Ed 502540

Feature Issue on Fostering Success in
School and Beyond for Students with

Emotional/Behavioral Disorders
Published by the Institute on Community Integration (UCEDD) · Research and Training Center on Community Living Volume 18 · Number 2 · Spring 2005
From the Editors

In today’s K-12 schools, educators must
effectively work with increasingly diverse
populations in their classrooms. This includes
educating students identified as having
emotional/behavioral disorders (EBD) in the
general education classrooms and ensuring
their inclusion in all aspects of the school
community. This can be a challenging task
for several reasons. To effectively educate
students with EBD there must be
collaboration between all the instructional
and administrative staff in the school;
everyone must be “on the same page” in
implementing prevention and intervention
Ernie Vigil, shown here with his mother Darlean Urban, had some turbulent years in high school until he turned efforts. In addition, there must be a
things around. Today, he’s graduated, pursuing his career goals, and raising his son. See story below. willingness on the part of teachers to explore
new teaching methods that more actively
engage students with EBD. Ongoing staff
Choosing a Better Road: Ernie’s Story development and training are needed to
update and maintain educator skills in
by Jesse Gallegos
working with students with EBD. And
sufficient resources must be available at the
Ernie Jarvis Vigil remembers when, as a freshman at Robertson High School in
Las Vegas, New Mexico, he started hanging out with seniors and found himself party- school and district level to sustain
ing all the time. His mom, Darlean Urban, describes it as “he pretty much lost control.” programming. This Impact describes how
“During my freshman year, I was found carrying a knife and was suspended from these and other challenges are being
school for two weeks,” Vigil, now 19, recalls. “When I turned 16, I went back to school addressed around the country, and offers
drunk and spent the weekend in jail. I spent my birthday in jail,” he says. Darlean used strategies that have been demonstrated to
the authorities as a means to help her son. “It was my decision not to take him home improve positive educational and social
that day. I called the cops,” says Darlean. “I felt that was what I had to do, so he
wouldn’t do it again. He had a juvenile probation officer, and for the next six months it outcomes for students with EBD in today’s
was really hard.” But that didn’t seem to deter him. “It was a point in my life where no K-12 schools.
one was going to tell me what I was going to do,” says Ernie, who used the excuse of his
mom and dad getting a divorce for his belligerent behavior. Those are just some of the What’s Inside
stories Ernie remembers, stories he hopes he will never forget because at some point he Overview Articles
changed his life. Program and Personal Profiles
In his junior year, he and his girlfriend had a little boy, Esteban. “I started thinking Resources
what I had to do in my life. I told myself that I wanted my child to do things I didn’t get
a chance to do because of my own decisions. I wanted him to play basketball and be in
other sports,” says Ernie. “When I had my baby, I started to pay more attention in
school. I was already living with my girlfriend. I was handling a job, school, a girlfriend
and myself. I knew I had to take care of myself before I took care of anyone else.”
[Ernie, continued on page 36]
2 Overview
Students with Emotional/Behavioral

Disorders: Promoting Positive Outcomes
by Camilla A. Lehr and Jennifer McComas
Public schools are designed to provide • EBD is more than a transient, ex- On the other hand, we find that
instructional programs that foster the pected response to stressors in the children and youth who are African
educational success of all students and child’s or youth’s environment and American are disproportionately over-
shape citizens who can contribute in would persist even with individual- identified as having EBD. Many con-
positive ways to society. Working to pro- ized interventions, such as feedback cerns have been expressed about minor-
mote successful school experiences for to the individual, consultation with ity children being misplaced in special
students with emotional/behavioral parents or families, and/or modifica- education, especially in certain disability
disorders (EBD) can be a particularly tion of the educational environment. categories. Researchers have determined
challenging task because of the necessity • The eligibility decision [for special the level of risk for various subgroups
for multi-faceted and cohesive program- education services] must be based on associated with being identified as hav-
ming to effectively meet multiple needs. multiple sources of data about the ing EBD. Using data from the U.S.
individual’s behavioral or emotional Department of Education, analyses sug-
functioning. EBD must be exhibited gest that Black children are 2.88 times
in at least two different settings, at more likely than White children to be
Promoting successful school least one of which is school related. labeled as having mental retardation
and 1.92 times more likely to be labeled
• EBD can co-exist with other
experiences for students with [disabling] conditions.
as having an emotional/behavioral dis-
order (Losen & Orfield, 2002). Although
• This category may include children or
emotional/behavioral disorders can youth with schizophrenia, affective
students with disabilities are entitled to
receive supports and services tied to
disorders, anxiety disorders, or who
be a particularly challenging task have other sustained disturbances of
their individual needs, the concern is
that too often minority students are
conduct, attention, or adjustment.
because of the necessity for multi- educated in separate settings, subject to
(National Association of School lower expectations, and excluded from
faceted and cohesive programming Psychologists, 2004, p. 1) educational opportunities. While minor-
ity populations are often at greater risk
Information from the Twenty-fourth
to meet multiple needs. Annual Report to Congress on the Imple-
of living in poverty, many individuals
argue that the effect of poverty does
mentation of the Individuals with Disabili-
not adequately explain the racial dispari-
ties Education Act (IDEA) (U.S. Depart-
ties in identification of EBD. Research
ment of Education, 2002) indicates that
suggests that unconscious racial bias,
Identification of Students with states served 5,775,722 students ages 6
stereotypes, inequitable implementation
Emotional or Behavioral Disorders through 21 under IDEA in 2000-2001.
of discipline policies, and practices that
Nearly 474,000, or about 18%, of those
An emotional/behavioral disorder can are not culturally responsive may
students were identified as students with
be described in the following way: contribute to the observed patterns of
EBD. This is less than 1% of the entire
• Emotional or Behavioral Disorder identification and placement for many
student population in 2000-2001. The
(EBD) refers to a condition in which minority students.
Report of the Surgeon General’s Conference
behavioral or emotional responses of on Children’s Mental Health (U.S. Public
an individual in school are so differ- Health Service, 2000) proposes the School and Post-School Outcomes
ent from his/her generally accepted, actual number of students with EBD is
age appropriate, ethnic or cultural Much of what we know about students
much higher. This suggests that many of
norms that they adversely affect per- with EBD has been gathered through the
the children and youth who could qualify
formance in such areas as self care, National Longitudinal Transition Study
for service under IDEA may not be iden-
social relationships, personal adjust- (NLTS). This study collected data on the
tified and may not receive adequate sup-
ment, academic progress, classroom lives of youth with disabilities in their
ports to assist them with emotional and
behavior, or work adjustment. high school years and in their transition
behavioral challenges they face both in
to adulthood during the early 1990s
and out of school settings.
(Wagner et al., 1991). Overall, outcomes
Retrieved from the Web site of the Institute on Community Integration, University of Minnesota (http://ici.umn.edu). Citation: Gaylord, V., Quinn, M., McComas, J. &
Lehr, C. (Eds.) (2005). Impact: Feature Issue on Fostering Success in School and Beyond for Students with Emotional/Behavioral Disorders, 18(2). Minneapolis: University of
Minnesota, Institute on Community Integration.
Overview 3
for youth with EBD were found to be Risk Factors Contributing to Student Beginning with a Solid Foundation
“particularly troubling.” These youth Outcomes With the move toward greater inclusion
showed a pattern of disconnectedness Findings from the current National Lon- and providing instruction in the general
from school, academic failure, poor gitudinal Transition Study – 2 (NLTS2) education curriculum, there is an in-
social adjustment, and involvement with suggest that students with EBD differ creased need for general education teach-
the criminal justice system. Data from from the general population of youth in ers to be well-informed about how to
the Office of Special Education Pro- ways other than their disability (Wagner effectively educate students with EBD.
grams shows that youth with EBD are at & Cameto, 2004). For example, as com- It is essential for teacher education pro-
greatest risk of dropping out of school pared with the general population of grams to train general educators to work
as compared with students in other dis- youth, youth with EBD are more likely to
ability categories; in 1999-2000, 51% of live in poverty, have a head of house-
students with EBD age 14 and older hold with no formal education past high
dropped out of school (U.S. Department school, and live in a single parent house- We know quite a bit about students
of Education, 2002). Furthermore, we hold. Nearly 38% of the NLTS-2 sample
know that as a group, a higher percent- had been held back a grade, 75% had with EBD. Fortunately, we also know
age of these youth are incarcerated or been suspended or expelled at least
are not employed as compared to other once, and about two- thirds were much about effective strategies that
students with disabilities after high reported to have co-occurring attention
school. deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). we can use with these students to
Students with EBD also experience
Instructional Settings greater school mobility than other youth improve their success in school.
with disabilities; 40% had attended five
Where are students with EBD served? In or more schools since kindergarten.
general, they experience general educa- Moving to multiple schools can be
tional instruction to a lesser degree than considerably disruptive and signifi- with the increasingly diverse populations
youth with disabilities as a whole. On cantly decrease the chances of continu- in their classrooms (including students
average, 16% of youth with EBD take all ity across instructional programs. In with varying disabilities, abilities, socio-
of their courses in special education addition, frequent moves increase the economic standing, and cultural back-
settings (compared with 9% of youth difficulties associated with establishing grounds). Necessary skills include the
with disabilities as a whole who take positive long-term relationships with ability to actively engage students in
only special education courses). Many adults and peers, and can heighten feel- coursework that is relevant to student
also attend alternative schools, which ings of alienation and limit the sense of backgrounds and interests, effectively
are generally designed to serve students belonging. organize a classroom environment, and
placed at risk of school failure due to manage student behavior using strategies
circumstance or ability (e.g., behind in that are evidence based (e.g., techniques
credits, suspended, pregnant or parent- Shifting From Deficits to Strengths to increase active student responding,
ing). In addition to these settings, a high We know quite a bit about students with small group or peer tutoring, applied
proportion of youth who are incarcer- EBD (e.g., characteristics, numbers, principles of reinforcement, use of
ated have disabilities. One conservative factors placing them at increased risk of immediate feedback). In addition,
estimate suggests that about 32% of school failure, where they are served, opportunities for staff development
youth in juvenile corrections have dis- outcomes). Fortunately, we also know must be provided on a regular basis to
abilities (Quinn, Rutherford, & Leone, much about effective strategies that we update and maintain skills.
2001). Nearly 46% of the incarcerated can use with these students to improve
youth with a disability were identified as their success in school and after they
having EBD. Most often, the transition
Providing Supports at Varying
leave school. Shifting from a deficit Levels: The Three-Tiered Model
back into the traditional school setting model that focuses on multiple risk fac-
for these students is unsuccessful, and tors and moving toward a focus on Students with or at risk for EBD can be
they go elsewhere (e.g., alternative strengths is a difficult, yet necessary, provided with supports at a variety of
schools, back into juvenile corrections, step for those who hope to foster resil- levels. A three-tiered model that provides
or drop out altogether). ience, enhance competence, and facili- a framework for thinking about the pro-
tate successful school experiences for vision of supports includes prevention at
students with EBD. the primary, secondary, and tertiary
levels (Sugai & Horner, 2002):
[Lehr, continued on page 37]
Retrieved from the Web site of the Institute on Community Integration, University of Minnesota (http://ici.umn.edu). Citation:
Gaylord, V., Quinn, M., McComas, J. & Lehr, C. (Eds.) (2005). Impact: Feature Issue on Fostering Success in School and Beyond for Students
with Emotional/Behavioral Disorders, 18(2). Minneapolis: University of Minnesota, Institute on Community Integration.
4 Overview
School-wide Positive Behavior Support:

Investing in Student Success
by Robert Horner, George Sugai and Claudia Vincent
Problem behaviors, such as aggression, cost-efficient, and productive than Over the past six years, the U.S.
defiance, truancy, property destruction, responding after problem behavior Department of Education’s Office of
disruption, and self-injury remain a patterns have become ingrained. Special Education Programs (OSEP) has
major challenge in schools and a dra- • Teach appropriate social behavior invested in technical assistance to states
matic barrier to academic achievement. and skills. Because children come to and districts choosing to implement
Historically, schools have assumed that school from many different back- SW-PBS. Over 2900 schools across 34
social skills should be learned at home, grounds, schools must define the states are now implementing or in the
and that children who behave inappro- core social expectations (e.g., be re- process of adopting SW-PBS. Imple-
priately at school should be identified spectful, be responsible, be safe), and mentation is occurring primarily in
and given a strong disciplinary message overtly teach the behaviors and skills elementary and middle schools, but the
that such behavior will not be tolerated. associated with these expectations. approach is now being adapted, applied,
When the “get tough” response does not When all students in the school are and studied in over 200 high schools. A
result in an immediate elimination of taught the same social skills, a social 90-school study using a randomized,
the problem behavior, next steps are culture is established where students wait-list, control group design is cur-
exclusionary (e.g., suspensions), in some not only have personal knowledge rently being funded by OSEP to assess
cases moving children to “special” con- about social expectations, they know the a) impact of technical support on
texts. Students identified with emo- that everyone in the school knows the ability of schools to adopt SW-PBS
tional and behavioral disorders (EBD) those same social expectations. practices with high fidelity, b) impact of
are especially at risk of exclusion from SW-PBS practices on the social and
general education settings, even though • Acknowledge appropriate behavior.
academic outcomes for students, and
they are likely to benefit most from the Students should receive regular rec-
c) sustainability of SW-PBS practices
typical social interactions occurring in ognition for appropriate behavior at
and outcomes over time. Evaluations
general education classrooms (Panacek rates that exceed rates of recognition
that have accompanied implementation
& Dunlap, 2003). for rule violations and problem be-
of SW-PBS efforts identify the following
Exclusionary approaches have never haviors. Negative consequences alone
seven key “lessons learned” that have
been effective, and as the number of stu- will not change problem behavior. In-
relevance for future policy and practice
dents with problem behavior has instead of ignoring problem behavior,
(Lewis & Sugai, 1999; Horner, Sugai,
creased, schools face an overwhelming a continuum of consequences (e.g.,
Todd & Lewis-Palmer, 2005; Center on
demand from teachers and families to correction, warning, office discipline
Positive Behavioral Interventions and
respond. In a variety of ways policy- referral) for problem behavior should
Support, 2004):
makers, school boards, administrators, be maintained and used to prevent
and teachers are being asked to make escalation and allow instruction to • Most schools in the U.S. are not
schools safe, positive, predictable places continue in class. implementing the evidence-based
of learning. Increasingly and ironically, • Gather and use data about student practices associated with SW-PBS. As
schools that do not invest in building a behavior to guide behavior support part of the technical assistance pro-
positive social culture have difficulty decisions. Data on what problem cess, schools have been assessed
achieving the academic standards that behaviors are being observed and prior to adopting SW-PBS practices.
are now expected. how often, where and what time of On average, schools are using less
School-wide positive behavior support the day they are occurring, and who than half the basic features, and
(SW-PBS) is an approach that begins is engaging in these problem behav- none of the schools evaluated have
with a school-wide prevention effort, iors enable schools to develop the demonstrated effective implementa-
and then adds intensive individualized most effective, efficient, and relevant tion prior to receiving technical
support for those students with more school-wide behavior support plan. assistance.
extreme needs. SW-PBS has five core • Invest in the systems (e.g., teams, • When technical support is provided,
strategies: policies, funding, administrative sup- schools are successful in adopting the
• Focus on preventing the develop- port, data structures) that support evidence-based practices associated
ment and occurrence of problem adults in their implementation of with SW-PBS. Typically, school teams
behavior, which is more effective, effective practices. composed of five to seven individuals
Overview 5
receive three, one- to two-day train- SW-PBS met or exceeded the state if they fail to build the positive social
ing events each year for two years. reading standard. By comparison, an culture needed for sustained academic
Schools throughout the country average of 46.6% of third graders in engagement. Traditional punishment
have documented the ability to adopt schools not using SW-PBS met the and exclusionary strategies are not effec-
SW-PBS practices with high fidelity same standard. tive practices for improving student be-
when they receive this level of • Investing in development of local havior. SW-PBS is an innovative combi-
support. systems is an effective strategy for nation of evidence-based practices that
• Once schools adopt SW-PBS prac- moving from small “demonstrations” emphasize investing in a) prevention,
tices to criterion they are likely to to larger-scale applications. Imple- b) teaching of basic social expectations,
sustain those practices over long time mentation of SW-PBS involves not c) acknowledging appropriate behavior,
periods. Longitudinal studies indi- simply training for school teams, but d) preventing problem behavior from in-
cate that SW-PBS practices have training of a) local coaches or facilita- terrupting instruction, e) collecting and
sustained up to 10 years following tors who work closely with teams to using data for active decision-making,
implementation, even with turn-over build and sustain evidence-based and f ) establishing the organizational
in administrators and core team practices, and b) local trainers who and policy structures that improve the
members. In a recent evaluation of are able to conduct team training on effectiveness, efficiency, and relevance
schools in Illinois, 86% of schools a distributed format within two of practice adoption, implementation,
adopting SW-PBS in 2002-03 sus- years. By investing in building the and durability. SW-PBS is being used on
tained or improved their level of capacity of local states/districts to a significant scale across the country
implementation in 2003-04. train and evaluate SW-PBS, the cost with strong evaluation outcomes in both
• When SW-PBS is implemented to of training the third and fourth gen- behavioral and academic domains.
criterion, results indicate the follow- erations of teams is reduced. Exter- Note: Preparation of this article was supported, in part, through
ing improvements in academic and nal trainers and national technical grant #H326S030002 from the Office of Special Education Programs,
U.S. Department of Education. However, opinions and recommenda-
social behavior outcomes: a) 20-60% assistance becomes less necessary. tions expressed in this article do not necessarily reflect the positions
or policies of this federal agency, and no official endorsement should
reduction in office discipline referrals For example, in Illinois a state system be inferred.
for students with and without of trainers and coaches now supports
Individualized Education Programs over 444 schools implementing References
SW-PBS. In Maryland, a state system Center on Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (2004).
(IEPs), b) increases in the time Implementers’ blueprint and self-assessment. Eugene, OR: Center on
students spend in instruction, of trainers and coaches supports over Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports, University of Oregon.
321 schools implementing SW-PBS. Eber, L. (2005). Illinois PBIS evaluation report. La Grange Park: Illinois
c) decreases in the amount of time State Board of Education, PBIS/EBD Network.
administrators and teachers spend • Implementation of SW-PBS is cost Horner, R. H., Sugai, G., Todd, A. & Lewis-Palmer, T. (2005). School-wide
positive behavior support: An alternative approach to discipline in
addressing problem behaviors, and effective. Schools are able to adopt schools. In L. Bambara & L. Kern (Eds.), Individualized support for stu-
d) improvement in the perception of dents with problem behaviors: Designing positive behavior plans (pp.
SW-PBS and establish local coaching 359-390). New York: Guilford Press.
school safety and mental health and training infrastructure within Lewis, T. J., & Sugai, G. (1999). Effective behavior support: A systems
through decreases in “risk factors” approach to proactive school-wide management. Focus on Exceptional
a two-year initiative process. The Children, 31(6), 1-24.
and increases in mental health cost to schools to sustain SW-PBS Panacek, L.J. & Dunlap, G. (2003). The social lives of children with
“protective factors.” In addition, emotional and behavioral disorders in self-contained classrooms: A
requires no additional dollars. This descriptive analysis. Exceptional Children 69(3), 333-348.
preliminary results indicate that approach is about using existing
SW-PBS implementation is associ- resources better, not adding new
ated with a decrease in the number Robert Horner and George Sugai are both
costs. The cost of problem behavior
of students identified for tertiary professors of special education and
in schools is a hidden drain on
interventions because of intense co-directors of the Center on Positive
school resources. For example, when
support needs (Eber, 2005). Behavioral Interventions and Supports,
Kennedy Middle School imple-
University of Oregon, Eugene. Dr. Horner
• When investments are made in both mented SW-PBS they documented
may be reached at 541/346-2462 or
behavior support and effective in- improved student behavior, with an
robh@uoregon.edu. Dr. Sugai may be
struction, improvements in academic annual reduction of 850 office
reached at 541/346-1642 or sugai@
performance are experienced. During discipline referrals and 25 student
uoregon.edu. Claudia Vincent is an
2002-03, 52 elementary schools in suspensions from the pre-implemen-
administrative assistant with the
Illinois using SW-PBS to criterion tation level. This change translated
department and center. For further
were compared with 69 schools that into a time savings of 30 administra-
information on SW-PBS see www.pbis.org.
were just adopting SW-PBS and were tor days and 121 student school days.
not at criterion. On average, 62.19% In summary, schools will not achieve
of third graders in schools using the academic standards we now require
6 Overview
Fostering Student Success: Five Strategies

