 Stability of a submerged submarine.
STABILITY OF FLOATING BODIES
The condition for the stability of floating bodies is different from that for completely submerged bodies;
the reason is illustrated in Fig. 5, which shows the approximate cross section of a ship’s hull. In part (a)
of the figure, the floating body is at its equilibrium orientation and the center of gravity (cg) is above
the center of buoyancy (cb). A vertical line through these points will be called the vertical axis of the

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body. Figure 5(b) shows that if the body is rotated slightly, the center of buoyancy shifts to a new
position because the geometry of the displaced volume has changed. The buoyant force and the weight
now produce a righting couple that tends to return the body to its original orientation. Thus, the body is
stable. To state the condition for stability of a floating body, we must define a new term, metacenter.
The metacenter (mc) is defined as the intersection of the vertical axis of a body when in its equilibrium
position and a vertical line through the new position of the center of buoyancy when the body is rotated
slightly. This is illustrated in Fig. 5(b).

(a) Original position (b) Tilted position

Figure 5 Method of finding the metacenter

Condition of Stability for Floating Bodies

A floating body is stable if its center of gravity is below the metacenter
It is possible to determine analytically if a floating body is stable by calculating the location of its
metacenter. The distance to the metacenter from the center of buoyancy is called MB and is calculated
from
𝐼
MB= 𝑉 (4)
𝑑

In this equation, Vd is the displaced volume of fluid and I is the least moment of inertia of a horizontal
section of the body taken at the surface of the fluid. If the distance MB places the metacenter above the
center of gravity, the body is stable.
Procedure for Evaluating the Stability of Floating Bodies
1. Determine the position of the floating body, using the principles of buoyancy.
2. Locate the center of buoyancy, cb; compute the distance from some reference axis
to cb, called ycb· Usually, the bottom of the object is taken as the reference axis.
3. Locate the center of gravity, cg; compute ycg measured from the same reference
axis.
4. Determine the shape of the area at the fluid surface and compute the smallest
moment of inertia I for that shape.
5. Compute the displaced volume Vd.
𝐼
6. Compute MB = 𝑉 .
𝑑
7. Compute ymc = ycb + MB.
8. If ymc > ycg,(mc greater than cg) the body is stable.
9. If ymc < ycg, (mc less than cg) the body is unstable.

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Problem 3: A solid cylinder is 6 m in diameter, 10 m high, and weighs 1500 kN. If the cylinder
is placed in oil (sg = 0.90) with its axis vertical, would it be stable or unstable?

Solution

Position of cylinder in oil

𝜋𝐷2
𝑉𝑑 = 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝐴𝑋 = (𝑋)
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Equilibrium equation.
∑ 𝐹𝑣 = 0
𝜋𝐷 2
𝑤 = 𝐹𝑏 = 𝛾𝑜 𝑣𝑑 =𝛾𝑜 4
(𝑋)

4𝑤 4 × 1500 × 103 6000

𝑋= 2
= 2 3
= = 6.01𝑚
𝜋𝐷 𝛾𝑜 𝜋6 × 0.90 × 9.81 × 10 998.54

𝑋
The center of buoyancy cb is at a distance 2
from the bottom of the cylinder.
6.01
𝑐𝑏 = 2
= 3.01𝑚
𝐻
The center of gravity cg is at 2
= 5m from the bottom of the cylinder, assuming the material of
the cylinder is of uniform specific weight. The position of the metacenter mc,

𝐼
MB = 𝑉
𝑑

𝜋𝐷4 𝜋64 4071.50

𝐼= = = = 63.62𝑚 4
64 64 64

𝜋𝐷2 𝜋62
𝑉𝑑 = 𝐴𝑋 = (𝑋) = × 6.01 = 28.27 × 6.01 = 169.93𝑚 3
4 4
𝐼 63.62
MB = = = 0.3744m
𝑉𝑑 169.93

ymc = ycb + MB = 3.01 + 0.3744 = 3.384m

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 FBD

In summary the ycg = 5m, and ymc = 3.384m, since the metacenter (mc) is the below the center of gravity
(cg) which shows that ymc < ycg, therefore the cylinder is unstable in it position shown. It would tend to
fall to one side until it reached a stable orientation, probably with the axis horizontal or nearly so.

Practice problems:
5.1 – 5.5; 5.7; 5.9 – 5.11; 5.16 – 5.30; 5.35 – 5.38; 5.39 – 5.63