You Can (and Should) Do Starting Next Week
by Larry Kortering and Patricia Braziel
Youth with emotional/behavioral of schooling, and engagement in the options, aptitude testing to determine if
disorders (EBD) have a difficult time learning process. These strategies are they have special talents that otherwise
completing a high school education. low cost, ready for implementation, and would go unnoticed, and personality
Specifically, a recent report from the come from our research over the past 12 assessment to better understand their
Office of Special Education Programs, years that has focused on improving sec- preferences and personal style in school
U.S. Department of Education (2002), ondary programs from the perspective and work settings (see Kortering,
puts their school completion rate of students. The research has included Sitlington, & Braziel, 2004 for a further
(including that of students with stan- interviews with hundreds of youth with description).
dard diplomas and alternative certifi- learning or behavior disabilities, surveys
cates) at less than 50%. The lack of a with over 5,000 high school youth, and
Links Between Learning and Life
high school education, combined with related experiences in high school gen-
eral education classrooms and various Our research consistently shows that the
teacher workshops. most prominent motivation for wanting
The strategies involve three assump- to be in school is youths’ perceptions
Fostering success in high school for tions about youth with EBD. First, that in some way it is preparing them for
nearly all report a desire to get a high what they consider a productive adult-
youth with EBD is challenging school education (Kortering, Braziel & hood. This adulthood, in their view,
Tompkins, 2002). Second, they are in- could entail getting them ready for
and complex. This article outlines formed consumers of high school ser- college or related training, entry-level
vices; they have a distinct perception of employment or simply providing them
five practical strategies that what works, services that will help them with the means to enjoy life as an adult.
succeed, and what they want to learn Teachers must nurture this motivation
should be a part of any (Kortering, Tompkins, & Braziel, 2002). by providing direct links between in-
Third, to help these youth become pro- school learning and their desire to have
secondary education program. ductive adults, we must help them a productive life after high school. These
access and succeed in the general educa- links must be convincing in the sense
tion classroom. With these assumptions that they leave school at the end of the
in mind, the remainder of this article day with the perception that what they
the nature of their disability, greatly outlines the five strategies to foster stu- did in school enhanced the likelihood of
jeopardizes the likelihood they will dent success. becoming a productive adult. Youth who
become productive adults (Bullis, 2004). fail to see this connection often turn to
In addition, research shows that these other options, namely the decision to
Access to Vocational Assessments
youth seldom access services beyond drop out of school.
those offered in high school (Hight, The first strategy is use of vocational as-
1999), making their secondary special sessments. Their proper use provides a
Opportunities to Control Destiny
education program their final opportu- basis to understand youth with EBD in
nity to secure an education, services or terms of individual talents, weaknesses, The easiest strategy is to help educators
training. and ambitions. Youth also enjoy partici- learn how to provide youth with EBD
Fostering success in high school for pating in these assessments because they opportunities to control their destiny in
youth with EBD is challenging and com- have the opportunity to focus on an the classroom, a sort of self-determined
plex. This article does not address this exploration of themselves and to know learning if you will. Such opportunities
complexity, but rather outlines five prac- that a school professional is interested in range from the freedom to simply
tical strategies that should be a part of helping them. Generally, a minimal vo- choose which problems to do (e.g., let
any secondary education program: ac- cational assessment would include a them chose to do even or odd or any 20)
cess to vocational assessments, explicit background survey about their family, to having the freedom to select how to
links between learning and adult life, personal interests and ambitions, an in- do an assignment (e.g., with peers or
opportunities to control their destinies, terest inventory to establish insight into not, alternative forms of test taking or
involvement in the non-academic side their likes and dislikes relative to career demonstrating knowledge). We rou-
Overview 7
tinely have high school teachers report- should evolve into usable learning strat- Resources of Interest
ing surprise at how responsive students egies for post-school learning or work
become when given such opportunities. environments. With attention to UDL, The following resources on topics related
teachers can reexamine their teaching to this Impact issue may be of interest to
with a new focus on multiple representa-
Non-Academic Involvement readers:
tions of course information (e.g., visual
The most powerful low-cost strategy to graphics to display information), means • Center for Effective Collaboration and
keep youth with EBD in school is to get of student engagement (e.g., hands-on Practice (www.air.org/cecp). The center’s
them involved in the non-academic side learning opportunities for key con- Web site has an extensive collection of
of schooling including sports, clubs, cepts), and student expression (e.g., free resources of use to teachers, mental
Reserve Officers Training Cadets (ROTC) allowing students options to demon-
strate their learning). health practitioners, child welfare work-
or related activities. The power of this
recommendation comes from giving ers, juvenile justice personnel, and fami-
youth a chance to participate (and often lies involved with young people who have
Conclusion
succeed) at something that, while non- serious emotional disturbance. Topics in-
academic, is school related. It also pro- In closing, we have learned that students clude functional behavioral assessment,
vides youth with an opportunity to work with EBD who fail to get a basic educa- positive behavioral intervention plans,
with adults and peers in an environment tion have very limited options as they
attempt to transition from school to a prevention and early intervention strate-
that generally proves less threatening.
Participating in such activities helps productive adulthood. As teachers, we gies, promising practice in children's men-
youths to develop a sense of belonging need to appreciate their unique chal- tal health, strength-based assessment,
and positive relationships, while contrib- lenges while working to do whatever it wraparound planning, strengthening the
uting to their personal development. takes to help them obtain an education, safety net, cultural competence, juvenile
including doing the five fairly simple justice, and more.
things described in this article that can
Engagement in the Learning Process help engage them in learning. • Safe and Responsive Schools Project
The final strategy focuses on helping (www.indiana.edu/~safeschl). The
References
general educators actively engage youth Bullis, M. (2004). Hard questions and final thoughts regarding the project, funded by the U.S. Department of
with EBD. This recommendation is the school to community transition of adolescents with emotional or
Education, is dedicated to enabling
behavior disorders. In D. Cheney (Ed.), Transition of students with emo-
most difficult to implement. Success in tional or behavior disorders: Current approaches for positive outcome.
schools and school districts to develop a
Arlington, VA: Council for Children with Behavior Disorders and
general education is generally the only Division on Career Development and Transition.
means to obtain the level of education broader perspective on school safety and
Hight, J. (1998). Young worker participation in post-school education
that allows access to suitable employ- and training. Monthly Labor Review, 122, 14-21. violence prevention, stressing compre-
Kortering, L., Sitlington, P. & Braziel, P. (2004). The use of vocational
ment (i.e., jobs with benefits, advance- assessment and planning as a strategic intervention to help keep hensive planning, prevention, and parent/
youths with emotional or behavioral disorders in school. In D. Cheney
ment, and adequate wages) or post- (Ed.), Transition of students with emotional or behavior disorders: Cur- community involvement.
secondary training. Yet, these youth rent approaches for positive outcomes. Arlington, VA: Council for
Children with Behavior Disorders and Division on Career Development • Teaching and Working with Children
consistently fail to access needed content and Transition.
information in their high school aca- Kortering, L., Braziel, P., & Tompkins, J. (2002). The challenge of school Who Have Emotional and Behavioral
completion among youth with behavior disorders: Another side to the
demic classes. Aside from the nature of story. Behavioral Disorders, 27, 142-154. Challenges (2000). By M. Quinn,
their disability, these youth report that Office of Special Education Programs, U.S. Department of Education
(2002). To ensure the free appropriate public education of all handi-
D. Osher, C. Warger, T. Hanley, B. Bader, &
their engagement in learning hinges on capped children. Twenty-second annual report to Congress. Washington, C. Hoffman. A guidebook designed to aid
DC: U.S. Department of Education.
access to supportive teachers who pro- teachers, school psychologists, counselors,
vide interesting and relevant opportuni-
Larry Kortering is a professor in the social workers, nurses, principals,
ties to learn (Kortering, Braziel &
Tompkins, 2002). The proper response Department of Language, Reading and paraprofessionals, and parents in their
requires that special educators help Exceptionalities, Appalachian State work and interaction with children who
teachers move away from the traditional University, Boone, North Carolina. He have emotional and behavioral problems.
“talk and chalk” and “overhead” may be reached at 828/262-6060 or It promotes a strengths-based approach
approach toward a Universal Design for korteringlj@appstate.edu. Patricia Braziel
that considers the whole child, and
Learning (UDL). This move, as it relates is project coordinator for the Universal
Design for Learning Project at the addresses the needs of all students, not
to UDL by offering an accessible curricu-
lum, enhances a youth’s ability to dem- university. She may be reached at 828/262- just those with difficulties. Available from
onstrate knowledge while accessing 6060 or brazielp@earthlink.net. Sopris West (product code W24889) at
content in a more engaged manner that www.sopriswest.com and 303/651-2829
Retrieved from the Web site of the Institute on Community Integration, University of Minnesota (http:// or 800/547-6747.
ici.umn.edu). Citation: Gaylord, V., Quinn, M., McComas, J. & Lehr, C. (Eds.) (2005). Impact: Feature Issue on Fostering
Success in School and Beyond for Students with Emotional/Behavioral Disorders, 18(2). Minneapolis: University of
8 Overview
Creating Caring Schools

by Howard S. Adelman and Linda Taylor
Fragmented and Marginalized Efforts

School systems are not responsible for meet- in every facet of a school district’s opera-
ing every need of their students. But when Looked at as a whole, most districts tions, an unproductive separation often
the need directly affects learning, the school offer a wide range of programs and is manifested between those focused
must meet the challenge. – Carnegie services oriented to student needs and directly on instruction and those con-
Council Task Force on Education of problems. Some are provided through- cerned with student support. It is not
Young Adolescents (1989) out a district, others are carried out at or surprising, then, how often efforts to
linked to targeted schools. Some are address students’ learning, behavioral,
“Leave no child behind” is a statement owned and operated by schools; some and emotional needs are planned,
of caring. Caring has moral, social, and are from community agencies. The inter- implemented, and evaluated in a frag-
personal facets, and when all facets are ventions may be for all students in a mented, piecemeal manner. Moreover,
present and balanced, they can address school, those in specified grades, those despite the variety of student support
problems, nurture individuals, and identified as “at risk,” and/or those need- activities across a school district, it is
facilitate the process of learning. Good ing compensatory or special education. common knowledge that many schools
schools are ones where the staff works Student and teacher supports are offer only bare essentials.
cohesively not only to teach effectively, provided by various divisions in a dis-
but to provide supports that address trict, each with a specialized focus such
Caring Requires Rethinking Supports
barriers to student learning. Good as curriculum and instruction, student
teaching paired with comprehensive, support services, compensatory educa- Policymakers have come to appreciate
multifaceted, and cohesive learning tion, special education, language the relationship between limited inter-
supports combine to prevent learning, acquisition, parent partnerships, and vention efficacy and the widespread
behavior, and emotional problems; intergroup relations. Such divisions are tendency for programs to operate in
address problems quickly and effectively commonly organized and operate as isolation. Concern has focused on the
when they arise; and ensure the promo- relatively independent entities. In large plethora of piecemeal, categorically
tion of positive social and emotional districts, this often is the case for counse- funded approaches, such as those cre-
development. Good schools do all this lors, psychologists, social workers, and ated to reduce learning, behavior, and
in ways that create an atmosphere that other specialists. And, at the school level, emotional problems; substance abuse;
encourages mutual support, caring, and there is currently a tendency for these violence; school dropouts; delinquency;
a sense of community. Schools whose student support staff to function in rela- and teen pregnancy. Some major initia-
improvement plans do not assign these tive isolation from each other and other tives have been designed to reduce the
matters a high priority are unlikely to be stakeholders, with a great deal of the fragmentation. However, policymakers
experienced as caring institutions. work oriented to discrete problems. In have failed to deal with the overriding
While such a caring environment some schools, a student identified as issue, namely that addressing barriers to
enhances the outcomes for all students, at-risk for grade retention, dropout, and development and learning remains a
staff, and families, it is especially impor- emotional/behavior problems may be marginalized aspect of school policy
tant for students who need additional assigned to three counseling programs and practice.
support to succeed in school, such as operating independently of each other. The degree to which marginalization
students with emotional/behavioral dis- Such fragmentation not only is costly, it is the case is seen in consolidated school
orders. A caring school anticipates there works against developing cohesiveness improvement plans and certification re-
will be students with such needs for sup- and maximizing results (Adelman & views. It is also seen in the lack of atten-
port by introducing programs designed Taylor, 1997). tion to mapping, analyzing, and rethink-
to promote mental health and prevent Although various divisions and sup- ing how the resources used to address
problems, creating programs that are port staff usually must deal with the problems are allocated. For example,
easily accessible when students show the same common barriers to learning (e.g., educational reformers have virtually
first signs of needing more assistance, poor instruction, weak parent partner- ignored the need to reframe the work of
and having interventions that maximize ships, violence and unsafe schools, inad- pupil services professionals and other
the likelihood that students will be equate support for student transitions student support staff. Such reframing
successful in their classrooms and out- and for students with disabilities), they would expand their roles to include lead-
of-class activities. tend to do so with little or no coordina- ership in developing a comprehensive,
tion and sparse attention to moving multifaceted, and cohesive component
toward integrated efforts. Furthermore, foraddressing barriers to learning at
Overview 9
school sites in a way that fully integrates play a major role in establishing a con- • Increasing community involvement
learning supports with instruction. This tinuum of interventions ranging from a and support (i.e., outreach to develop
lack of attention to rethinking resource broad-based emphasis on promoting greater community involvement and
use seriously hampers efforts to provide healthy development and preventing support, including enhanced use of
the caring assistance teachers and stu- problems, through approaches for volunteers).
dents so desperately need. responding to problems quickly after • Facilitating student and family access
onset, and extending on to narrowly- to effective services and special assis-
focused treatments for severe problems. tance as needed (i.e., providing spe-
Needed: A Policy Shift
cial assistance as necessary, including
Clearly, current policies designed to direct services and referrals).
enhance support for teachers and
Reframing How Schools Address Barriers
students are seriously flawed. And, the School-wide approaches to address barri- As a whole, this six-area framework
situation is unlikely to improve in the ers to learning are especially important provides a unifying umbrella to guide
absence of concerted attention to end- where large numbers of students are not the reframing and restructuring of the
ing the marginalized status of student doing well and at schools that are not yet daily work of all staff who provide learn-
learning supports (Adelman & Taylor, paying adequate attention to consider- ing supports at a school.
2000, 2002). Increasing awareness of ations related to equity and diversity.
the policy deficiencies has stimulated Leaving no child behind means address- Conclusion
analyses that indicate current policy is ing the problems of the many who are
dominated by a two-component model not benefitting from instructional A caring school enables learning by
of school improvement. That is, the pri- reforms. Because of the complexity of addressing barriers. Collaboration and
mary thrust is on improving instruction ensuring that all students have an equal collegiality are key facets in all this. The
and school management. While these opportunity to succeed at school, policy- programs that emerge from a well-
two facets obviously are essential, effec- makers and practitioners need an opera- designed and developed enabling com-
tively addressing problems requires tional framework to guide development ponent are fundamental to enhancing a
establishing a third component that ad- of a comprehensive, multifaceted, and supportive and caring context for learn-
dresses barriers to learning in ways that cohesive enabling or learning supports ing by all students. The implications for
enable students to learn and teachers to component. Pioneering efforts have student and staff well-being, for learn-
teach. Such an “enabling” component operationalized such a component into ing, and for the future of every student
provides both a basis for combatting six programmatic arenas (Adelman & are more than evident.
marginalization and a focal point for de- Taylor, 1997, 2000, 2002; Center for References
veloping a comprehensive framework to Mental Health in Schools, 2004a, Adelman, H.S., & Taylor, L. (1997). Addressing barriers to learning:
guide policy and practice. To be effec- Beyond school-linked services and full service schools. American Jour-
2004b). Based on this work, the interven- nal of Orthopsychiatry, 67, 408-421.
tive, however, it must be established as tion arenas are conceived as: Adelman, H.S., & Taylor, L. (2000). Looking at school health and school
essential and fully integrated with the reform policy through the lens of addressing barriers to learning.
• Enhancing regular classroom strate- Children’s Services: Social Policy, Research, and Practice, 3, 117-132
other two components. gies to enable learning (i.e., improving Adelman, H.S., & Taylor, L. (2002). Building comprehensive, multifac-
Various states and localities are mov- eted, and integrated approaches to address barriers to student learn-
instruction for students who have ing. Childhood Education, 78, 261-268.
ing in the direction of a three-compo- become disengaged from learning at Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development’s Task Force on Educa-
nent approach for school improvement tion of Young Adolescents (1989). Turning points: Preparing American
school and for those with learning, youth for the 21st century. Washington, DC: Author.
(Center for Mental Health in Schools, behavior, and emotional problems). Center for Mental Health in Schools, University of California -
2004a). In doing so, they are adopting Los Angeles (2004a). Where’s it happening? New directions for student
• Supporting transitions (i.e., assisting support and lessons learned. Retrieved 12/13/04 from http://smhp.
different labels for their enabling com- psych.ucla.edu/pdfdocs/wheresithappening/wheresithappening.html
students and families as they negoti- Center for Mental Health in Schools, University of California -
ponent. For example, the Iowa and Cali- Los Angeles (2004b). Addressing barriers to learning: A set of surveys
ate school and grade changes and
fornia Departments of Education call it to map what a school has and what it needs – A resource aid packet.
many other transitions). Retrieved 12/13/04 from http://smhp.psych. ucla.edu)
a “learning supports” component. This
is also the terminology used by the New • Increasing home and school partner-
American Schools’ Urban Learning Cen- ships (i.e., enhancing school capacity Howard Adelman is a professor with the
ter comprehensive school reform model. to provide families with opportunities Department of Psychology and co-director
Some states use the term “supportive for learning, special assistance, and of the Center for School Mental Health,
learning environment.” The Hawaii participation). UCLA, Los Angeles, California. He may be
Department of Education calls it a • Responding to and, where feasible, reached at 310/825-1225 or adelman@
“comprehensive student support system preventing crises (i.e., school-wide and psych.ucla.edu. Linda Taylor is co-director
(CSSS).” In each case, policy shifts have classroom efforts to prevent, respond of the center, and may be reached at
recognized that, over time, schools must to, and minimize the impact of crises). 310/825-3634 or ltaylor@ucla.edu.
10 Overview
Ten Alternatives to Suspension

by Reece L. Peterson
The suspension or expulsion of students disciplinary code of conduct as part of topics such as alcohol/drug use or
with emotional/behavioral disorders an array of consequences for inappropri- abuse, strategies for conflict resolu-
(EBD) has been problematic and contro- ate behavior. Each of these examples has tion, anger control strategies, social
versial. Requirements of IDEA, and case at least some research demonstrating skills (e.g., getting along with peers,
law before that, have indicated that positive behavioral-change outcomes for making behavior appropriate for the
long-term suspension or expulsion vio- students, and is an opportunity to main- setting), and appropriate communi-
late the Free Appropriate Public Educa- tain or re-engage students in school cation skills (e.g., appropriate and in-
tion (FAPE) guarantee for students with rather than pushing them out of school. appropriate language, how to express
disabilities. Schools have struggled to While additional information beyond disagreement).
meet these requirements, but the prob- that provided here will be needed for • Parent involvement/supervision.
lems with suspension and expulsion are appropriate implementation, the ex- Parents should be invited to brain-
larger than issues of EBD or disability. amples below describe multiple promis- storm ways they can provide closer
Today, many schools are rightfully ing alternatives to suspension: supervision or be more involved in
concerned about the numbers of all • Problem solving/contracting. their child’s schooling. Better com-
types of students who are being sus- Negotiation and problem-solving munication and more frequent con-
pended or expelled for their behavior. approaches can be used to assist tacts between teachers and parents,
This concern is driven by the over- students in identifying alternative as well as coordinated behavior-
representation of some minority groups behavior choices. The next step change approaches, are very useful
among those who are suspended or should involve developing a contract and could be formalized into a disci-
expelled from school (Wu, Pink, Crain & that reminds the student to engage in plinary consequence.
Moles, 1982; Townsend, 2000; Skiba, a problem-solving process, and which • Counseling. Students may be re-
Michael, Nardo & Peterson, 2002). includes reinforcers for success and quired to receive additional supports
Equally important is the emerging consequences for continuing problem or individual counseling from trained
research that indicates that these conse- behaviors. helping professionals (e.g., counselor,
quences are not likely to change the
• Restitution. In-kind restitution school psychologist) focused on
inappropriate behavior of the students
(rather than financial restitution, problem solving or personal issues
involved, nor do they serve to deter
which often falls on the parents) per- interfering with learning.
other students from engaging in the
mits the student to help to restore or • Community service. Programs that
same behaviors (Skiba, Peterson & Will-
improve the school environment permit the student to perform a re-
iams, 1999, 1997). Instead, these conse-
either by directly addressing the quired amount of time in supervised
quences make the suspended student’s
problems caused by the student’s community service outside of school
academic progress more difficult, and
behavior (e.g., in cases of vandalism hours (e.g., volunteer at another
they may increase the likelihood of the
students can work to repair things school or an organization) should be
student dropping out of school or
they damaged), or by having the stu- created.
having other negative outcomes.
dent improve the school environment
As a result, many schools are begin- • Behavior monitoring. Closely
more broadly (e.g., picking up trash,
ning to examine their school discipline monitoring behavior and academic
washing lockers).
policies with an eye to making them progress (e.g., self-charting of behav-
both more effective and less reliant on • Mini-courses or skill modules. Short iors, feedback sessions for the stu-
traditional exclusionary consequences. courses or self-study modules can be dent) will permit rewards to be pro-
These changes may also help schools to assigned as a disciplinary conse- vided for successful performance.
better serve students with EBD. Schools quence. These should be on topics
• Coordinated behavior plans. Cre-
that try to improve their discipline sys- related to the student’s inappropriate
ation of a structured, coordinated
tem ask the questions “What do we use behavior, and should be designed to
behavior support plan specific to the
in place of exclusionary consequences in teach the student to have increased
student and based on a hypothesis
our discipline policies?” and “What are awareness or knowledge about the
about the function of the target be-
some disciplinary consequences which topic, thus facilitating behavior
havior to be reduced should be cre-
might be more effective?” The examples change. These modules might
ated. It should focus on increasing
that follow illustrate the kinds of actions include readings, videos, workbooks,
desirable behavior, and replacing
that could be built into a school’s formal tests, and oral reports on a range of
inappropriate behaviors.
Overview 11
• Alternative programming. Provide terns of authority and decision mak- quences are identified for positive
short- or long-term changes in the ing, procedures for developing and and negative behaviors occurring
student schedule, classes or course implementing rules, helping stu- anywhere in school.
content or offer the option of partici- dents feel they belong and are wel- • Positive office referrals/recognition.
pating in an independent study or come, good curriculum and instruc- Programs that “catch students being
work-experience program. Program- tional practices, and having a clean good” and identify, reward, and cel-
ming should be tailored to student and positive physical environment. ebrate individual students for appro-
needs, and permit appropriate credit • Efforts to build adult-student priate behavior (e.g., attendance,
accrual and progress toward gradua- relationships. Programs offering being on-time, improving grades,
tion. Change of placement or pro- opportunities for students to develop meeting behavior goals).
gramming must be made by the IEP individual relationships with staff.
(Individualized Education Program) Each of these “prerequisites” is also
• Increased parent involvement. supported by a body of research which
team for students with EBD or other
Programs that involve a variety of indicates positive, promising effects on
disabilities.
parents and community members in student behavior in school. If they are to
• Appropriate in-school suspension. functions and activities within the be effective, these “foundations” must
In-school suspension should be pro- school, and maintain communica- be implemented in such a way as to be-
vided and include academic tutoring, tion about their children. come a normal part of that school’s cul-
instruction on skill-building related
• Character education/ consistent ture. They enable the “disciplinary alter-
to the student behavior problem
school values. School curriculum and natives” listed earlier to be effective by
(e.g., social skills), and a clearly de-
organization features that promote providing the context and skills for
fined procedure for returning to class
the development of fundamental appropriate behavior. They may permit
contingent on student progress or
values in children. Typically these list a substantial reduction in the use of sus-
behavior. The environment should be
desirable goals for student behavior. pension and expulsion as disciplinary
carefully managed to guard against
• Early identification and intervention. options, and have the side effect of de-
using in-school suspension as a way
Programs that permit systematic creasing staff stress related to behavior,
to avoid attending classes.
screening of students for potential and increasing academic achievement
Many of these will be familiar to behavior problems, and which pro- for all students. They may also provide
teachers who have worked with students vide interventions for the students a way to reduce the involvement of stu-
who have EBD and there is a promising identified as at “risk.” dents with emotional or behavioral dis-
research base for these alternatives. orders in the problems associated with
• Mediation programs. Programs that
Other alternatives might also be gener- suspension and expulsion.
teach students about non- violent
ated. Some schools are already using
conflict resolution and permit stu- Note: The contributions of Russell Skiba and Courtney Miller toward
some of these, but few are using very the ideas in this manuscript are gratefully acknowledged.
dents to use and experience these
many of these, and fewer yet use these
in school. Peer-mediation is one
systematically as a coordinated behavior References
example. Skiba, R., Michael, R., Nardo, A., & Peterson, R.L. (December, 2002).
improvement strategy built into their The color of discipline: Sources of racial and gender
disciplinary codes of conduct. • Bullying prevention and interven- disproportionality in school punishment. The Urban Review, 34(4),
317-342.
To make these alternative options tion. Programs that teach students
Skiba R. J., Peterson, R. L. & Williams, T. (January, 1999). The dark side
work as a disciplinary consequence, about bullying behaviors and how of zero tolerance: Can punishment lead to safe schools? Phi Delta
Kappan, 80(5), 372-381.
some “prerequisites” may also be they can be reported to teachers.
Skiba R. J., Peterson, R. L. & Williams, T. (August, 1997). Office referrals
needed. A school climate supportive of Specific interventions are created for and suspension: Disciplinary intervention in middle schools. Educa-
tion and Treatment of Children, 20(3), 1-21.
positive behavior, efforts to build posi- both bullies and victims.
Townsend, B. (2000). Disproportionate discipline of African American
tive interactions, appropriate instruc- • Conflict de-escalation training. children and youth: Culturally-responsive strategies for reducing
school suspensions and expulsions. Exceptional Children, 66, 381-391.
tion, and ongoing close supervision may Programs that teach staff and stu- Wu, S. C., Pink, W. T., Crain, R. L., & Moles, O. (1982). Student suspen-
prevent behavior problems from grow- dents to recognize and to disengage sion: A critical reappraisal. The Urban Review, 14, 245-303.
ing to crisis proportions and requiring from escalating conflict.
disciplinary consequences. Here are sev- • School-wide discipline program. Reece L. Peterson is a professor in the
eral examples of programs that support Programs that develop a common Department of Special Education and
the previous alternatives to suspension: terminology and consistent approach Communication Disorders, University of
• Creating a caring school community to discipline across school staff. Re- Nebraska, Lincoln. He may be reached at
and climate. Programs that attend to sponsibilities of students and staff 402/472-5480 or rpeterson1@unl.edu.
patterns of good communication and are identified, consistency in rule
problem solving, having clear pat- enforcement is increased, and conse-
12 Overview
Using Self-Monitoring Strategies to Address

Behavior and Academic Issues
by Rachel L. Loftin, Ashley C. Gibb, and Russell Skiba
Students with behavioral and academic appropriate classroom behavior in a teacher and peers), while reducing or
difficulties typically have limited aware- general education setting. In the case eliminating the undesired behavior
ness and understanding of their own study, the self-monitoring intervention (speaking out in class) (Marquis et al.,
behavior and its effects on others. Self- was implemented with “Scott” (pseud- 2000). Rather than having Scott keep
monitoring interventions equip stu- onym), an 11-year-old with an emo- track of days when he disrupted class,
dents to recognize and keep track of tional/behavioral disorder (EBD). Prior his teacher elected to have him monitor
their own behavior (Hoff & DuPaul, to intervention, Scott required almost appropriate hand-raising. With this
1998; Rhode, Morgan, & Young, 1983). constant verbal reminders to remain approach, she was able to reinforce, not
Using these strategies, students can quiet and working. He disrupted the punish, his behavior.
learn to identify and increase positive, class with frequent, off-topic comments
pro-social behaviors, the behaviors and never raised his hand before speak-
ing. Scott seemed to enjoy the peer atten-
Select the Self-Monitoring System
necessary for success in general educa-
tion settings. Self-monitoring intervention he received for making such com- To fit seamlessly into a classroom,
tions are among the most flexible, use- ments. His teacher decided to try a self- home, or work setting, self-monitoring
ful, and effective strategies for students monitoring strategy to increase hand- interventions may be structured in a
with academic and behavioral difficul- raising and appropriate comments. variety of ways. The design of the self-
ties (Mitchum, Young, West, & Benyo, monitoring device is largely determined
2001). They have demonstrated efficacy by the student’s needs and setting in
Identify Target Behavior
for targeting a range of academic abili- which the intervention will occur.
ties (Rock, 2005), self- help skills (Pierce The initial step for developing a behavior Checklists and charts are common
& Schreibman, 1994), behavioral prob- plan, such as a self-monitoring interven- materials used to record behavior, while
lems (Todd, Horner, & Sugai, 1999), and tion, is to identify the target behavior. It golfer’s wrist counters and other
social behaviors (Strain & Kohler, 1994). is helpful to identify a simple action to mechanical devices may also be used.
Self-monitoring is useful for students measure, such as behavior that occurs For Scott, a simple chart was adopted.
from preschool to adulthood and can be during a certain time of day or perfor- He kept the chart in his desk and made a
taught to individuals at a variety of lev- mance related to a specific subject and to tally mark in the corresponding box
els of cognitive functioning. Self-moni- define the unit in observable, measur- each time he successfully raised his hand
toring interventions foster independent able terms. Scott’s teacher decided to and, when called on, offered an appro-
functioning, which allows individuals target only appropriate hand-raising, priate comment in class.
with disabilities to rely less on prompts even though disruptive comments were
from others (Koegel, Koegel, Harrower, also an issue. She defined appropriate
hand-raising as any instance in which
Choose Reinforcers and Criteria
& Carter, 1999).
This article provides an overview of Scott raised his hand and, when called Once the target behavior is defined and
the five steps involved in planning a self- on, offered a comment or question that the system is selected, reinforcers and
monitoring intervention: pertained to the topic currently under criteria for earning them are deter-
discussion. To start, she used the inter- mined. Some students are very moti-
1) Identify the target behavior. vention during social studies class. vated by self-monitoring alone. They
2) Select/design a self-monitoring While undesired behaviors, such as enjoy pushing the button on their wrist
system. talking out in class or hitting peers, can counter, giving themselves checks, or
3) Choose reinforcers and how the be the target of successful interventions, crossing things off to-do lists. Many
student will earn them. the plan will have a more positive tone students, however, require extra teacher
and may be more willingly accepted by attention or other reinforcers to be
4) Teach the student to use the system.
the student if positive behaviors are successful with a self-monitoring inter-
5) Fade the role of the adult in the identified. Teaching the student to en- vention. To ensure success when first
intervention. gage in the desired behavior in place of beginning an intervention, frequent
The steps will be described through use an undesirable one will provide a means reinforcement is recommended. Offer-
of a case study that illustrates how self- for obtaining the result the student ing a choice among preferred reinforcers
monitoring techniques can increase wants (in Scott’s case, attention from increases the likelihood of a successful
Overview 13
intervention (Dyer, Dunlap, & the adult and child disagree about use intervention (Dunlap, Clarke, Jackson,
Winterling, 1990). Scott enjoyed using of the system. Student involvement in Wright, 1995; Koegel, Koegel, Harrower,
school computers but rarely had an planning may also increase student & Carter, 1999). This collateral behavior
opportunity to do so because of a class- investment in the intervention. change allows teachers and parents to
room policy about losing computer privi- Once a system is in place, the teacher address multiple behaviors with one
leges for disruptive behavior. Scott and compares the student’s information efficient intervention.
his teacher decided that extra computer with his or her own observations of the For Scott, self-monitoring led to an
time with a peer would be an appropri- behavior and provides feedback on the increase in hand-raising and appropriate
ate and motivating reinforcer for success- accuracy of data collection. Practice class participation and a decrease in talk-
ful participation in class. Extra time with sessions can provide an opportunity for ing out in class. As a result, his teacher
a friend also allowed Scott to receive peer teacher and student to gain reliability spent less time disciplining him. When
attention that he tried to gain when talk- with the system. When students consis- Scott’s class participation improved, his
ing out in class. tently self-monitor with great accuracy, academic performance improved as well.
Although it was not used for Scott’s the teacher can end reliability checks. This collateral gain is a clear illustration
intervention, many self-monitoring For Scott, practice checks with the of the efficiency of the self-monitoring
interventions include self-recruited teacher occurred daily for four days. At intervention. Increasing the use of one
praise, or teaching the student to bring that time, he was over 90% reliable and skill, Scott’s teacher was able to change
his data to a teacher or other adult to began to use the system independently. multiple behaviors: participation, talking
earn positive attention or other rein- out, and academic performance.
forcement. For example, in the class-
Fade Prompts and Reinforcers References
room a student may use a system in Dunlap, G., Clarke, S., Jackson, M., & Wright, S. (1995). Self-monitoring
which she gives herself a check for every Gradually, reinforcers should be faded of classroom behaviors with students exhibiting emotional and behav-
ioral challenges. School Psychology Quarterly, 10, 165-177.
five minutes she spends on-task. When and the expectations for behavior
Dyer, K., Dunlap, G., & Winterling, V. (1990). Effects of choice making on
she has four checks, she brings the paper raised. As he was successful with inde- the serious problem behaviors of students with severe handicaps. Jour-
nal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 23, 515-524.
to her teacher and is complimented on pendently and accurately recording be-
Hoff, K. E., & DuPaul, G. J. (1998). Reducing disruptive behavior in gen-
work well done. Self-recruited praise is havior, Scott’s teacher stopped remind- eral education classrooms: The use of self-management strategies.
School Psychology Review, 27, 290-303.
especially useful for students whose dis- ing him to use his system and set higher
Koegel, L. K., Koegel, R. L., Harrower, J. K., & Carter, C.M. (1999). Pivotal
ruptive behavior is used to gain attention goals for earning computer time with response intervention 1: Overview of approach. The Journal of the Asso-
ciation for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 24, 175-185.
from teachers. However, it is important his friends. By the end of the school
Marquis, J. G., Horner, R. H., Carr, E. G., Turnbull, A. P., Thompson, M.,
to determine that a student finds praise year, Scott was on the same computer Behrens, G. A., et al. (2000). A meta-analysis of positive behavioral sup-
port. In R. Gersten, E. P. Schiller, & S. Vaughn (Eds.), Contemporary special
reinforcing. Many students, particularly plan as other students in the class, and education research: Syntheses of the knowledge base on critical instruc-
adolescents, may prefer not to receive his teacher no longer checked his plan- tional issues. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Mitchum, K. J., Young, K. R., West, R. P., & Benyo, J. (2001). CSPASM: A
overt teacher attention; using teacher ner to make sure he accurately self- classwide peer assisted self-management program for general educa-
attention in such a situation as a reward monitored. When work becomes more tion classrooms. Education and Treatment of Children, 24, 111-140.
Pierce, K. L., & Schreibman, L. (1994). Teaching daily living skills to
could actually worsen behavior. difficult or behavioral expectations children with autism in unsupervised settings through pictorial self-
shift, it may be helpful to provide more management. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27, 471-481.
Rhode, G., Morgan, D. P., & Young, K. R. (1983). Generalization and main-
assistance or reinforcement. Promoting tenance of treatment gains of behaviorally handicapped students from
Teach the Student to Use the System the maximum level of independence at resource rooms to regular classrooms using self-evaluation procedures.
Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 16, 171-188.
Scott met with his teacher to discuss the which the student can be successful is Rock, M. L. (2005). Use of strategic self-monitoring to enhance aca-
target behavior and the self-monitoring the primary goal. demic engagement, productivity, and accuracy of students with and
without exceptionalities. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 7,
system. After she defined the system, he 3-17.
had an opportunity to ask questions Strain, P. S., & Kohler, F. W. (1994). Teaching preschool students with
Conclusions autism to self monitor their social interactions: An analysis of results in
about the new arrangements. Together, home and school settings. Journal of Emotional & Behavioral Disorders,
2, 78-89.
teacher and student discussed potential Self-monitoring strategies are individu- Todd, A. W., Horner, R. H., & Sugai, G. (1999). Effects of self-monitoring
problems with the intervention and alized plans used to increase indepen- and self-recruited praise on problem behavior, academic engagement,
and work completion in a typical classroom. Journal of Positive Behav-
came to an agreement about how to dent functioning in academic, behavior Interventions, 1, 66-76.
handle problems that might arise. When ioral, self-help, and social areas. Rather
Scott’s teacher was confident that he un- than focusing on reducing a student’s Rachel L. Loftin and Ashley C. Gibb are
derstood the intervention, she described undesired behavior, self-monitoring doctoral students, and Russell J. Skiba is a
several examples and non-examples and strategies develop skills that lead to an professor, all in the Counseling and Educa-
asked Scott whether they would count as increase in appropriate behavior. When tional Psychology Department, Indiana
appropriate hand-raising. This collabora- self-monitoring skills increase, corre- University, Bloomington. They may be
tion in the planning stages helps prevent sponding reductions in undesired be- reached at 812/856-8300 or rloftin@
potential problems that can occur when haviors often occur, even without direct indiana.edu.
14 Overview
Teaching for Generalization in Support of

Students with Emotional and Behavior Disorders
by Trevor Stokes
Emotional and Behavior Challenges

Sometimes, the goal of teachers in their and current circumstances. The teacher
classrooms is the children’s mastery of When presented with a range of emo- can also counterbalance maladaptive
academic lessons and tasks, such as tional and behavior challenges within influences by providing a safe, friendly,
arithmetic completion, creative writing, the classroom, it is natural that teachers and exciting environment for learning.
developing knowledge, or learning an may be perplexed. What causes these The positive effects of the teacher’s style
efficient problem-solving repertoire. problems? How can they be viewed or and instruction, and the supportive
Sometimes, the goal of teachers is the classified? How can they be amelio- learning environment, can then be seen
children’s mastery of personal lessons rated? The truth is that maladaptive and in the classroom and also spread back
and tasks, such as recruiting help appro- dysfunctional emotions and behaviors into the home and beyond, accomplish-
priately, developing self-control, being don’t just suddenly appear. They de- ing generalization.
socially competent among peers, or velop over time and spill over between It is useful to be able to group or clas-
environments such as home and school sify disorders of emotion and behavior.
and in reciprocity affect one another. Sometimes this is done formally by the
Contributing causes are often diffi- assignment of a diagnosis consistent
Generalization occurs when the cult to determine and frequently there with psychiatric and psychological stan-
are multiple factors that lead to the cur- dards (DSM-IV-TR). Sometimes, a less
effects of educational or therapeutic rent presentations of disturbing emo- formal rubric is sufficient. Stokes,
tions and behaviors in the classroom Mowery, Dean and Hoffman (1997)
behavior-change programs are (Stokes, 2002). Some individual child characterized some of the maladaptive
factors that influence the appearance of repertoires of children as displaying
shown across time, people, settings, classroom problems are the occurrence aggression toward self or others; depres-
of mental health disorders such as anxi- sion of activity engagement or mood;
and related behavior without the ety and depression; the occurrence of and regression in cognitive, social, and
stressful life events, such as family tur- emotional behavior. Within the class-
necessity of active interventions in moil in divorce or moving homes; or the room, there are multiple examples of
absence of effective coping skills and these repertoires. Aggression can be
all of those circumstances. decision-making abilities. Within fami- seen in coercive activity such as crying,
lies, children are affected by factors such screaming, hitting, self-abuse, and other
as turbulent family lifestyles, violent tantrums and disruptive behavior.
homes, inadequate supervision, and Depression and withdrawal may be seen
making appropriate personal decisions. maladaptive or extreme discipline prac- with or without indicators of emotional
In all of these endeavors, generalization tices. Within the school and community, distress, such as mood change, sadness,
of learning is the guiding value because children are influenced by factors such pouting, and disorganized behavior.
the effects of teaching must move as being uninvolved with their available Regression is seen as children display
beyond the particular classroom and community of friends and teachers, academic skills at a level below estab-
across people, settings, behaviors, and being susceptible to negative peer lished competency levels, show
times. Securing this carryover of the influences, or being influenced by increased anxiety and emotional
outcomes of successful teaching is unmonitored contact with the media. distress, are confused or unable to con-
essential for the well-being of children. Many of these causes in a child’s centrate productively, engage in angry
Facilitating this spread of effects is the development are outside of the school, and emotional outbursts, have poor
aim of programming for generalization yet they influence emotions and behav- communication and social skills, exhibit
(Stokes & Baer, 1977). Principles of ior in a generalized manner, showing up low levels of engagement and participa-
learning provide guidelines on how a at school, and therefore becoming a real- tion in the classroom, and show depen-
teacher may maximize positive effects ity for teachers in their classrooms. dency and immaturity.
directly and insure productive generali- Understanding these influences that Thus aggression, depression, and
zation by children with emotional and affect a child can help a teacher devise regression are indicators of psychologi-
behavior disorders. ways of providing effective instruction cal distress and are likely to present a
within the context of a child’s history dedicated and nurturant teacher with
Overview 15
the need to be strategically supportive rally plentiful with consequences that recruiting of attention does not occur at
of wellness and development even while influence the occurrence of relevant an excessive rate. In this case, the chil-
appreciating the adverse circumstances behaviors in the classroom and in the dren become active agents of their own
of a child. Recognition of these emo- community. For example, greetings, behavior change, taking initiative and
tional and behavior repertoires is a sig- when appropriately presented, have a responsibility for themselves when
nal for a teacher that there are problems high probability of being returned with neglected.
afoot and therefore there is a need for a pleasant reciprocal greeting that func- Alternatively, when naturally occur-
special attention to the goal of general- tions to reinforce the interaction initi- ring consequences support maladaptive
ized development. ated. There is little need to program behavior, such as through peer support,
such behavior change artificially, then it is advisable for teachers to inter-
because certain behaviors are reliably rupt and prevent these natural conse-
Principles of Teaching for
followed by certain consequences with- quences from their usual occurrence and
Generalization
out any specific programming relevant function, thereby minimizing effects of
Generalization was characterized by to their occurrence. For example, at the dysfunctional support of performance
Stokes and Baer (1977) as occurring point of evaluation of a child’s work, counter to academic progress.
when the effects of educational or thera- correct completion should routinely Thus, contacting natural communi-
peutic behavior-change programs are receive a positive evaluation by the ties of reinforcement involves allowing
shown across time, people, settings, and teacher, and that feedback may serve as the natural consequences of emotions
related behavior without the necessity an effective reinforcer. Social behavior and behavior to develop and maintain
of active interventions in all of those cir- and academic achievement are particu- them. In addition, it involves initiating
cumstances. The spread of effects is pur- larly relevant here because of the posi- effective functional contacts with main-
posefully and efficiently obtained. This tive natural reaction received from taining consequences and decreasing
usually will not occur simply because teachers and childhood peers. Of contact with maladaptive maintaining
such an outcome is the hope of the course, there may at times be a need to consequences.
teacher or therapist. As an important “seed” the environment with people
goal in any classroom, generalization who respond appropriately.
Teach Diversely
should both be considered and actively Sometimes, however, a naturally
programmed from the beginning of occurring community of positive conse- The second principle emphasizes teach-
teaching. Three principles are pertinent quences lies dormant and needs to be ing with a diverse curriculum incorpo-
in guiding the tactics of teaching for acted upon to be effective. Teachers can rating many examples of a lesson to fos-
generalization: Contact natural commu- help children learn how to activate and ter the development of a generalized
nities of reinforcement, teach diversely, come into contact with those functional understanding, knowledge, and skill
and engage mediators of performance positive consequences. An example of useful in multiple settings. This practice
(Stokes & Baer, 1977; Stokes & Osnes, this is when students are concerned they ensures that learning is not too focused
1989). have improved their work efficiency or and is accomplished by employing mul-
output, yet teachers have not noticed. tiple teachers, learning circumstances,
In this case, the student may actively and settings, as is often seen in schools.
Contact Natural Communities of
recruit feedback, thereby initiating an Similarly, academic tasks should be
Reinforcement
evaluative interaction by asking a ques- taught using multiple and diverse exem-
The first principle advises that the best tion such as “How did I do?” A child can plars, so that after a sufficient range of
action is to directly reinforce relevant learn these techniques through simple problems are successfully mastered,
behavior in the classroom by making the demonstration and role-playing with a then the student is more able to solve
child feel good following accomplish- teacher. Initiating this recruitment of any of the range of similar problems
ments and schoolwork completion. It is positive feedback may be difficult for without direct teaching of all lesson con-
also advantageous to ensure that pleas- some students whose reputation pre- cepts. Teaching should also incorporate
ant consequences within the classroom cedes them, and whose teachers may not different presentations, sampling the
occur frequently and naturally for chil- be predisposed to positively evaluate array of similar items and materials
dren. Generally, praise, approval, their work because of the student’s his- employing multiple concepts. There are
recognition, and interpersonal attention tory of poor work completion or inap- also advantages in making conditions of
will suffice in this regard. These conse- propriate behaviors. However, in most teaching flexible and less predictable by
quences of behavior typically operate circumstances, when the student’s work allowing variation of teaching circum-
within classrooms or can be made to be is of a high quality, the teacher when so stances, presentations, and the timing
active with minimal effort. prompted will naturally respond with of positive consequences and feedback.
Any person’s environments are natu- positive evaluations, as long as the [Stokes, continued on page 38]
16 Overview
Functional Assessment of Classroom

Behavior Problems
by Robert A. Gable
Few educators would dispute the fact (Van Acker, 2004). However, across time time and get back to work,” her teacher
that not all children come to school various forces have converged to dra- is more likely to impose some kind of
ready to learn. The reasons for the matically change that role. No longer is negative consequence, such as a verbal
“readiness gap” are many and varied. it enough simply to offer students educa- reprimand or discipline referral. Most
For example, the school-age population tional opportunity; today, the expecta- students respond positively to these
is becoming increasingly more hetero- tion is that all students will benefit from kinds of admonishments. However, for
geneous. Because of their diverse back- that schooling and achieve positive some students, such actions fail to
grounds and experiences, students differ outcomes (Van Acker, 2004). Among produce the desired outcome and may
in their ability to respond to a traditional the most ubiquitous signs of that shift in actually exacerbate an already difficult
classroom milieu. The overall routine, responsibility is the importance attached situation (Gable et al., 2004).
student expectations, and/or the quality to high-stakes testing and student aca- Today, there is growing recognition
of teacher/pupil relationships some- demic progress. Accordingly, both that traditional disciplinary practices
times are at odds with family patterns of administrators and classroom personnel often do not result in positive changes in
are focusing increased attention on the behavior, especially for students who evi-
overlapping relationship between class- dence major behavior problems. Indeed,
room learning and student behavior there is compelling evidence that the
Increasingly, school personnel are problems. imposition of negative sanctions for
unacceptable behavior can trigger
finding that it is more effective to Classroom Learning and Behavior
increased levels of non-compliance,
defiance of authority, or school vandal-
Problems
respond proactively to repeated ism – problems that school officials are
When a student manifests a learning working hard to ameliorate. Increas-
bouts of student misbehavior problem, teachers rely on a set of rela- ingly, school personnel are finding that it
tively straightforward strategies. Either is more effective to respond proactively
by means of what is known as independently or in consultation with to repeated bouts of student misbehav-
colleagues, they attempt to precisely ior by means of what is known as
functional behavioral assessment. identify the problem. Teachers routinely functional behavioral assessment (FBA).
conduct either an informal or formal The FBA process is predicated on
assessment, analyze carefully the accu- three simple propositions: we can’t fix it
mulated data, and then make specific until we know why it’s broken, no one
interaction or with community norms. adjustments in the curriculum or gives up something for nothing, and one
Some children struggle with social/ instruction, or both. For example, if size does not fit all. In other words, we
interpersonal or self-management skills Ellen is experiencing difficulty applying can not determine how best to respond
that are prerequisite to performing suc- a particular algorithm to solve a math to a problem until we know the reason(s)
cessfully in school. Others may have problem, her teacher might conduct an behind it; we can not realistically expect
been subjected to harsh parental disci- diagnostic interview to pinpoint the students to stop engaging in a behavior
pline or suffered the consequences of exact nature of the problem – “Ellen, that serves a particular function unless
physical abuse, marital conflicts, or let’s look at these three problems; I’d like we give them an alternative response;
economic hardships. Finally, student- you to do each of them for me, thinking and finally, since students engage in in-
specific stressors (e.g., anxiety or aloud the steps you would take to solve appropriate behavior for many different
depression) can exact a heavy toll as well. the problem.” With the knowledge reasons, it is shortsighted to assume that
In sum, school personnel face numerous gleaned from observing closely as Ellen the same solution will apply equally to
challenges to ensuring positive educa- completed each problem, the teacher is every problem. Viewed together, these
tional outcomes for students. able to plot a course of instruction de- relatively straightforward principles set
At its inception, our system of public signed to eliminate the error in learning. the stage for new ways to address the
schooling was established to give chil- In contrast, when a behavior problem diverse needs of students with challeng-
dren the opportunity to get an educa- arises, such as when Ellen refuses to ing behavior.
tion, a task it has always performed well comply with a request to “stop wasting
Overview 17
Functional Behavioral Assessment • Test the accuracy of the hypothesis,

and the crafting of a two-fold interven-
in Schools usually by systematically manipulat-
tion plan. The plan seeks to a) reduce or
The 1997 Individuals with Disabilities eliminate the inappropriate behavior ing some aspect of the curriculum or
Education Act (IDEA) stipulates that and b) promote a more acceptable instruction (changing the instruc-
under certain conditions school person- replacement behavior. Emphasis is on tional assignment or subject matter).
nel must address student behavior by identifying those variables that, singly or • Develop and implement a behavioral
means of FBA and positive behavioral collectively, are most predictably linked intervention plan (BIP).
intervention plans and supports. to the occurrence (and nonconcurrence) • Monitor the fidelity of implementa-
Schools are obligated to initiate an FBA of the behavior. By identifying the con- tion of the plan (e.g., by means of a
when drugs, weapons, or potentially ditions under which the behavior most checklist).
dangerous behaviors exist and when stu- likely occurs, school personnel can take
dent misbehavior impedes the learning steps to address the problem, such as • Evaluate the effectiveness of the plan.
of the student or classmates. Recent removing environmental triggers that • Review critically the impact of the
changes in IDEA (2005) reaffirm that elicit the behavior (e.g., changing original plan and make adjustments,
expectation. instructional grouping), directly and as needed.
The logic behind functional behav- systematically teaching the student a More information about FBA can be
ioral assessment is disarmingly simple, more acceptable response (e.g., demon- found on the Web site of the Center for
namely that practically all student strating and role-playing requesting Effective Collaboration and Practice
behavior satisfies a need or serves a assistance), and/or offering an incentive (www.cecp.org).
function (e.g., to avoid a difficult assign- for the student to respond more appro-
ment, gain attention of classmates, priately (e.g., time on the computer).
express frustration), and is related to the Whatever the plan, it must include large Conclusion
context in which it occurs (e.g., English measures of patience and optimism. In schools across the country, there is
Most problems can be resolved, but few mounting pressure on education person-
will go away quickly or easily. nel to achieve positive outcomes for all
students. It is reassuring to know there
The FBA process is predicated Steps to Conducting a Functional are numerous evidence-based practices
Behavioral Assessment that teachers can introduce to create an
on three simple propositions: The school-based team usually conducts
effective teaching/learning environ-
ment. On those few occasions that these
we can’t fix it until we know the functional behavioral assessment strategies fail to produce the desired
according to the following 10 steps effect, one proven option is to conduct
why it’s broken, no one gives up (Gable et al., 2004): a functional behavioral assessment
• Determine that the severity of the and develop a behavioral intervention
something for nothing, and problem calls for a formal FBA. plan and, in so doing, give students a
• Define the problem in measurable, renewed opportunity to obtain a mean-
one size does not fit all. observable, and objective terms. ingful education.
• Collect data with which to identify References
the likely function(s) of the behavior Gable, R.A., Quinn, M.M., Rutherford, R.B., Howell. K., Hoffman, K., &
Butler, C.J. (2004). Conducting a functional behavioral assessment and
or geography classrooms). It follows that (e.g., to get attention, avoid an aver- developing a positive behavioral intervention plan. Washington, DC:
American Institutes for Research.
knowledge of student motivation is sive social situation, express anger or
Van Acker, R. (2004). Current status of public education and likely fu-
essential to determining the best way to frustration). ture directions in teacher preparation in the area of emotional/behav-
ioral disorders. (p. 79-93). In L.M. Bullock & R. A. Gable (Eds.), Quality
eliminate behavior that hinders instruc- • Pull together all the information personnel preparation in emotional/behavioral disorders: Current per-
spectives and future direction. Denton, TX: University of North Texas
tion. If we can predict it, we can control they have compiled and subject it to a Press.
it (Gable et al., 2004). thorough analysis.
The language of federal legislation • Generate a hypothesis (motivation) Robert A. Gable is Eminent Scholar and
implies, if not specifies, that functional statement regarding the probable Constance and Colgate Darden Professor
behavioral assessment is a team prob- function(s) of the behavior – under of Education, Darden College of Education,
lem-solving process. Its success hinges conditions X (e.g., a difficult assign- Old Dominion University, Norfolk
on the judicious use of various strategies ment), the student does Y (e.g., acts Virginia. He may be reached at 757/683-
(e.g., records review, direct observation, up), in order to Z (e.g., be sent out of 3157 or rgable@odu.edu.
structured interviews) to identify the the classroom).
reason(s) behind student misbehavior
18 Overview
Supporting Social Skill Development in

Students with Emotional/Behavioral Disorders
by Kimberly C. Crawford and Howard Goldstein
Laughing with the other children at the fort to provide these services to students peers, and spend more time engaged in
lunch table. Collaborating on a class- with emotional/behavioral disorders. purposeless or no activity and at greater
room project. Discussing plans for the physical distances from peers (Lord &
Friday night slumber party. As teachers, Magill-Evans, 1995). Sigman and Ruskin
The Development of Social Skills
administrators, and service providers, (1999) found that children with ASD
we observe these interactions among stu- As infants and toddlers, children learn spend a larger proportion of time
dents on a frequent basis. They are com- social communication primarily engaged in nonsocial play and a smaller
monplace for most children. Take a through interactions with caregivers. proportion of time in direct social play
moment to ponder how our social inter- Their social interactions typically start with others. The social interactions of
actions in school led up to our ability to with recognizing and orienting to a children with other emotional/behav-
exhibit social competence as adults. caregiver’s voice. Although many chil- ioral disorders also may exhibit these
dren have opportunities to socialize with characteristics, along with aggression or
peers at home or in childcare settings, other socially unacceptable behaviors.
friendships have yet to be formed Without explicit intervention in
With the appropriate support, (Goldstein & Morgan, 2002). However, social-communicative development,
by age three, they are often using their these children are likely to continue
children with emotional/behavioral expansive vocabulary to have adult-like demonstrating social skills deficits
conversations. This is when friendships throughout their lifetime (Goldstein,
disorders will learn the necessary begin to be cultivated. Relationships Kaczmarek, & English, 2002;
between peers begin to develop during McConnell, 2002). There is a need to
skills to foster friendships. the preschool years as natural opportu- utilize current and develop new inter-
nities for socialization and communica- ventions to increase the social compe-
tion are readily available in the pre- tence of children with emotional/behav-
school classroom and other settings ioral disorders.
This competence contributes to our (Bredekamp & Copple, 1997). Develop-
quality of life; our lives are built on posi- ment of positive social relationships is a
Social Competence Evaluation and
tive interactions and relationships with typical goal for programs that serve
Intervention
the people around us. What about stu- young children. By the time children
dents who have not developed the skills enter kindergarten, there are certain There is a vast list of skills that falls
necessary for successful social interac- widely-held expectations for their under the area of social competence.
tions? We may notice some students who behavior and social competence. By the This list includes communicative behav-
sit alone at the lunch table, who are end of the preschool period, there are iors such as making requests, gaining
forced by peers to work alone, or who great demands on children in terms of the attention of another, and comment-
never receive an invitation to the slum- their ability to communicate verbally, ing. It also involves other interactional
ber party. What impact will this have on inhibit negative behaviors, and take the behaviors such as sharing, taking turns,
their school experience and overall qual- perspective of others (Goldstein and and playing cooperatively. Thus, a key
ity of life? Morgan, 2002). However, development factor in creating an intervention pro-
In this article, we describe the of social communication skills is not gram tailored to the needs of a particu-
importance of supporting the success automatic for some children, particular student is assessment of social com-
of students with emotional/behavioral larly those with emotional/behavioral petence. Kaczmarek (2002) describes an
disorders in school and life through disorders such as autism spectrum interdisciplinary model of assessment
interventions focusing on development disorders (ASD) (McConnell, 2002). and discusses a conceptual framework
of social skills. With appropriate assess- Children with emotional/behavioral within which multiple measures can be
ment and intervention in this significant disorders, including children with ASD, used to assess a child’s social appropri-
area of development, students can learn interact in some fashion with their ateness, communicative appropriate-
how to participate in positive interac- peers. However, children with ASD ness, and social-communicative effec-
tions and build friendships. Thus, we spend less time interacting, have low- tiveness. This model involves direct
must make a conscious and defined ef- quality interactions when they join observation in the child’s natural envi-
Overview 19
Gresham, F. M. & Elliot, S. N. (1990). Social skills rating system. Circle

ronment and in analogue and role-play 1990). Self-monitoring techniques using Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.
situations, during which social skills and methods such as monitoring responses Gunter, P., Fox, J. J., Brady, M. P., Shores, R. A., & Cavanaugh, K. (1988).
Non-handicapped peers as multiple exemplars: A generalization tactic
task-coding taxonomies can be used to to initiations from peers also have shown for promoting autistic students’ social skills. Behavioral Disorders, 13,
record observed behaviors. Another positive results (Strain, Kohler, Storey, 116-126.
Kaczmarek, L.A. (2002). Assessment of social-communicative compe-
component of this model is gathering & Danko, 1994). Other self-monitoring tence: An interdisciplinary model. In H. Goldstein, L.A. Kaczmarek, & K.
information about the child from family techniques utilize video feedback (Kern M. English (Eds.), Promoting social communication: Children with de-
velopmental disabilities from birth to adolescence (pp. 55-116). Balti-
members, teachers, and peers; through et al., 1995; Wert & Neisworth, 2003), more, MD: Brookes Publishing.
this method, a comprehensive picture of or a package of strategies such as peer Kamps, D., Leonard, B., Vernon, S., Dugan, E., Delquadri, J., Gershon, B.,
et al. (1992). Teaching social skills to students with autism to increase
a child’s overall level of social compe- training, and use of pictures, written text peer interactions in an integrated first grade classroom. Journal of
Applied Behavior Analysis, 25, 281-288.
tence can be acquired. Other methods cues, and video feedback (Thiemann & Kern, L., Wacker, D. P., Mace, F. C., Falk, G. D., Dunlap, G., & Kromrey, J. D.
of evaluation and assessment involve Goldstein, 2001). (1995). Improving the peer interactions of students with emotional
and behavioral disorders through self-evaluation procedures: A com-
the use of rating scales, such as the There are numerous options available ponent analysis and group application. Journal of Applied Behavior
Social Skills Rating System (Gresham & Analysis, 28, 47-59.
for social skills intervention. The type of
Kohler, F. W., Anthony, L .J., Steighner, S. A., & Hoyson, M. (2002).
Elliot, 1990). Sociometric measures that intervention strategy that is chosen for a Teaching social interaction skills in the integrated preschool: An
assess peers’ feelings of acceptance for examination of naturalistic tactics. Topics in Early Childhood Special
particular student should be based on Education, 21, 93-103.
other children (Foster, Inderbitzen, & their level of social competence, the spe- Lord, C. & Magill-Evans, J. (1995). Peer interactions of autistic children
Nangle, 1993) and other peer ratings and adolescents. Development and Psychopathology, 7, 252-263.
cific social skills that will be targeted, the
McConnell, S. (2002). Interventions to facilitate social interaction for
can be utilized. Through the evaluation setting in which intervention will take young children with autism: Review of available research and recom-
process, appropriate goals and interven- mendations for educational intervention and future research. Journal
place (e.g., inclusive classroom), and of Autism & Developmental Disorders, 32, 351-372.
tion strategies can be established. available participants (e.g., peers devel- Odom, S. L. & Strain, P.S. (1984). Peer-mediated approaches to pro-
An assortment of interventions moting children’s social interaction: A review. American Journal of
oping typically). Orthopsychiatry, 54, 544-557.
targeting social skills in children with Oke, N. & Schreibman, L. (1990). Training social initiations to a high
emotional/behavioral disorders have functioning autistic child: Assessment of collateral behavior change
been investigated, particularly with chil-

When Should We Start? and generalization in a case study. Journal of Autism and Developmen-
tal Disabilities, 20, 479-497.
dren with ASD (Rogers, 2000). Although Rogers, S. (2000). Interventions that facilitate socialization in children
The time to start providing support in with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 30, 399-
much of this discussion involves strate- social skills development through ex- 409.
gies found to be effective with children Sigman, M. & Ruskin, E. (1999). Continuity and change in the social
plicit instruction and intervention is competence of children with autism, Down syndrome, and develop-
with ASD, these strategies have been now. With the appropriate support, chil- mental delays. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Devel-
opment, 64, 1-130.
shown to be effective with children with dren with emotional/behavioral disor- Strain, P.S., Kohler, F.W., Storey, K., & Danko, C.D. (1994). Teaching
other types of emotional/behavioral ders can learn the necessary skills to preschoolers with autism to self-monitor their social interactions: An
analysis of results in home and school settings. Journal of Emotional
disorders as well (Goldstein, begin to foster friendships. Interactions and Behavioral Disorders, 2, 78-88.
Kaczmarek, & English, 2002). Over the with their friends will allow them to Thiemann, K. & Goldstein, H. (2001). Social stories, written text cues,
and video feedback: Effects on social communication of children with
past 30 years, interventions with mul- learn even more sophisticated social autism. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 34, 425-446.
tiple age groups have focused on various skills, which, in turn, will enable them to Wert, B. Y. & Neisworth, J. T. (2003). Effects of video self-modeling on
spontaneous requesting in children with autism. Journal of Positive
strategies, including adult instruction, continue to develop relationships. These Behavior Interventions, 5, 30-34.
peer-mediation, video modeling, self- children will then be able to have a more
monitoring, and combinations of these rewarding school experience and, over Kimberly C. Crawford is a clinical
strategies. Adult-mediated intervention time, a higher quality of life. education instructor and doctoral student
involves social skills training using in the Department of Communication
References
direct instruction and/or naturalistic Disorders, Florida State University,
Belchic, J. K. & Harris, S. L. (1994). The use of multiple peer exemplars
strategies. Adult instruction methods to enhance the generalization of play skills to the siblings of children Tallahassee. She may be reached at 850/
with autism. Child & Family Behavior Therapy, 16, 1-25.
have taught children to initiate and 645-2618 or kcc02d@garnet.acns.fsu.edu.
Bredekamp, S. & Copple, C. (Eds.). (1997). Developmentally appropriate
maintain interactions with typically- practice in early childhood programs (Rev. ed.). Washington, DC: Howard Goldstein is professor and chair in
National Association for the Education of Young Children.
developing peers (Belchic & Harris, the department. He may be reached at 850/
Foster, S.L., Inderbitzen, H. M., & Nangle, D. W. (1993). Assessing accep-
1994; Kohler, Anthony, Steighner, & tance and social skills with peers in childhood. Behavior Modification,
644-6264 or howard.goldstein@comm.
17, 255-286.
Hoyson, 2001; Kamps et al., 1992). Peer- fsu.edu.
Goldstein, H., English, K., Shafer, K., & Kaczmarek, L. (1997). Interaction
mediation strategies have addressed the among preschoolers with and without disabilities: Effects of across-
the-day peer intervention. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing
same skills, but have capitalized on so- Research, 40, 33-48.
cial responding on the part of the child Goldstein, H., Kaczmarek, L. A., & English, K.M. (Eds.) (2002). Promoting
social communication: Children with developmental disabilities from
with ASD, as typical peers are taught to birth to adolescence. Baltimore, MD: Brookes Publishing.
initiate persistently (Goldstein, English, Goldstein, H. & Morgan, L. (2002). Social interaction and models of
friendship development. In H. Goldstein, L.A. Kaczmarek, & K. M. En-
Shafer, & Kaczmarek, 1997; Odom & glish (Eds.), Promoting social communication: Children with develop-
Strain, 1984; Gunter, Fox, Brady, Shores, mental disabilities from birth to adolescence (pp. 5-26). Baltimore, MD:
Brookes Publishing.
& Cavanaugh, 1988; Oke & Schreibman,
20 Profile
Project SUPPORT: A Transition Program for

Incarcerated Youth with Disabilities in Oregon
by Deanne Unruh
Adjudicated youth face numerous diffi- tice agency, the Oregon Department of each youth, but rely on the TS’s ability to
culties and unique challenges in their Education, and Oregon Vocational Reha- make decisions and connections with
growth from adolescence into adulthood bilitation Services – along with staff each youth based on information and
when compared with their peers not from the University of Oregon worked guidance provided by the youth, PO,
involved in the juvenile justice system. to develop a statewide transition pro- family or guardians, and other commu-
Their transition outcomes demonstrate gram for juvenile offenders with disabili- nity agency staff.
dismal success for this high-risk popula- ties leaving the juvenile correctional sys- Services typically occur in three
tion. These outcomes are highlighted by tem and returning to the community. phases: In-facility services, immediate
TRACS (Transition Research on Adoles- The program, Project SUPPORT, began pre/post-release activities, and ongoing
cents returning to Community Settings), a in 1999.* community support. The in-facility
recently completed five-year longitudinal The purpose of Project SUPPORT is phase activities completed by the TS are:
study that examined transition outcomes to provide incarcerated youth who have • Build positive relationship between
for incarcerated youth after leaving either a designated special education TS and youth
Oregon’s juvenile correctional facilities disability and/or mental health disorder • Define youth’s interests, needs, and
and returning to communities (Bullis, with pre-release training and coordi- life goals
Yovanoff, Mueller, & Havel, 2002). In nated planning to support their transi-
this sample, almost 60% of the youth tion into the community. Program goals • Develop transition plan
returned to the juvenile justice system or are to increase engagement in employ- • Initiate pre-employment skill building
were committed to the adult correctional ment and/or school enrollment (high • Ensure appropriate assessments and
system. Only a quarter enrolled in school/postsecondary) and decrease re- ID are available for immediate access
school, and fewer earned any high school cidivism. Key characteristics of program to services in community
completion document after exiting cus- participants are: a) average age at entry • Liaison with PO and facility treatment
tody. And employment rates were dis- is 17.4 years; b) 80% are male; c) 31% are and education staff
turbingly low, averaging less than 30%. members of an ethnic/minority group;
Those with a special education disability d) 92% have a DSM-IV diagnosis and In the immediate pre/post release phase,
(58%) were three times more likely than 45% have a combination of a DSM-IV the most intensive service phase, TS
those without a disability to return to the and special education diagnosis; e) 78% activities are:
correctional system, and two times less have a history of school absenteeism • Prepare and transfer IEP to commu-
likely to become involved in work or and suspension; f ) 76% have a history of nity education placement
school. On a positive note, formerly- substance abuse; and g) over 60% have a • Develop and implement employment
incarcerated youth with disabilities who history of living in foster care or a group options for youth in community
were working or going to school during home, running away from home or
the first six months of release were 3.2 placements, and an anger management • Set up needed social services in com-
times less likely to return to custody and deficit. munity (e.g., mental health, AODA)
2.5 times more likely to remain working A transition specialist (TS) is the key • Support youth to access services once
or in school 12 months after exiting the staff person in Project SUPPORT. Each released (e.g., transportation training)
correctional facility. Youth engaged in TS works directly with the youth and • Develop youth’s independent living
work and/or school fared better in their parole officer (PO) to develop a project skills (e.g., budgeting, finding hous-
transition than those not so engaged – a transition plan that is coupled with the ing)
finding with clear implications for devel- youth’s parole plan. Vocational rehabili- • Support and follow parole plan
opment of a transition model for this tation counselors, facility treatment and
population. education staff, and community-based • Liaison with PO and other commu-
agencies are key partners to assist in the nity support staff
successful community reintegration pro- Ongoing support phase activities are:
Project Description
cess. The transition plan is developed • Support youth to maintain engage-
Motivated by the TRACS findings, three from each youth’s strengths, barriers, ment activities (e.g., employment,
state agencies – the Oregon Youth interests, and life goals. Services are not education, hobbies)
Authority, which is Oregon’s juvenile jus- a prescriptive set of activities provided
Profile 21
• Further develop youth’s independent ing out with some of his old friends, and • Additional support services are
living skills (e.g., taxes, driving) had been under the influence of drugs needed for successful community
• Assess youth for return of former prior to this incident. The PO and TS reintegration. Basic needs (e.g., food,
negative behaviors (e.g., drugs, required that he start attending alcohol shelter, positive social network) are
gangs) and drug treatment sessions. requisite to maintain a youth’s stable
It has been nine months since his employment or school engagement.
• Continue to liaison with PO and
release and Anthony is working in a Services to support these basic needs
other community support staff
plant nursery. The TS assisted him with are necessary to sustain a youth’s suc-
(For a further project services descrip- a financial aid application and he was cessful community transition.
tion see Unruh, et al., 2004 ,2005.) able to get assistance to attend a com- • Develop systems-change collabora-
munity college landscape design pro- tions to access the available commu-
Participant Outcomes gram. Anthony is struggling with stay- nity resources. Project participants
ing clean, but has met new friends need diverse supports. Community
Project SUPPORT participants have through work that help him stay away agencies, juvenile justice, vocational
demonstrated positive results. At two, from his drug-involved friends. Anthony rehabilitation, and local schools need
four, and six months after release from a described the TS support in this way: to work together to develop systems
youth correctional facility, approxi- “When you get out you’re like now what to share information and ensure
mately 68% of all participants are posi- do I do? [The TS] will give you infinite immediate access to services upon
tively engaged in school and/or employ- possibilities. I certainly couldn’t have release from correctional facilities.
ment and have not returned to youth or started college without her. I wouldn’t
adult corrections. This rate demon- know the slightest thing to do. She
strates a much higher rate of engage- helped me, [but] it’s also you help your- Conclusion
ment than the TRACS sample, which self ” (Project SUPPORT participant).
Project SUPPORT is a promising model
showed an engagement rate of 35% by
for working with juvenile offenders with
juvenile offenders not receiving these
specialized services (Bullis, et al., 2002). Lessons Learned disabilities. The role of the TS is critical
to this model, but just as essential is the
In addition to overall outcomes, the Lessons were learned both at a systems-
development and maintenance of col-
story of Anthony, a composite case level and targeted population-level
laborative services across agencies. The
study of a “typical” project participant’s during project implementation:
implementation of this service model is a
experiences, serves to illustrate out- • Facilitate ongoing self-directed plan- difficult task, but when long-term
comes on an individual level. Anthony ning and decision-making. The inter- collaborative relationships are main-
entered Project SUPPORT a month prior ests, aptitudes, and needs of youth tained lifelong positive outcomes for this
to leaving the youth correctional facility. define specific employment, further high-risk population can be achieved.
He began working with a TS to help him education, and independent living
design a plan for his release from cus- supports. Services need to begin in *
Note: In June 2004, the Oregon Department of Education terminated
the statewide project. Currently the project operates in two Oregon
tody. Anthony was incarcerated for mul- the facility, for example by exploring counties and is funded through an Office of Special Education Pro-
tiple crimes including theft, stealing a various employment and career inter-
grams Model Demonstration Project awarded to the University of
Oregon in collaboration with the Oregon Youth Authority.
car, and assault. Most of the crimes were ests with the youth, and continue in References
committed while he was under the influ- the community to assist the youth in Bullis, M., Yovanoff, P., Mueller, G., & Havel, E. (2002). Life on the “outs.”
ence. He identifies his main transition making positive choices aligned with Examination of the facility-to-community transition of incarcerated
youth. Exceptional Children, 69, 7-22.
needs as learning how to do everyday the youth’s strengths and needs. Unruh, D., Bullis, M., Booth, C., & Pendergrass, J., (2005). Project SUP-
things, staying away from friends that PORT: A description and evaluation for a transition project of formerly
use drugs, and controlling his anger. • Employability skill training goes be- incarcerated adolescents with special education and mental health
disorders. In M. Epstein, K. Kutash, & A. Duchnowski (Eds.), Outcomes for
Upon release Anthony’s transition yond the youth being employed. The children and youth with emotional and behavioral disorders and their
was not smooth. The TS helped him TS needs to work collaboratively with families: Programs and evaluation best practices. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed, Inc.
Unruh, D., Bullis, M., Pendergrass, J., Booth, C., Waintrup, M., &
maintain his health insurance and also employment support services (e.g., Montesano, D. (2004). Project SUPPORT: A transition project of formerly
apply for food stamps. He began work- vocational rehabilitation or Work- incarcerated adolescents with special education and mental health
disorders. In D. Cheney (Ed.), Transition of students with emotional or
ing with Vocational Rehabilitation, force Investment Act) to develop behavioral disabilities from school to community: Current approaches for
positive outcomes. Arlington, VA: Council for Exceptional Children, Divi-
which helped him find a landscaping job employment and training opportuni- sion of Career Development and Transition.
and purchased his tools for the job. But, ties. Once the youth is employed,
continued monitoring and skill Deanne Unruh is a research associate in
he was soon fired because of an argu- the Secondary Special Education and
ment with his boss. He revealed that he development is a requisite to ensure
the youth maintains employment Transition research unit, University of
has stopped attending his Alcoholics Oregon, Eugene. She may be reached at
Anonymous meetings, had been hang- across jobs over time.
541/346-1424 or dkunruh@uoregon.edu.
22 Profile
Successful Living is Healing: Cleveland’s

Positive Education Program
by Thomas G. Valore
Positive Education Program (PEP) in significant people to build on and fortify person is the teacher-counselor, a title so
Cleveland, Ohio, was established in 1971 strengths and employ solutions to prob- valued by Re-EDer’s that it is respectful
to provide special education and mental lems in order to restore the ecology to a for staff to recognize each other with
health services to students with severe “tolerable level of discord.” PEP is com- that title regardless of their formal posi-
emotional and/or behavioral challenges. mitted to and is guided by the 12 Re-ED tion (a Re-ED aphorism quoted fre-
Today, PEP annually serves more than principles (Hobbs, 1982, 1994), which quently is “We are all teacher-counse-
3,000 children, birth through 21 years can be categorized under three basic lors”). Hobbs wrote extensively about
of age, and their families through an belief statements (Cantrell, Cantrell, the teacher-counselor. He believed that
array of services. PEP’s model of service Valore, Jones, & Fecser, 1999, p. 9): professional training was important, but
delivery is effective. For all four years to • We are emotional beings who need also speculated that there were natural
date where Child and Adolescent Func- each other. qualities certain individuals possessed,
tional Assessment Scale measures were based on subtle learning that occurred
TRUST is essential….
administered to all PEP Day Treatment early in life. This subtle learning mani-
Center students, scores showed statisti- FEELINGS should be nurtured…. fests itself in the presence of kids. This
cally significant improvements from GROUPS are a major source of adult appears to have a natural affinity
entry to most recent testing at a high instruction…. toward kids, who respond in kind.
level of confidence. COMMUNITIES’ benefits must be Although this natural connection is an
Articles discussing program effective- experienced…. important ingredient for working with
ness usually address classroom structure kids, skill development is necessary for
• Growth can be enhanced.
and behavior management techniques, prevention or action when problems
both of which are critical components INTELLIGENCE can be taught…. arise. Hobbs summarized the role:
of PEP programs. The purpose of this COMPETENCE makes a difference…. But most of all, a teacher-counselor
article, however, is to highlight elements SELF-CONTROL can be learned…. is a decent adult; educated, well
that are not typically discussed, but are PHYSICAL experiences help us trained; able to give and receive affec-
essential to building success in students: define ourselves…. tion, to live relaxed, and to be firm; a
beliefs, people, and a strength-based person with private resources for the
approach. Given the complexities of the • Today can be used to build health.
nourishment and refreshment of his
topic, this article can only provide a NOW is when life is to be lived…. own life; not an itinerant worker but
brief overview highlighting some of the TIME is an ally when used to make a professional through and through;
salient points on each. positive changes…. a person with a sense of the signifi-
CEREMONY gives stability…. cance of time, of the usefulness of
Beliefs today and the promise of tomorrow;
JOY should be built into each day….
a person of hope, quiet confidence,
Beliefs are the way we think about our The Re-ED principles are taught and and joy; one who has committed
colleagues, kids, and families, and disseminated to staff, students, and fami- himself to children and to the propo-
beliefs determine how we will behave lies, as well as shared with agencies with sition that children who are dis-
toward them. PEP is grounded in the whom PEP collaborates. The principles turbed can be helped by the process
Re-ED (Re-education of Emotionally provide guidance, and fuel the compas- of reeducation. (1966, p.1106)
Disturbed Children) philosophy devel- sion and passion of staff to help children
oped by Dr. Nicholas Hobbs in the early In Re-ED, interdisciplinary teamwork is
and families improve their lives.
1960s and refined continually since. paramount. Parents and professional
Re-ED is ecologically based. Re-EDer’s consultants empower and support the
believe that a child experiencing prob- People teacher-counselor by sharing their
lems within their home, school, or com- knowledge and expertise about a child
People are our most important and
munity is seen to have an imbalance in through collaborating in formal treat-
valuable resource. Troubled and trou-
their ecology or ecosystem. The ecologi- ment staffings, IEP planning and evalua-
bling children can benefit from decent
cal approach requires that professionals tion meetings, and other means of com-
and trustworthy adults in their lives to
partner with the child, family, and other munication.
help them grow and learn. In Re-ED, this
Profile 23
Strength-Based Approach use of group meetings is probably the

Attention to strengths builds success. most powerful of these strategies. Dur-
Although building successful therapeu- ing meetings students remind each
tic relationships is a staff goal for all other of their goals, share successes,
members of the child’s ecology, it is discuss existing challenges, and explore
critical with the student. PEP staff solutions, including how each member
carefully cultivate trusting and caring can help one another. Once this culture
relationships with students. The Re-ED is established, it becomes an ongoing
principle, “Trust is essential,” resonates force that continually helps to guide and
with the four components necessary for maintain the group’s therapeutic cul-
success that are identified in the resil- ture. It is this cohesive, positive, and
iency literature (Seita, Mitchell, & healthy culture that influences group Meet Josh
Tobin, 1996). Staff work hard to build a members to change their behavior and Hi, my name is Josh Goldner. I am 19
shared and caring relationship (connect- interactions in their ecologies. years old and a senior at PEP’s Midtown
edness), and help students know that Center for Youth in Transition. At Midtown,
staff will be there every step of the way Conclusion I have been able to focus on my voca-
(continuity). Staff also ensure that stu-
Implementing these important elements tional and transitional skills while
dents feel very respected (dignity) and
provide them with multiple successful will have a powerful effect on the stu- earning my high school credit.
experiences (opportunity). dent and his or her ecology. Hobbs chal- Since I was eight years old I bounced
Often considered our most powerful lenges us to create a healthy and success- from one foster home to another. My
behavior support strategy, academic ful helping ecology: behaviors in school prevented me from
programming is significant in building The constant challenge is to design a experiencing any success and led to my
success in students. PEP staff do not daily program so engaging, so varied placement at many different schools.
wait for the student’s behavior to and new yet orderly and stable…so
improve so they can teach, they teach so meshed with the growth of the After several unsuccessful placements, I
that the student’s behavior improves. child’s mind, so rich in human was enrolled in PEP’s Midtown. Here, I
Accurate assessment and goal setting, interchange…so joyous, so aware… learned to manage my behaviors so that I
precise planning, active instruction, pur- that the [troubled] child finds him- can work towards my goal of becoming
poseful engagement, and continuous self immediately committed to a new an independent adult.
evaluation can almost guarantee student way of living at once more satisfying I believe I have been successful at
success and increase their motivation to to himself and more satisfactory to
further engage in the learning process. the people in his life. (1982, pp. 88- Midtown because my teacher-counselors
Hobbs believed that school is the “busi- 89) took the time to listen and understand
ness of children,” and that we need to me. Trust in adults has always been an
engineer their success. References issue with me, but I quickly realized that
Group work in Re-ED programs has Cantrell, M. L., Cantrell, R. P., Valore, T. G., Jones, J. M., & Fecser, F. A.
(1999). A revisitation of the ecological perspectives on emotional/ the staff had my best interest in mind,
been a foundation of intervention since behavioral disorders. In L. M. Bullock & R. A. Gable (Eds.), The third
mini-library series: What works for children and youth with E/BD: Link- even when I didn’t see it that way. I
1962 when the first two Re-ED schools ing yesterday and today with tomorrow. Reston, VA: Council for Chil-
opened their doors. Hobbs placed dren With Behavioral Disorders. learned to work my program and fully
Hobbs, N. (1994). The troubled and troubling child: Re-Education in
strong emphasis on the power of the mental health, education and human services programs for children participate in my education, which
and youth. Cleveland OH: American Re-ED Association.
group “in helping each member of the mainly focused on my strengths. My
Hobbs, N. (1982). The troubled and troubling child: Re-Education in
group grow in competence, confidence, mental health, education and human services programs for children academic workload was tough but
and youth. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
self-esteem, and ability to meet the de- manageable. My teacher-counselors
Hobbs, N. (1966). Helping disturbed children: Psychological and eco-
mands of living in home, school, and logical strategies. American Psychologist, 21, 1105-1115.
stood by me, always reinforcing their
community” (1982, p. 332). At PEP, Seita, J., Mitchell, M., & Tobin, C. (1996). In whose best interest?
classrooms function as a unit through-
Elizabethtown, PA: Continental Press. belief that I could be successful. After
Valore, T. G. (1992). Group process in Re-ED. Unpublished manuscript,
out the day, meeting, playing, eating, Cleveland, OH: Positive Education Program. awhile, I just started believing it.
and learning together. To develop a posi- I am set to graduate this year and
tive cohesive group culture, the teacher- Thomas G. Valore is staff development enroll in a post-graduate auto body-tech
counselor is keenly aware of group pro- director with the Positive Education training program. Also, my former foster
cess and uses 12 cohesion-building Program, Cleveland, Ohio. He may be
reached at 216/361-4400, x127 or valore@ dad recently adopted me. Overall, my
strategies (Valore, 1992) to cultivate
those processes throughout the day. The pepcleve.org experience at PEP has been life changing.
Retrieved from the Web site of the Institute on Community Integration, University of Minnesota (http:// My goals that once seemed impossible
ici.umn.edu). Citation: Gaylord, V., Quinn, M., McComas, J. & Lehr, C. (Eds.) (2005). Impact: Feature Issue on Fostering are now within my reach.
24 Profile
Turning Around a Minnesota School At-Risk:

Dayton’s Bluff Elementary
by Jennifer McComas
Walking through the school building the principal, other building administra- a large portion of the transformation.
today, it is hard to believe that in 2000 tors, and about 80% of the teachers. The The Responsive Classroom® model
Dayton’s Bluff Elementary School was school building was rejuvenated and an provides a structure that helps children
rated among the worst elementary array of student- and family-centered learn social skills along with academic
schools in the St. Paul Public Schools support services were aligned and content. The day begins with the Morn-
(SPPS) district. Blatant disrespect located in the school. Within just two ing Meeting during which the children
toward adults and aggression toward years, students worked collaboratively sit in a circle to hear a message about the
peers was rampant, and chaos ruled the in classrooms, and greeted each other day’s events or topics of study and they
hallways and classrooms. Test scores at with smiles and handshakes and the hold an informal conversation in which
teachers and administrators with hugs. everyone participates. A set of rules for
Dayton’s Bluff students, as a whole, behavior is posted in every room and
showed the largest year-to-year gains in hallway along with the systematic and
The transformation at Dayton’s the district. Today, teachers not only universal steps for regaining self-control
come to work every day, but they arrive and turning around problem behavior.
Bluff provides a ray of hope for early and stay late, pouring their energy The seven steps consist of a series of
into creating a fun and rigorous learning consequences for misbehavior that sys-
promoting success for students at environment where respect for all is tematically escalate in severity from
evident everywhere. “take a break,” to “fix it” plans, to dis-
risk for and identified with EBD. In addition to the structural and missal from school. The consistency with
personnel changes, a combination of which the system is implemented by
fundamental components aimed at every adult in the school is remarkable. It
programming for student academic and has produced demonstrable changes in
Dayton’s Bluff were the lowest in the dis- social, emotional, and behavioral suc- student behavior and conduct, with stu-
trict and teacher morale was so low that cess was implemented to bring about dents taking responsibility for their be-
on any given day up to 80% of the teach- the astounding transformation. These havior, and dismissal from school a rar-
ing staff might call in sick. The school is components include: ity. The model also involves “buddy
located in an extremely impoverished • Use of the Responsive Classroom® classrooms.” Experienced teachers are
neighborhood in the capitol city of Min- model, an approach that brings to- typically paired with less-experienced
nesota. Over 90% of the student popula- gether social and academic learning teachers. Teachers work together to
tion (365 students, grades K-6) qualifies and “fosters safe, challenging, and assess and reflect on their performance
for free or reduced price meals because joyful classrooms and schools” (see and provide each other with constructive
their family income is near or below the www.responsiveclassroom.org). feedback regarding their interactions
federal poverty standard. Affordable with students. For example, if a teacher
• Collaboration between regular and
housing in the city is scarce and the large experiences frequent conflict with a par-
special education staff.
contingent of low-income families is ticular student, the teacher’s buddy
highly mobile, perpetually searching for • Assessments of student instructional teacher might observe the teacher and
cheaper housing. Such mobility means levels and use of instructional strate- point out the types of behaviors the
that nearly 50% of the students do not gies tailored to those levels. teacher exhibits that reliably precede the
attend the same school for the full school • Positive relationships between adults student’s outbursts. Then the two teach-
year. This staggering level of poverty and students. ers work together to identify alternative
and mobility, coupled with the lack of • A common language and ethic strategies for interacting with the stu-
teacher stability, necessary instructional throughout the school of equity, dent and monitor progress in terms of
control, and effective behavior manage- justice, and success for every student. reducing conflict and strengthening the
ment put essentially the entire student relationship between the teacher and
population at risk for developing emo- Adoption of the Responsive Class- student.
tional or behavioral disorders. room® principles throughout the entire This transformation has positively
During the summer of 2001, the dis- school, including in the special educa- affected the entire student body at
trict redesigned the school by replacing tion classes, is reportedly responsible for Dayton’s Bluff, including students identi-
Profile 25
fied as having an emotional/behavioral school, with the same high expectations elements for the type of widespread
disorder (EBD). All staff members in the for academic performance and pro- success observed at Dayton’s Bluff. The
school receive intensive training in the social behavior held for all students, principal holds high expectations for
principles and procedures associated demonstrates a cohesiveness that con- teacher performance and provides con-
with the Responsive Classroom® model. tributes to the success of all students in stant guidance and feedback for effective
“Collaboration is key to our teachers the school. All students experience the implementation of the essential compo-
finding creative ways to grow at their same consequences for misbehavior, nents of the program. Teachers are
craft and help our students exceed the including those students who have a his- provided with intensive training as well
standards” says Von Sheppard, principal tory of significant behavioral problems as ongoing “booster” sessions tailored to
of Dayton’s Bluff Elementary School. in school, and all students are provided their individual needs. The model is
The EBD teacher collaborates with multiple opportunities to correct their working so well that most students,
regular education teachers who teach own behavior within the systematized including students with the most severe
students on her caseload, and she co- program. Rob O’Hara-Graff, an EBD EBD, are experiencing academic success
teaches in regular education classrooms. teacher who joined the staff this year, and are able to turn their behavior
The uniformly high expectations for explains, “Our students who have low around within one or two opportunities
academic performance and standards of esteem and/or make poor choices have a to regain control. Given the focus on
behavior are held for all students, chance to see fairness in how everyone is teaching social skills along with academ-
regardless of whether they are identified treated alike, that they will not be con- ics, and the resultant improvements
as having EBD. Students with EBD have demned for making a mistake, and will observed, there is every reason to believe
responded with the same academic and be encouraged to succeed by everyone.” that these students will stand alongside
behavioral improvements demonstrated Mr. O’Hara-Graff has also commented their regular education peers in leading
by the general student population. The that the first thing he noticed at productive, successful lives.
common policies and procedures used Dayton’s Bluff was the common lan- The transformation at Dayton’s Bluff
across regular and special education guage throughout the building. He finds provides a ray of hope for promoting
classrooms promote academic and that the consistent joint efforts between academic and behavioral success for a
behavioral success for all students. regular and special education staff rep- large population of students at risk for
The importance of social skills resent a strong united front in the devel- developing, and identified with, EBD.
instruction is equal to that of academic opment of appropriate behavior of all The investment in “people-power” that
success for all students. The academic students. prioritizes small class sizes and strong
success that regular and special The equity and fairness that is a professional development programs over
education students at Dayton’s Bluff hallmark of the Responsive Classroom® cutting-edge technology has resulted in
experience is largely a product of the model contributes to the development successful primary and secondary
individualized instruction all students of positive relationships between stu- prevention that supports the tertiary
receive. Individualized assessments are dents and staff. The high level of consis- prevention resources provided by the
conducted with each student to deter- tency with which the staff members district for students identified with EBD.
mine the specific instructional needs of implement the program builds trusting The comprehensive, multi-dimensional
each across the content areas. Instruc- relationships between students and program addresses needs across domains
tion in reading, writing, and math is adults in the building. It is much more for all students, including those with
conducted in “workshop” style that in- common for students to be sent to the EBD, increasing the likelihood that they
volves a “mini-lesson” of approximately principal’s office to read something will experience success in school, remain
5-10 minutes followed by a period of they’ve written or share an accomplish- in school through graduation, and suc-
time during which students receive ment in math than to face disciplinary cessfully transition into adulthood.
guided practice and feedback on appli- action. When disciplinary action is
cations of the mini-lesson. Data are necessary, the staff members approach Jennifer McComas is associate professor in
regularly collected and analyzed to de- the problem as a partner with the the Department of Educational Psychology,
termine students’ growth and to identify student to understand and solve the University of Minnesota. She may be
areas in need of individualized instruc- problem rather than as heavy-handed, reached at 612/624-5854 or jmccomas@
tional strategies. Students with EBD controlling, punitive authority figures. umn.edu. The article was authored in
respond particularly well to the brief This approach promotes mutual respect, collaboration with Von Sheppard, principal
instructional periods followed by oppor- responsibility, and pride, and reduces at Dayton’s Bluff Elementary School,
tunities to practice what they’ve learned the incidence of learned helplessness. St. Paul, Minnesota. He may be reached at
and experience success in school. Strong leadership from the principal 651/293-8915 or von.sheppard@spps.org.
The common language of respect and ample opportunities for profes-
that is spoken throughout the entire sional development are also critical
26 Profile
Implementing School-wide Positive

Behavior Supports
by Timothy J. Lewis
The challenges students with emotional/ The teams work within a three-tiered develop comprehensive systems of sup-
behavioral disorders (EBD) present to continuum of behavioral and academic port to insure all adults are aware of and
schools and communities have been well supports: fluent in implementing targeted prac-
documented (Lockwood, 1997; Myers & tices. The systems of support include
• First tier: Universal supports for all
Holland, 2000; U.S. Department of Edu- faculty and staff training, resource allo-
students within a school or district.
cation, 1998). The impact of EBD on the cation, development of routines, and
This is the primary level, and its
students themselves paints a bleak pic- codifying all procedures into school
essential features include positively
ture, with poor academic and social out- policy. The basic building blocks of
stated expectations, strategies to
comes (U.S. Department of Education, school-wide universal supports to indi-
teach expectations, high rates of rein-
1998; Wagner, 1991). The literature is vidual student plans include a) teaching
forcement for complying with expec-
clear that our best hope of helping stu- pro-social behaviors that will replace
tations, and clear routines to increase
dents with EBD is effective prevention problem behavior, b) multiple opportu-
the likelihood of success (Lewis &
and early intervention practices (Kamps, nities to practice expected pro-social
Sugai, 1999).
Kravits, Rauch, Kamps, & Chung, 2000; behaviors, and c) specific and positive
Kamps, Kravits, Stolze, & Swaggart, • Second tier: Secondary or small feedback upon instances of student
1999). Unfortunately, to date, school group/targeted level of supports mastery and use of the appropriate skill.
systems have not built the capacity focusing on students who require While the essential features of
to implement prevention efforts additional intervention to achieve SW-PBS are drawn from previously
(Kauffman, 1999) and, at the opposite outcomes. This level uses strategies research-validated practices, the ability
extreme, many engage in disciplinary such as small group instruction in to “measure” the impact of prevention
practices such as “zero tolerance” that self-management and social skill efforts remains difficult in that if univer-
actually exacerbate the problem (Mayer, development as well as academic sal efforts are effective, students do not
1995; Skiba & Peterson, 2000). One ap- support in groups. come to the attention of school staff.
proach to prevention and early interven- • Third tier: Individual supports imple- Currently, research is under way track-
tion that’s proving successful is school- mented with students who have ing students who enter school “at-risk”
wide positive behavior support(SW-PBS). chronic patterns of problem behav- and examining the long-term impact of
ior. The focus is on the completion of SW-PBS efforts.
a functional behavioral assessment The following case study provides an
Teamwork in SW-PBS
that leads to an individualized posi- illustration of how one school used the
One of the central strategies of SW-PBS tive behavior support plan. logic and process of SW-PBS to address
is the use of school teams to build an a kindergarten student who was display-
effective schoolwide system that imple- Across the three tiers of support, ing a common pattern among students
ments practices the literature has identi- SW-PBS emphasizes a common set of ultimately identified as having EBD –
fied as effective to provide prevention practices, language, and processes to in- high rates and high intensity of problem
and early intervention for all students, crease maintenance and generalization behavior.
particularly those who may be at-risk of each level of support. School teams
(Sugai & Horner, 1999; Sugai, Sprague, apply a problem-solving process across
Horner, & Walker, 2000; Sugai et al., all the levels that emphasizes three es- Case Study in SW-PBS at the
1999). Schools must have administrators sential features. First, teams use data to Individual Level
as part of the teams, in addition to repre- guide decision-making and to evaluate “Moesha” (pseudonym) was a five-year-
sentatives of grade levels, curriculum their efforts to impact student behavior. old kindergarten student who was re-
departments or other school teams, and That data indicates where problems ceiving no specialized services. She was
specialists. The teams’ primary function occur, which students account for the referred to the SW-PBS team by her
is to draft policy and discuss all materials majority of behavioral issues, and what classroom teacher and the assistant
and actions with their respective con- means of addressing them are presently principal based on an escalating pattern
stituencies to increase “buy-in” and make is in place. Second, teams identify of non-compliance, aggressive behavior
sure developed policy reflects building empirically-validated practices to match directed toward peers and adults, and
faculty and staff values. need. Finally, school teams work to tantrums that escalated, on one occa-
Profile 27
sion, to the point of necessitating police vention involved Moesha reporting to the school is fading the self-manage-
intervention. At the time of her referral the assistant principal’s office when she ment plan, has enrolled her in a small
to the support team, Moesha was also had earned a pre-determined number of social-skill group to work on peer inter-
referred for preliminary assessment to points on her self-management card. action skills, and continues to teach,
determine the appropriateness of a spe- This visit was to provide additional at- practice, and celebrate Moesha’s and all
cial education referral, for case review by tention and celebration for Moesha and students’ mastery of pro-social skills.
the district mental health coordinator, an opportunity to visit the office under Empirical studies are clearly war-
and, as a result of police involvement on positive versus punitive circumstances. ranted before the field can unequivo-
that prior occasion, for informal conver- In addition to visits for mastery, the cally point to SW-PBS as effective in the
sations with juvenile justice. All of the principal and assistant principal pro- prevention and intervention with stu-
referrals are common in the pathway to vided practice opportunities to be es- dents who have EBD. However, students
identifying a student as having an EBD. corted to the office in case her behavior like Moesha can ill afford to wait for the
Moesha’s elementary school had been escalated to the point of her needing to research outcomes. What SW- PBS does
implementing SW-PBS for three years be removed from the classroom. Clear provide is a mechanism for schools to
prior to this case study. The school had a and consistent instructions were given adopt already validated prevention/
universal set of expectations, social skill during times Moesha was on-task and intervention practices in a comprehen-
lesson plans to teach the expectations, engaging in appropriate behavior re- sive and systemic way.
clear routines, and evidence to show an garding expected behavior while the
References
overall impact on student behavior administrator escorted Moesha to the Kamps, D., Kravits, T., Rauch, J., Kamps, J. L., & Chung, N. (2000). A pre-
through a decrease in behavioral inci- office. Once in the office, Moesha was to vention program for students with or at risk of ED: Moderating effects
of variation in treatment and classroom structure. Journal of Emo-
dent reports. The school also had begun sit down and review what she needed to tional and Behavioral Disorders, 8(3), 141-154.
to implement secondary/small group do if she was asked to leave the class- Kamps, D., Kravits, T., Stolze, J., & Swaggart, B. (1999). Prevention
strategies for at-risk students and students with EBD in urban el-
interventions such as targeted social skill room and what would happen once she ementary schools. Journal of Emotional & Behavioral Disorders, 7(3),
groups and mentoring. At the start of arrived in the office (i.e., sit down, relax 178-189.
Kauffman, J, M. (1999). How we prevent the prevention of emotional
the current school year the school had for awhile, and then they would talk and behavioral disorders. Exceptional Children, 65, 448-468.
developed a process for identifying and about what happened and create a plan Lewis, T. J., & Sugai, G. (1999). Effective behavior support: A systems
approach to proactive schoolwide management. Focus on Exceptional
supporting individual students. so it won’t happen in the future). Children, 31(6), 1-24.
In Moesha’s case, behavioral inci- At the time of the initial meeting, Lockwood, D. (1997). Violence among middle school and high school
students: Analysis and implications for prevention. Washington, DC: U.S.
dence data, assistant principal and Moesha was averaging three to five visits Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, National Institute of
teacher interviews, and a classroom ob- to the office per week for major behav- Justice.
Mayer, G. R. (1995). Preventing antisocial behavior in the schools.
servation were conducted to determine ioral problems. The teacher also re- Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 28, 467-478.
patterns and maintaining variables of ported daily instances of minor problem Myers, C. L., & Holland, K. L. (2000). Classroom behavioral interven-
tions: Do teachers consider the function of the behavior? Psychology
the problem behavior. Based on data it behavior. At the time of the writing of in the Schools, 37(3), 271-280.
was hypothesized that Moesha engaged this article, the school reported Moesha Skiba, R.J., & Peterson, R. L. (2000). School discipline at a crossroads:
From zero tolerance to early response. Exceptional Children, 66, 335-
in minor problem behavior to access did not have a single office visit for prob- 347
teacher and peer attention, and tan- lem behavior in over three months. All Sugai, G., & Horner, R. (1999). Discipline and behavioral support: Prac-
tices, pitfalls, and promises. Effective School Practices, 17, 10-22.
truming to escape “disciplinary action” referral inquiries for additional services Sugai, G., Horner, R. H., Dunlap, G., Hieneman, M., Lewis, T. J., Nelson,
(i.e., going to timeout room near the have also been withdrawn, except ongo- C. M. et al. (1999). Applying positive behavior support and functional
behavioral assessment in schools. Eugene, OR: OSEP Center on Positive
principal’s office). Moesha’s plan ing support for the family that consists Behavioral Interventions and Supports.
consisted of two principle components. of regular contact and updates on Sugai, G. , Sprague, J. R., Horner, R. R., & Walker, H. M. (2000). Prevent-
ing school violence: The use of office discipline referrals to assess and
First, a self-management chart was devel- Moesha’s progress, as well as sharing of monitor school-wide discipline interventions. Journal of Emotional
oped for Moesha to provide a visual rep- techniques to reduce the likelihood of and Behavioral Disorders, 8, 94-101.
U.S. Department of Education (1998). Violence and discipline problems
resentation of her compliance with the problem behavior and increase structure in U.S. public schools: 1996-97. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of
school-wide expectations. Teachers and in the home. Education, National Center for Educational Statistics.
Wagner, M. (1991). Dropouts with disabilities: What do we know? What
other faculty and staff also provided can be done? Menlo Park, CA: SRI International.
high rates of praise and attention if they
observed Moesha engaging in behaviors Conclusion
Timothy J. Lewis is professor and chair in
related to the school-wide expectations. While it is certainly too soon to state the Department of Special Education,
All of these efforts were designed to unequivocally that this school has effec- University of Missouri, Columbia. He may
meet Moesha’s need for teacher atten- tively prevented the development of a be reached at 573/882-3742 or lewistj@
tion, while providing multiple instances more severe and chronic pattern of missouri.edu.
of specific feedback related to the behavior in Moesha, it has built the ca-
school-wide social skills. pacity to implement what the literature
The second component of the inter- indicates are best practices. At present,
28 Profile
Improving Social Development School-Wide:

The BASE Program
by J. Ron Nelson
The large number of students with

Activity 2: Teach Three Skills/Rules
• Adjust ecological arrangements of
emotional and behavioral disorders the common areas of the school. All students and staff in the school learn
(EBD) has been a long-standing concern three simple, contextually-relevant
• Teach all students and staff three
to school psychologists, educators, par- social skills or rules via a common
simple skills/rules.
ents, and the public at large (Achenbach, language that is applied school-wide
Levent, & Rescorla, 2002). Estimates pro- • Actively supervise the common area (setting events, antecedent): a) be safe,
vided in the Surgeon General’s Report on routines. b) be responsible, and c) be respectful.
Student and Mental Health (U.S. Depart- • Use the Think Time Strategy. These social skills are operationalized for
ment of Health and Human Services, • Develop a continuum of administra- all major aspects of school (e.g., hallway
1999) indicate that 21% of youth within tive disciplinary responses. behavior). A three-phase process is used
the general population have a mental to teach students the social skills. In the
health related disorder that manifests first phase, students are taught the social
into a range of problem behaviors. Fur- Activity 1: Adjust Ecological skills with high levels of supervision.
ther, demographic characteristics such as Arrangements This supervision continues through the
socioeconomic status, geographic loca- first two to three weeks of school, and
Adjustments are made to the ecological
tion, and community size (e.g., rural vs. includes high rates of social reinforce-
arrangements of the common areas of
urban) appear to have little influence on ment and corrective feedback if neces-
the school (e.g., hallways, cafeteria,
base rates and types of problem behavior sary. The second phase involves conduct-
restrooms, playground) to eliminate or
(McDermott & Schaefer, 1996). Within ing periodic reviews during the first two
reduce social cues or situations that
this context, the Center for At-Risk months of the school session, with
might increase problem behavior (set-
Children’s Services at the University of reduced levels of supervision. In the
ting events, antecedents). The following
Nebraska – Lincoln has worked with third phase, “booster sessions” are con-
guidelines are used to improve the sched-
K-12 schools across the country to ducted throughout the remainder of the
uling and use of space:
create a school-wide social development year as needed (e.g., after holidays).
program called Behavior and Academic • The density of students is reduced by
Support and Enhancement Program using all entrances and exits to a
(BASE), which is designed to improve given area; the space between groups, Activity 3: Actively Supervise
the social and academic outcomes of lines, and classes is increased; and the Common Areas
students with or at risk of EBD. The age-range of students is increased as Active supervision of the common area
remainder of this article describes BASE, the density of students increases. routines is used to prevent problem
outcomes for students, and lessons • Wait time (e.g., time standing in the behavior and to respond effectively when
learned along the way. lunch line) is kept at a minimum. it occurs (setting event, antecedent).
• Travel time/distance are decreased as Established patterns of supervision are
much as possible (e.g., all entrances developed to enable staff to provide a
Description of BASE
are used during morning arrival). more complete and balanced coverage of
BASE, rooted in social learning theory the common areas. Staff are trained in
• Physical signs are used to mark transi-
(Bandura, 1997), is implemented by all the supervision of common areas and in
tion zones that indicate movement
staff and students in a school. It uses a the implementation of responses to
from less to more controlled space or
long-term, consensus-based, participa- problem behavior to promote student
indicate behavioral expectations for
tory approach to alter the climate and self-regulation skills. These responses
the common areas of the school.
culture of the entire school. The goal is replicate the Think Time Strategy in the
to increase and reinforce the number of • The sequence of events in the com- common areas (see below).
prosocial cues and models in the school, mon areas is designed to facilitate
to increase student social and academic the type of behavioral momentum
competence, and to decrease the fre- desired (e.g., going to recess before Activity 4: Use the Think Time Strategy
quency and severity of problem behavior rather than after lunch may result in The Think Time Strategy (Nelson & Carr,
over time. Specifically, BASE has five students being better prepared for 2000) is a cognitive-behavioral timeout
primary activities: instruction). strategy designed to enable the teacher
Profile 29
and student to stop a negative social positive effects on the formal adminis- program. Second, the problem behavior
exchange, and provide the student feed- trative disciplinary actions (i.e., de- and associated discipline-related issues
back and an opportunity to plan. Used creased office discipline referrals, sus- addressed by a school-wide social devel-
in the classroom and common areas for pensions, and emergency removals) opment program are often difficult
minor deportment problems, it can and academic achievement (i.e., increase because staff have different levels of
a) reduce the intra- and interpersonal in reading, spelling, mathematics, lan- expertise, perspectives, and commit-
effects of student-teacher interactions, guage arts, science, and social studies) ment. Third, many school staff fail to
b) deliver a stable response to problem of the participating schools. Compari- understand the importance of teaching
behavior across all staff, c) provide the sons between a sample of students students the social skills specific to the
student a quiet period to enable the with or at risk of EBD (n = 207) and a school setting (e.g., arrival procedures).
student to “save face” and regain self- matched (age and grade) group of We have found that staff may often be
composure, d) provide the student with criterion students indicated small to unaware of the social skills specific to
feedback and an opportunity to plan for moderate positive effects on the social their school setting and the associated
subsequent performance, and e) enable competence and academic performance discipline policies and practices. Finally,
the teacher and student to cut off a of the target students. the amount of staff development
negative social exchange and initiate a Staff responses to the program have required to implement and sustain a
positive one. The U.S. Department of been positive. They are perhaps best school-wide social development program
Education’s Expert Panel on Safe, Disci- summed up by Dr. DeAnn Currin, prin- is often under-estimated. The life expect-
plined, and Drug-Free Schools has desig- cipal of Elliott Elementary School in ancy of a school-wide program will be
nated the Think Time Strategy as a Lincoln, Nebraska, when she observed: approximately two years unless ongoing
promising program. professional development occurs.
If children with behavior disorders
are able to focus on learning in the Note: Preparation of this article was supported in part by grants from
the U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education Pro-
Activity 5: Develop a Continuum of classroom, everyone else can too. grams (No. H324X010010, H324D010013, and H325D990035). Opinions
Administrative Responses The social development program expressed do not necessarily reflect the position of the U.S. Depart-
ment of Education, and no endorsement should be inferred.
which leads to clear expectations,
A continuum of administrative disci-
positive behavior instruction, consis- References
plinary responses is developed to
tency, and non-confrontational sig- Achenbach, T. M., Levent, D., & Rescorla, L. A. (2002). Is American stu-
increase student self-regulation, per- dent behavior getting worse? Teacher ratings over an 18-year period.
nals for attention keeps all children School Psychology Review, 31, 428-442.
spective taking, and problem-solving
on track. The program enables chil- Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York:
skills (i.e., antecedent, consequence). Freeman.
dren with emotional and behavioral
The continuum of responses addresses McDermott, P. A., & Schaefer, B. A. (1996). A demographic survey of rare
disorders to focus on learning in the and common problem behaviors among American students. Journal of
challenging problem behavior that is Clinical Child Psychology, 25(3), 352-362.
classroom and the teacher to focus
referred to the administrative team. Nelson, J. R. (1996). Designing schools to meet the needs of students
on teaching. who exhibit disruptive behavior. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral
Disorders, 4, 147-161.
Nelson, J.R. & Carr, B.A. (2000). The Think Time strategy for schools.
Student Outcomes with BASE Denver, CO: Sopris West.
Lessons Learned Over the Years Nelson, J. R., Martella, R. M., Marchand-Martella, N. (2002). Maximizing
Elementary, middle, and high schools student learning: The effects of a comprehensive school-based pro-
gram for preventing problem behaviors. Journal of Emotional & Behav-
across the country have adopted BASE We have learned a great deal over the ioral Disorders, 10(3), 136-148.
in an effort to improve the social behav- years implementing BASE in elemen- U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (1999). Mental health:
A report of the Surgeon General: Children and mental health (pp. 123-
ior and academic outcomes of all tary, middle, and high schools. On the 220). Washington, DC: Public Health Service.
students, including those with EBD. surface, it appears that implementing
Schools adopting BASE have experi- a school-wide social development
J. Ron Nelson is co-director of the Center for
enced decreases in problem behavior, program such as BASE would be quite
At-Risk Children’s Services, University of
increases in prosocial behavior, and simple. However, there are a number of
Nebraska, Lincoln. He may be reached at
improvements in academic achievement common obstacles that arise that must
402/472-0283 or rnelson8@unl.edu.
(Nelson, 1996; Nelson, Martella, & be overcome. First, problems with inap-
Marchand-Martella, 2002). For ex- propriate instructional materials, learn-
ample, Nelson and colleagues (2002) ing environments, or a school culture
used a quasi-experimental design to that is unwilling to accept the diversity
assess the effects of BASE over a two- and individuality of the students (espe-
year period in seven elementary schools. cially those who exhibit problem behav-
Comparisons with the remaining 28 ior) and families all take precedence
elementary schools in the district indi- over high-level discussions about creat-
cated consistently moderate to strong ing a school-wide social development
30 Profile
The Impact of Explicit Reading Instruction on

Student Achievement: Study Findings
by Katherine B. Falk and Joseph H. Wehby
Students identified with emotional/ Information regarding effective read- One instructional method that is
behavioral disorders (EBD) typically ing strategies is necessary to prevent explicit in nature and has proven effec-
exhibit learning difficulties that further students with EBD from falling even fur- tive with diverse learners is Direct
impede their success in school and ther behind their peers in the most basic Instruction (Adams & Englemann, 1996;
contribute to dismal school and post- of reading skills. In addition, there has Carnine, Silbert, & Kameenui, 1997).
school outcomes. In fact, rates of student been some evidence that improvements Direct Instruction is a highly scripted
disengagement in school, absenteeism, in reading achievement effect decreases teaching method that includes frequent
course failure, and dropout are highest in problem behavior in the school setting questioning by the teacher, enabling
for students with EBD when compared (DuPaul, Ervin, Hook & McGoey, 1998; students to constantly interact and be
to students with other kinds of disabili- Locke & Fuchs, 1995). While no generali- engaged with the lesson and allowing
ties (Wagner et al., 2003). More specifi- zations can be made about this associa- teachers to provide immediate correc-
cally, students with EBD often encounter tion due to the limited research base, the tive feedback. In particular, Direct
difficulties in the area of reading fact that some findings reveal collateral Instruction has evidenced significant
(Maughan, Pickles, Hagell, Rutter, & improvements in behavior due to reading statistical improvement with students
intervention suggests that effective aca- with disabilities (Lloyd, Forness, &
demic instruction may be a vital compo- Kavale, 1998), although specific work
nent to addressing behavioral problems with students with EBD remains sparse.
Students with emotional/behavioral in school settings. Given the degree of In an attempt to extend the research
negative school outcomes for this popu- in this area, one particular study
disorders typically exhibit learning lation of students, extending empirical (Barton-Arwood, Wehby, & Falk, in
investigations to focus on the reading press) examined the effect of the SRA
difficulties that further impede and academic needs of students with Horizons reading program supple-
EBD is essential. mented with the PALS (Peer Assisted
their success in school and In spite of the limited research base, Learning Strategies) (Fuchs, Fuchs,
the studies that have investigated reading Mathew, & Simmons, 1997; Mathes,
contribute to dismal school and interventions with students with EBD Grek, Howard, Babyak, & Allen, 1999)
have yielded promising results (Babyak, peer-tutoring intervention on a group of
postschool outcomes. Koorland, & Mathes, 2000; Falk & third grade students with EBD. Horizons
Wehby, 2001; Wehby, Falk, Barton- is a Direct Instruction program that
Arwood, Lane, & Cooley, 2003; Wehby, focuses on the areas of phonemic aware-
Lane, & Falk, 2005). Although the small ness, explicit phonics, comprehension,
Yule, 1996; Rock, Fessler, & Church, number of studies and methodological fluency, and spelling. The lessons are
1997). Deficits in phonological aware- issues associated with them make it diffi- fast-paced and include materials and
ness, decoding, fluency, and comprehen- cult to generalize the findings for recom- stories that are both colorful and engag-
sion become increasingly difficult to mendation, it appears that, at the very ing. Visual prompts that highlight
remediate as students progress through least, students with EBD respond to read- atypical word spellings as well as letter
school and, as a result, inhibit students ing instruction that is explicit and sys- combinations and silent letters in the
with EBD from experiencing school suc- tematic. In addition, the National Read- text are heavily included in the begin-
cess. Unfortunately, there is an insuffi- ing Panel (National Institute of Child ning of the program yet are gradually
cient research base investigating strate- Health and Human Development, 2000) faded out. Additionally, the PALS read-
gies to improve the reading achievement has established that effective reading ing program is a peer-tutoring program
of students with EBD. In a review of the programs for all learners should include in which higher and lower functioning
literature, Coleman and Vaughn (2000) instruction in phonemic awareness, readers are paired together to lead one
identified only eight studies that focused phonics, fluency, and comprehension. another through various reading activi-
on reading interventions with students Studies that have incorporated explicit ties. These activities focus on letter-
with EBD. While several studies have methods of teaching skills in these areas sound correspondence, blending
been added to that list since then, the re- have demonstrated increases in reading sounds, sight words, and reading sto-
search on this issue remains limited. achievement for students with EBD. ries. The lessons are initially scripted
Retrieved from the Web site of the Institute on Community Integration, University of Minnesota (http://ici.umn.edu). Citation: [Falk, continued on page 39]
Gaylord, V., Quinn, M., McComas, J. & Lehr, C. (Eds.) (2005). Impact: Feature Issue on Fostering Success in School and Beyond for Students
with Emotional/Behavioral Disorders, 18(2). Minneapolis: University of Minnesota, Institute on Community Integration.
Profile 31
The Candle
by Wes Goodson
Love is as a living candle
that lights one’s very soul.
The candle can never be blown out
but as hatred takes its toll,
the candle runs the risk of falling
into the darker side of the soul.
The hateful half of the human soul,
is like a horrid, pitch black hole.
Where demons dwell
and wait to take control
of the lovely light within your soul.
But there is luck without luck
in the candle of your soul.
For it will never be extinguished
but it may turn cold.
Supporting the Dream of Becoming a Poet For if it fall among the halls
of the demons from within,
My name is Wes Goodson. I am a junior parts and sounds. This makes words easier to
they will keep it for themselves
at Madison Special Education School in work with, and it has made my vocabulary
and let the heat grow dim.
Nashville, Tennessee. School has been very get much bigger and better. In the fall of
challenging for me because I have dyslexia 2004, I tested out of the decoding program, For within the hole inside your soul
and other learning disabilities. I do love and I am now working in the SRA compre- it is chilling, icy cold.
learning, and my favorite classes are reading hension program. This takes the decoding And this dark ice will never be nice
and writing. I really enjoy the classics, and I skills a step further, because now I have to to a light so bright and warm.
have listened to the audio recordings of comprehend short passages, and answer For the ice does not wish to melt
many classic stories and novels. Poetry is my questions about what I have read. In SRA and the darkness will hold its own.
greatest interest, and I have written dozens comprehension we do really fun skill- For the lovely light of love
of poems using a digital recorder and a building drills like deductions and analogies. with beauty bright and warm
teacher as a scribe. My poem “The Candle” Since I have been involved in SRA corrective will not keep its brilliant light
has been published in a collection of poetry reading, I have learned to enjoy reading and in a realm so miserable and glum.
called “Breaking Ground.” I am inspired by writing even more. I am now getting the It will not go out, of this I am sure.
the writing of Edgar Allen Poe, and I think he skills I need to read and write independently. But the brilliant light will suffer
is one of the greatest writers of all time. This is something I have not been able to do much worse askewer.
I have always been interested in reading in the past, and I look forward to being able
and writing, but it has always been very For the lovely light of beauty true
to put my new skills to use.
difficult for me. During the last two years at shall suffer in ways its owner never knew.
All in all, SRA corrective reading has helped
my school, I have been involved in a reading For the once white, hot light of love
me to become a better reader and a better
program called SRA Corrective Reading. In is now a bonfire in a tub.
writer. Since becoming a writer is a dream
this reading program, I have learned to Flaring dark and evil flames
that I have, I hope that I will be able to
recognize words by learning the skill of and hating the world above.
continue to improve my skills. Here is a copy
decoding them. The first section of SRA is all of my best poem. It is called “The Candle,” So keep hate far from your soul
about decoding, and I have learned the skill and I believe it shows how far I have come. and your candle will not fall to the demon’s goal.
of breaking unfamiliar words down into So love your life and live it with love,
and keep your candle warm and snug.
Retrieved from the Web site of the Institute on Community Integration, University of Minnesota (http://
ici.umn.edu). Citation: Gaylord, V., Quinn, M., McComas, J. & Lehr, C. (Eds.) (2005). Impact: Feature Issue on
Fostering Success in School and Beyond for Students with Emotional/Behavioral Disorders, 18(2). Minneapolis:
University of Minnesota, Institute on Community Integration.
32 Profile
Planning Behavior Improvement

at Nebraska’s Beatrice High School
by Reece L. Peterson, Courtney Miller, and Russell Skiba
Seven years ago Beatrice High School in schools’ comprehensive school improve- explored two possible avenues to achieve
Beatrice, Nebraska, became one of the ment planning. While the focus of plan- this. These avenues were the creation of
field sites for the Safe and Responsive ning was not specifically on students a Parent Coordination Council through
Schools Project (SRS), a project develop- with emotional or behavioral disorders which parents may serve as volunteers
ing a process by which schools would (EBD), more effective ways to meet the to monitor students during faculty
use data to plan and implement school- needs of students with EBD were con- meetings, before/after school, in the
wide student behavior improvement sidered and addressed at all three levels gym at lunch time, and during the day
and violence prevention activities. The of action. An emphasis on establishing a in the student lounge; additionally the
positive behavioral environment was team hoped to train parents to use a
seen as supporting these students and Web-based communication module to
possibly preventing some of the alterca- improve teacher communication with
Seven years ago Beatrice High School tions they had with classroom teachers. parents. Both were implemented and
Because there was concern about sus- have had varying degrees of success.
became one of the field sites for the pending students with EBD too fre- Overall, all staff have felt that having
quently, earlier and alternative interven- parents more visible around school has
Safe and Responsive Schools Project. tion options that did not interrupt their been a strong benefit to the school. It
schooling were desired by participating has extended the level of adult supervi-
Beatrice focused on improving the schools. sion of students in school, and spread
At Beatrice High School, a SRS team responsibility for maintaining good stu-
behavior and safety of its students. was formed which included the princi- dent behavior beyond administrators
pal, assistant principal, counselor, spe- and teachers. Although the Web-based
cial education teacher, school psycholo- communication was used effectively by
gist, and several other teachers. The some parents, others did not find it
federally-funded project was a collabora- team immediately started to gather data helpful. Nevertheless, it did provide an
tion of the University of Nebraska- from existing sources (office referral, alternative means of parent-educator
Lincoln and Indiana University, in part- and suspension and expulsion data) and communication, and everyone feels that
nership with several field site schools in made plans to gather survey data as improved communication with parents
those two states. At Beatrice, a school in well. Three safety questionnaires (one helped students both academically and
a rural community of about 13,000, the for students, one for school staff, and with behavior.
effort has focused on improving the one for parents) were administered. The The team also wished to address a
behavior and safety of its students by team completed and discussed a needs building-wide behavior/discipline pro-
employing a school-wide team to plan assessment which identified compo- gram, evaluating and possibly revamp-
and implement specific activities. nents that were in place or lacking at ing the high school’s current discipline
The SRS project started with a work- each of the three framework levels: Cre- system. The plan involved the imple-
ing plan and a framework for planning ating a Positive Climate, Early Identifica- mentation of an “after-school school” in
related to behavior using three levels of tion and Intervention, and Effective Re- lieu of out-of-school suspension, and
action: Creating a Positive Climate (ac- sponses. The team then prioritized its changes to the building’s in-school
tivities designed to promote good behav- concerns or areas in which they wanted suspension program. The team imple-
ior and prevent problems), Early Identi- to improve, and began to formulate the mented a revision of the office referral
fication and Intervention (efforts to plans to address each level of action. discipline procedures, which attempts to
intervene early and quickly when signs The Beatrice High School team more appropriately match the conse-
of problem behavior were detected), identified two top areas to address: quence with the student’s offense, and
and Effective Responses to Chronic increasing parental involvement (Creat- the use of a “time-out” strategy, allowing
Behavior Problems (efforts to manage ing a Positive Climate), and establishing students to problem solve in a different
the behavior of students with chronic a building-wide behavior/discipline environment and resolve the conflict
behavior problems). As plans were de- program (Effective Responses). The without an office referral. The resulting
veloped they were usually coordinated team wanted to involve parents more in new time-out procedure (referred to as
with or incorporated into specific the daily workings of school life and Out-of-Classroom Intervention; OCI)
Profile 33
became operational the next school year. The team also implemented a pro- positive student behavior in a range of
The purpose was to afford students and gram called BASE (Beatrice After-School ways throughout the school day and
teachers a break from the situation and Education). BASE is a student manage- year.
to allow for a brief cool-down period for ment program that works with students While Beatrice High School contin-
instances that did not warrant an office who chronically violate school policy ues to refine its own planning process to
referral. Teachers were allowed to send a and have not been able to adjust appro- better meet the needs of all of its stu-
student to OCI if the classroom educa- priately to basic behavior guidelines as dents, a couple of lessons have been
tional process was being interrupted be- set forth in district policies. BASE is learned. Improving climate and behav-
cause of the student’s actions and pres- used as a program assignment for stu- ior are a process, not a one-time event.
ence in the classroom, and if the teacher dents who have received an out-of- And good local ideas can emerge and are
deemed that no administrative involve- school suspension, as a tutoring pro- enhanced when placed within the struc-
ment was necessary. Students sent to the gram for students who are behind in ture of a comprehensive planning
designated OCI room then completed a class assignments, and as an alternative framework.
problem-solving form with a paraeduca- program for students who do not regu- An outgrowth of this project was the
tor. Students who successfully com- larly attend school or have been as- development of the Safe and Responsive
pleted the problem-solving form and signed a long-term suspension. BASE Schools Guide, materials created in part
complied with the OCI rules were then begins at 4:00 p.m. and ends at 6:00 as a result of the Beatrice High School
allowed to return to their next scheduled p.m., Monday through Thursdays. The experience that are now available for use
class. In an effort to evaluate the effec- team continues to evaluate the effective- by other schools. The guide, as well as a
tiveness of this procedure, the com- ness of the BASE program by monitor- variety of checklists, forms and fact
pleted problem-solving forms were ana- ing the numbers, sources, and types of sheets addressing many of the topics
lyzed and the frequency of referrals per referrals, and has made several minor covered above can be found on the Safe
teacher and per student, referring stu- modifications. So far the BASE program and Responsive Schools Web sites at
has been useful particularly for out-of- http://www.unl.edu/srs and http://
school suspended students, including www.indiana.edu/~safeschl.
students with EBD or other disabilities,
A outgrowth of this project was as an alternative to suspension or expul- Note: The activities described in this article were funded in part by a
grant from the Office of Special Education Programs, U.S. Department
sion. It has provided a vehicle to main- of Education, #H324N990009. The article was prepared with assis-
tance from Jason Sutter, Principal, John Jerosh, Assistant Principal,
the development of the Safe and tain school ties and to continue educa- and members of the planning team at Beatrice High School.
tional services on the one hand, but on
Responsive Schools Guide, the other hand has made a BASE “sus- Reece L. Peterson is a professor in the
pension” more aversive, interrupting the Department of Special Education and
materials created in part as a student’s social time with peers after Communication Disorders, and Courtney
school and ending the often unsuper- Miller is a doctoral student in school
result of the Beatrice High School vised, “free time” of a traditional out of psychology, University of Nebraska,
school suspension. Lincoln. Dr. Peterson may be reached at
experience that are now available Subsequently, while continuing to 402/472-5480 or rpeterson1@unl.edu.
refine the Parent Council, OCI, and Russell Skiba is a professor in the Depart-
for use by other schools. BASE, the team focused on improving ment of Counseling and Educational
climate issues in the school as a result of Psychology at Indiana University,
the data from the safety questionnaire. Bloomington.
The team was particularly concerned
dent behaviors, and whether the forms about how well students were being ap-
were filled out appropriately by the stu- preciated for their positive behavior, and
dents. In addition, teachers were given a decided to implement celebration events
survey in an effort to assess their knowl- for students with perfect attendance, for
edge of the OCI procedure, their use of students with no tardiness, and for stu-
it, and their feedback regarding its dents whose grades or behavior had
implementation. After reviewing the improved during the semester. These
data obtained from the problem-solving celebration events included a half-day
forms as well as from a teacher survey pizza party to recognize these deserving
about the program, the team has contin- students and other forms of recognition
ued to further improve and “tweak” the at the end of each semester. These have
effectiveness of the OCI procedure. also brought recognition by all staff of
34 Profile
Implementing Problem-Solving in Colorado:

Wellington Junior High
by Suzanne E. Kemp
One of the most important social tasks Wellington Junior High School is challenging behaviors. A referral to an
facing children is for them to develop located in north central Colorado and administrator would only occur as a last
problem-solving skills. The inability to has a student population of 350. It is a resort if these two levels failed to pro-
resolve conflicts and understand and “multi-categorical” school, which means duce changes in a particular student’s
negotiate successfully the complexity of that it serves all students with disabili- behavior.
an expanding social world often results ties in all settings. Students with dis- Teachers agree to be flexible in the
in social isolation, aggression, and abilities are included in the general edu- specific language they use to communi-
school failure. Training in problem solv- cation classroom and curriculum and, if cate with students during problem solv-
ing is a way to enhance children’s rela- necessary, receive modified instruction ing so as to best capitalize on the per-
tionships and adjustment. These inter- in reading, math, and social skills. The sonalized rapport they have established
teachers, students, and administrators with particular students. However, all
at the school fully embrace a problem- staff consistently follow some basic
solving approach as consistent with the steps. The first step of problem solving
Students feel more in control of their school’s inclusionary philosophy and is often the most difficult to complete:
practices. The decision to implement a early identification of the potential
behaviors and are better able to formal problem-solving model began as problem. Jennifer Highstreet, a multi-
an intervention for a few students who categorical teacher at Wellington Junior
manage themselves. Through these were identified as having emotional dis- High, explains that one of the areas in
orders (ED), and now, five years later, all which general education teachers re-
proactive behavioral and academic of the student body are actively engaged quire the most training is identifying
in this process. All staff teach problem early warning signs before a student’s
interventions many previously solving to every student, not just those inappropriate behavior escalates. Early
with ED. The use of school-wide prob- identification is important because stu-
failing students are experiencing lem solving functions as a common dents are more responsive to following
approach for all staff across all environ- directions when they still have some
success in school. ments, thus eliminating confusion control over their behavior. The second
between teachers and students and step is to move the student to an estab-
enhancing consistency. lished “safe” spot. The goal here is to
The school does not adhere to a provide the student with a quiet place
ventions typically involve three steps: specific problem-solving curriculum. where he or she can regain control be-
a) conceptualizing conflict situations, Rather, it bases its program loosely on fore returning and problem solving with
b) developing solutions, and c) imple- the social problem-solving training the teacher. Students are instructed to
menting selected strategies. Examples framework described by Gesten, re-enter the classroom silently, take a
of conflicts include reacting to a bully’s Weissberg, Amish, and Smith (1987). seat, and resume engaging in the current
threats, entering an ongoing conversa- This framework provides a structure for activity. As soon as the teacher is avail-
tion, making friends, being falsely the staff to use when deciding on what able, he or she begins the problem solv-
accused of misbehaving, wanting to problem-solving components may best ing dialogue by asking the student two
spend time with someone, suspecting a fit their student population and school questions: a) What was going on that
classmate of stealing, and being teased. community. The framework provides caused you to go to the safe spot and b)
Children’s ability to resolve these types guidance in the areas of program design how are you going to address the issue in
of conflicts appropriately and success- and structure, assessment issues and the future? The wording, length, and
fully helps them shape their feelings strategies, and teacher training and detail of the discussion are flexible and
about themselves and the school experi- selection. General education teachers based on teacher discretion. However,
ence as well as enhance the quality of are the primary staff to engage students all teachers spend time helping the stu-
their peer relationships. This article in problem solving. The multi-categori- dent identify their own frustration trig-
describes one school’s experience with a cal teachers are the secondary staff who gers. The goal is to have students recog-
problem-solving model for addressing provide more intensive problem-solving nize when they are experiencing
problem behavior. training for students with the most increased frustration and be able to
Profile 35
remove themselves before staff need to ety of inservice training sessions helping Resources of Interest
intervene. According to Ms. Highstreet, general education teachers to indepen-
the goal is to have the entire problem dently conduct this type of informal The following resources on topics related
solving process last 10 minutes or less. assessment. As a result, the general edu-
to this Impact issue may be of interest to
The majority of students, including cation teachers have learned to identify
many identified with ED, are able to antecedents, describe consequences they readers:
meet this goal. are employing, manipulate the curricu- • National Technical Assistance Center
The inability of some students to lum or environment, and understand on Positive Behavioral Interventions
benefit from this process – either be- the most common functions of behavior and Supports (www.pbis.org). The cen-
cause they are repeat offenders or (e.g., attention and escape). Therefore,
they are often the ones who collect this ter has been established by the Office of
exceeding the 10-minute timeframe –
results in a more formal collaborative information and process it with a multi- Special Education Programs, U.S. Depart-
process between the general education categorical teacher in order to develop a ment of Education, to give schools capac-
teacher and one of the multi-categorical behavior intervention plan that allows ity-building information and technical
teachers. This discussion focuses on the student to experience increased suc- assistance for identifying, adapting, and
identifying possible antecedents to the cess in their classrooms. sustaining effective school-wide disciplin-
problem, what occurs during the prob- The general education teachers at
Wellington Junior High School have suc- ary practices. The Web site includes infor-
lem-solving process, outside issues, and
other pertinent topics. A new behavior cessfully implemented this school-wide mation on school-wide positive behavior
intervention plan is collaboratively problem-solving model with collabora- support at primary, secondary, district-
developed to address the student’s prob- tion from the multi-categorical teachers. wide, and state-wide levels, as well as in
lems. It may also be determined at this This approach has resulted in teachers relation to families and the law.
meeting that an assessment of the be- spending more time teaching academics
havior and situation is warranted. The and less time managing students’ inap- • Check & Connect Model (http://
assessment answers the question of why propriate behaviors. The inclusion of all ici.umn. edu/checkandconnect). The
a child behaves a certain way, so that teachers learning how to identify ante- Check & Connect model promotes student
educators can modify some aspect of the cedents, consequences, and purposes of engagement with school, reduces drop-
curriculum (e.g., instruction, materials, behavior for students with particularly out, and increases school completion. It is
tasks) or environment (e.g., providing challenging behaviors has prevented the
data-driven and grounded in research on
cues for students to engage in appropri- need for specialists conducting formal
ate behaviors and reinforcing them). It multi-faceted functional assessments resiliency and home-school collaboration.
results in positive, rather than punitive, and reduced the need for involving The Web site offers information regarding
techniques to resolve student problems. school administrators in the disciplinary the model, current projects and initiatives,
It is possible to identify what purpose a process. Students have indicated that related publications, and upcoming pre-
student’s behavior serves by observing they feel more in control of their behav- sentations and workshops.
and recording events that precede the iors and are better able to manage them-
behavior (antecedents) and events that selves. Through these proactive behav- • Suspending Disbelief: Moving Beyond
follow the behavior (consequences). For ioral and academic interventions many Punishment to Promote Effective Inter-
example, a teacher tells Mary to stop previously failing students are experi- ventions for Children with Mental or
talking to Judy (antecedent), Mary encing success in school. Emotional Disorders (2003). By T. Seltzer,
whistles (behavior), and the teacher tells J. Bliss, P. Tantamjarik, and J. Duda. A
Reference
her to stop whistling (consequence). It is Gesten, E. L., Weissberg, R. P., Amish, P. L., & Smith, J. K. (1987). Prob- paper examining congressional intent in
reasonable to assume that Mary’s whis- lem solving training: A skills-based approach to prevention and treat-
tling serves the function (or purpose) of
ment. In C. A. Maher & J. E. Zins (Eds.), Psychoeducational interventions
in the schools: Methods and procedures for enhancing student compe-
the IDEA regarding children with behavior
getting her teacher’s attention. The tence (pp. 26-45). New York: Pergamon. problems, specifically in relation to the
more Mary misbehaves, the more atten- provisions on functional behavioral
tion she gets from her teacher. As this Suzanne Kemp is a lecturer in the assessment and positive behavioral inter-
example illustrates, some children find it Department of Special Education and ventions and supports. The report com-
preferable to get negative attention Communication Disorders at the
University of Nebraska, Lincoln. She may pares that intent with actual implemen-
rather than no attention. Based on this
information, the teacher can make im- be reached at 402/472-0084 or skemp2@ tation of the mandate. Available from the
mediate changes in the environment or unl.edu. Bazelon Center for Mental Health Law
curriculum to remedy the misbehavior. online at www. bazelon.org/publications
Ms. Highstreet has conducted a vari- or at 202/467-5730 x 110.
36 Continuation
[Ernie, continued from page 1]

A student receiving special education New Mexico; Carole Brito, a research ing to learn. I want to own my own busi-
services at Robertson High, he was diag- associate at the Center for the Education ness some day. It’s better to run your
nosed with emotional disorders. But he and Study of Diverse Populations; own show.” He says school is one of his
had one special teacher who he looked Paula Kohler, an associate professor at priorities. “I will go back to school no
up to, Gloria Pacheco. “She was always Western Michigan University; Sue matter what,” says Ernie. “But I would
motivating me,” says Ernie. “I love that Gronewold, an education administrator prefer to get a full-time job and go to
lady. She pulled me through. She helped for the New Mexico Public Education school at the same time.” He already
me through everything. Even today, she Department; and Marilyn D’Ottatavio, proved he could juggle both school and
acknowledges me in town.” the transition coordinator for the Albu- work. At the end of his senior year he
querque Public Schools, help in training worked at a plumbing company in Las
teachers across New Mexico to use the Vegas as a tech helper for six months
Self-Directed IEP/ITP. “I think this is the before being laid off during the winter
As Ernie says of the plan, answer. We need to empower kids to months. Today, he has gotten a full-time
carve out their own direction,” says job at an auto parts store. He also says
“In my opinion, the Self-Directed Alarid. “The good transition ages are that taking care of his son is on the top
between 16 and 22 years of age. We can of his list. “My little boy is my number
IEP/ITP is about exactly that, help facilitate choices regarding post- one priority. I get to see him around
secondary experiences and community three times a month. He throws a fit
taking responsibility and accepting college placement. It is important to
help transition individuals from high
responsibility. It is my plan, so I school to the real world with the idea
that they have an opportunity to be- “I think this is the answer. We
work hard at doing the best I can.” come as independent as possible and be
rewarded with a much better life. We need to empower kids to carve out
have to be able to support them through
the process.” their own direction,” says Alarid.
Pacheco introduced Ernie to the In April of 2004, Ernie and Darlean
Self-Directed IEP/ITP, an individualized gave a presentation for educators at a
education and transition planning National Center on Secondary Educa-
program that encourages students to tion and Transition meeting in New until he calls me on the phone. It kills
actively participate in decision-making Orleans explaining how he was able to me when I have to take him back or
and self-advocacy to help make a suc- make it through school by focusing and hang up the phone with him,” says
cessful transition into the adult world. becoming independent. They’re invited Ernie. While everything is not exactly as
“When he did this, it made a big impact to present this June in Washington, D.C. he’d like it to be, Ernie has made a start
on his life,” says Darlean. His bad habits at the 2005 National Leadership Sum- in the right direction. And like most
started tapering off and eventually he mit on Improving Results. people, he looks forward to even better
graduated from Robertson High School Pacheco says there was always some- things to come, one day at a time.
in 2004. “In my opinion it was the Self- thing special about Ernie. “He was a dif-
Directed IEP that empowered Ernie to ficult young person,” says Pacheco. “But Jesse Gallegos is an editorial assistant at
take control of his life. The way he did he had a spark in his eye. As with all my New Mexico Highlands University, Las
that was by looking at where he was and students, I do not give up on them. The Vegas, New Mexico. For more information
realizing where he wanted to go. He little baby boy that he has is his shining about the Self-Directed IEP/ITP process
defined the steps he had to take,” says star. It gives purpose to his life. God and teacher training, contact James Alarid,
Pacheco. As Ernie says of the plan, “In works in mysterious ways.” School of Education, New Mexico
my opinion, the Self-Directed IEP/ITP is As a senior in high school, Ernie took Highlands University, at 505/454-3509 or
about exactly that, taking responsibility a basic math class at Luna Community alarid_james@nmhu.edu.
and accepting responsibility. It is my College in Las Vegas and he intends to
plan, so I work hard at doing the best I attend that school in the fall in hopes of
can.” receiving his mechanic’s certificate. “I’m
Dr. James Alarid, the dean of the a hands-on guy. I’m always working on
School of Education at New Mexico my truck. I do my own work on it, ex-
Highlands University in Las Vegas, along cept for painting it. I’ve already changed
with Ginger Blalock, a professor of my engine on it around ten times. What
special education at the University of I don’t know about mechanics, I’m will-
Continuation 37
[Lehr, continued from page 3]

• Primary prevention. Includes strate- and competencies. Skill areas and that require understanding the issues
gies and programs that are designed examples of interventions especially faced by students with EBD, advanced
to prevent the development of prob- relevant to students with EBD are listed skills in program implementation, and
lems, target all students, provide below: a comprehensive approach that is cohe-
students and school staff with a • Academic. Using effective strategies sive, multi-faceted, and multi-tiered.
strong foundation for teaching ap- to promote academic achievement,
References
propriate behaviors, and have a low including explicit and systematic Losen, D.J. & Orfield, G. (2002). Racial inequity in special education.
cost per individual. Examples include instruction in reading; using alterna- Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Publishing Group.
school-wide positive behavioral sup- tives to out-of-school suspension to National Association of School Psychologists (2004). Position
statement on students with emotional and behavioral disorders.
ports, school climate improvement increase opportunities for learning. Retrieved 11/8/04 from www.nasponline.org/information/
pospaper_sebd.html.
projects, and collaboration between
• Social/behavioral. Implementing Quinn, M.M., Rutherford, R.B., & Leone, P.E. (2001). Students with dis-
family, school and community. abilities in correctional facilities. ERIC EC Digest #E621. Arlington, VA:
school-wide social development ERIC Clearinghouse on Disabilities and Gifted Education.
• Secondary prevention. Includes pro- programs; using functional behavior Sugai, G. & Horner, R. H. (2002). Introduction to the special series on
grams that decrease the frequency or assessment to understand and positive behavior support in schools. Journal of Emotional & Behav-
ioral Disorders, 10(3), 130-135.
intensity of problems, are designed change behavior. Wagner, M. & Cameto, R. (2004). The characteristics, experiences, and
to address alterable factors that place outcomes of youth with emotional disturbances. NLTS-2 Data Brief,
• Emotional. Implementing school- 3(2). Minneapolis, MN: National Center on Secondary Education and
students at risk (e.g., angry or violent Transition, University of Minnesota.
wide and individual strategies to
behavior), and have a moderate cost Wagner, M., Newman, L., D’Amico, R., Jay, E.D., Butler-Nalin, P. &
promote mental health; providing Marder, C. (1991). Youth with disabilities: How are they doing? Menlo
per individual. About 10-15% of Park, CA: SRI International.
instruction and opportunities for
students may need more intensive U.S. Department of Education (2002). Twenty-fourth annual report to
self-advocacy, counseling. Congress on the implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities
supports at this level. Examples Education Act (IDEA). Washington D.C.: Author
include conflict-resolution lessons, • Vocational. Providing access to U.S. Public Health Service (2000). Report of the Surgeon General’s Con-
ference on Children’s Mental Health: A national action agenda. Wash-
peer-tutoring programs, and social- vocational assessments; providing ington, DC: Department of Health and Human Services.
skills instruction. relevant opportunities to learn out-
side of school (e.g., work programs,
• Tertiary prevention. Includes pro- Camilla A. Lehr is a research associate
extracurricular opportunities).
grams designed to remediate estab- with the Institute on Community Integra-
lished problems, reduce the duration, • Transition. Providing mentoring sup- tion, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.
and preclude negative outcomes. Pro- ports to facilitate transition and ad- She may be reached at 612/624-0722 or
grams are highly individualized and justment to school; using orientation lehrx001@umn.edu. Jennifer McComas is
student centered, provide an effective and welcoming procedures to ease an associate professor in the Department of
and efficient response to students transition between schools; incor- Educational Psychology at the University of
most in need, and have a higher cost porating self-determination skills for Minnesota. She may be reached at 612/
per individual. About 1-5% of stu- transition from school to work. 624-5854 or jmccomas@umn.edu.
dents will have chronic problems that
require more intensive supports.
Conclusion
Examples include wrap-around ser-
vices, individual functional behavior Complex problems such as facilitating
analysis, and individualized behavior success for students with EBD are rarely
management plans. solved with simple, uni-dimensional
strategies. One issue critical to the selec-
Educators and administrators at elemen-
tion and program planning process in-
tary, middle, and high schools can use
volves examining the resources available
this model to guide prevention and in-
for program implementation. Sustained,
tervention efforts.
cohesive programming is essential, in
contrast to offering isolated programs
Building Competence Across that do not reach out to include collabo-
Domains rative efforts with others throughout the
school, or with parents and community
In addition to offering interventions
members. Students with EBD have
across different levels, interventions
many strengths, and their teachers are
must address relevant domains of com-
talented individuals. Nonetheless, effec-
petence for students with EBD. Effective
tive, cohesive, programming is neces-
interventions not only prevent prob-
sary and presents specific challenges
lems, but also assist in building skills
38 Continuation
[Stokes, continued from page 15]

Thus, teaching diversely involves appropriate. Similarly, social skills and Resources of Interest
sampling the diversity and depth of ex- problem solving in difficult or aggressive
emplars of lessons within the multiple circumstances can be taught and prac- The following resources on topics related
situations that a child is likely to come ticed with peers who are also likely to be
present in other situations requiring to this Impact issue may be of interest to
into contact with, so that the wide-
those skills. The presence of those peers readers:
ranging generalized repertoires of
emotion and behavior are supported. in generalization circumstances may • On a Collision Course? Standards, Dis-
signal or cue performance of an effective cipline and Students with Disabilities.
de-escalating or coping repertoire.
Engage Mediators of Performance Policy Research Brief 8(4), (1996). By M.
Thus, engaging mediators of perfor-
mance involves teaching a repertoire of Sinclair, M. Thurlow, S. Christenson, & D.
The third principle recommends teach-
ing to enable personal repertoires that skill that can be carried by the student. Evelo. A review of educational reforms
take advantage of children’s abilities to This teaching is in a manner that insures emphasizing the need for higher aca-
transfer and carry skills across environ- that emotions and behaviors are demic standards for all students and zero
ments, allowing for later production in strongly influenced by what a child no- tolerance policies, the ways in which
the classroom or at a different time and tices and does later in those other situa-
these reforms may challenge youth at
place. Some of these techniques are tions. That repertoire mediates a gener-
alized outcome. high risk for school failure, and strategies
variations of the memory enhancement
provided by “a string on the finger” as a for policy implementation that can help
cue to remember to do something in high risk students remain in school and
Conclusion
particular. The difference here is that the meet these higher standards. Available
skill carried and produced across times Improved academic, emotional, and from the Institute on Community Integra-
and settings is usually more complex behavioral repertoires of children that
tion, University of Minnesota, 612/624-
(e.g., problem-solving rules) and readily result from effective classroom teaching
should be durable and widespread. It 4512 or publications@icimail.umn.edu.
influenced by being in circumstances
similar to original learning (e.g., a test should never be assumed that what is • The Characteristics, Experiences, and
given in another though similar class- seen in one environment will automati- Outcomes of Youth with Emotional Dis-
room can be completed by using a set of cally be present in another situation or turbances: NLTS2 Data Brief (2004). By
guiding rules for problem solution time, although sometimes that happens.
To ensure that generalization occurs, M. Wagner and R. Cameto. This NLTS2
instructed by a teacher). In this strategy,
teaching should incorporate tactics that Data Brief takes a fresh look at selected
the skill is transported in the child’s
repertoire and the performance is have been shown to enhance generalized characteristics of youth with emotional
facilitated by the cues already present in performance. Generalization should be disturbances and their households that
new circumstances. attended to actively as a teachable and distinguish them from other youth with
Many of these mediated generaliza- essential goal of procedures facilitating disabilities and/or from youth in the gen-
tion techniques relate to self-control and positive change, from the outset rather
than as an afterthought with minimal eral population. It also describes aspects
cognitively-recalled self-instructional
action (Stokes & Baer, 2003). of their school histories, indicators of their
strategies taught with a general purpose
of moving them between settings as the academic performance and social adjust-
References
new environment cues the child both by Stokes, T. (2002). Terror and violence perpetrated by children. In C.E.
ment at school, and activities outside of
the commonality of the circumstances Stout (Ed.). The psychology of terrorism, volume IV: Programs and prac- school. Available from the National Cen-
tices in response and prevention (pp 77-90). Westport, CT: Praeger.
and by signaling that it is now advanta- Stokes, T.F. & Baer, D.M. (1977). An implicit technology of generaliza- ter on Secondary Education and Transi-
geous to produce that skill under those tion. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 10, 349-367.
Stokes, T. & Baer, D.M. (2003). Mediated generalization: An unfinished tion, Institute on Community Integration,
generalized circumstances. For example, portrait. In K.S. Budd & T. Stokes (Eds). A small matter of proof: The
legacy of Donald M. Baer (pp. 125-138). Reno, NV: Context Press. at http://www.ncset.org/publications/
a child actively participating in their
own education can practice evaluating Stokes, T., Mowery, D., Dean, K.R., & Hoffman, S.J. (1997). Nurturance viewdesc. asp?id=1687.
traps of aggression, depression, and regression affecting childhood
and recording their own performance, illness. In D.M. Baer & E.M. Pinkston (Eds). Environment and behavior
(pp 147-154). Boulder, CO: Westview Press. • Pacer Center (www.pacer.org, 952/
and can practice guiding self-instruc- Stokes, T.F. & Osnes, P.G. (1989). An operant pursuit of generalization. 838-9000). PACER Center works to en-
tions about the sequence of components Behavior Therapy, 20, 337-355.
hance the quality of life of children and
of the task in their original learning en- Trevor Stokes is a professor with the Louis
vironment. These techniques can then young adults with disabilities and their
de la Parte Florida Mental Health
be carried within the child’s repertoire Institute, University of South Florida, families, based on the concept of parents
across settings for production at a later Tampa. He may be reached at 813/974- helping parents. Their Web site has practi-
time under other circumstances when 6189 or stokes@fmhi.usf.edu. cal resources on parenting children with
Retrieved from the Web site of the Institute on Community Integration, University of Minnesota (http:// emotional/behavioral disorders.
ici.umn.edu). Citation: Gaylord, V., Quinn, M., McComas, J. & Lehr, C. (Eds.) (2005). Impact: Feature Issue on Fostering
Continuation 39
[Falk, continued from page 30]

Babyak, A.E., Koorland, M., & Mathes, P.G. (2000). The effects of story
and teacher-guided until students grow coding Series was selected. This particular mapping instruction on the reading comprehension of students with
strand focuses on practicing a variety of behavioral disorders. Behavioral Disorders, 25, 239-258.
comfortable enough with the routine of
Barton-Arwood, S.M., Wehby, J.H., & Falk, K.B. (in␣ press). Reading in-
the lessons to lead each other through word-attack skills as well as leading struction for elementary-age students with emotional and behavioral
students in group reading in which they disorders: Academic and behavioral outcomes. Exceptional Children.
independently. The combined interven-
Campbell, K.U. (1999). Great leaps reading program. Micanopy, FL:
tion lasted for an hour of instructional read stories out loud and answer a series Diarmuid, Inc.
time each day and was implemented of comprehension questions after short Carnine, D.W., Silbert, J., & Kameenui, E.J. (1997). Direct Instruction
reading (3rd edition). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill.
across pairs of students over a 27-week sections of the text. This instruction was Coleman, M., & Vaughn, S. (2000). Reading interventions for students
period. Throughout the course of the implemented for 30-40 minutes each day. with emotional/behavioral disorders. Behavioral Disorders, 25, 93-104.
study, students demonstrated increases In this intervention, SRA Corrective Read- DuPaul, G.J., Ervin, R.A., Hook, C.L. & McGoey, K.E. (1998). Peer tutoring
for children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: Effects on
in phoneme blending, phoneme segmen- ing was also supplemented with a classroom behavior and academic performance. Journal of Applied
Behavior Analysis, 31, 579-92.
tation, nonsense word fluency, sight repeated reading strategy in order to Engelmann, S., Engelmann, O., & Davis, K.L.S. (1997). Horizons.
word reading, and oral reading fluency. provide students with additional fluency Columbus, OH: SRA/McGraw-Hill.
Moderate to significant gains were also practice in text. With repeated reading, Engelmann, S., Meyer, L., Carnine, L., Becker, W., Eisele, J., & Johnson, G.
(1999). Decoding strategies. Columbus, OH: SRA/McGraw-Hill.
noted in percentile scores between pre- students read aloud short passages of Falk, K.B., & Wehby, J.H. (2001). The effects of peer-assisted learning
and post-test on subtests of the Woodcock text several times through in order to strategies on the beginning reading skills of young children with
emotional or behavioral disorders. Behavioral Disorders, 26, 344-359.
Johnson Reading Mastery Tests-Revised and improve oral reading fluency. In this par- Fuchs, D., Fuchs, L.S., Mathes, P.G., & Simmons, D.C. (1997). Peer-
the Comprehensive Test of Phonological ticular intervention, students were paired Assisted Learning Strategies: Making classrooms more responsive to
diversity. American Educational Research Journal, 34, 174-206.
Processing. Such findings indicate that ex- with a research assistant to read passages Lloyd, J.W., Forness, S.R., & Kavale, K.A. (1998). Some methods are
plicit instruction targeting a variety of taken from the Great Leaps Reading Stories more effective than others. Intervention in School and Clinic, 33, 195-
200.
reading skills is beneficial for students (Campbell, 1999). For the first reading, Locke, W.R. & Fuchs, L.S. (1995). Effects of peer-mediated reading in-
with learning and behavioral deficits. the students read the passage aloud with struction on the on-task behavior and social interaction of children
with behavior disorders. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders,
While the research is limited in this the research assistant. For subsequent 3, 92-99.
area, even less is known about reading readings, the students took turns reading Mathes, P.G., Grek, M.L., Howard, J.K., Babyak, A.E., & Allen, S.H. (1999).
Peer-Assisted Learning Strategies for first-grade readers: A tool for
practices that are effective with older aloud and providing corrective feedback preventing early reading failure. Learning Disabilities Research and
Practice, 14, 50-60.
students with EBD who have a history of to one another. After four readings, the Maughan, B., Pickles, A., Hagell, A., Rutter, M., & Yule, W. (1996). Read-
academic failure. There have been several students were given a new passage of the ing problems and antisocial behavior: Developmental trends in
comorbidity. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 37, 405-418.
studies, however, that have evidenced same difficulty level; these readings were National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (2000).
increases in reading achievement with timed in order to get a measure of both Report of the National Reading Panel. Teaching children to read: An
evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on read-
older students with EBD with a program oral reading rate and accuracy. This por- ing and its implications for reading instruction. (NIH Publication No. 00-
tion of the intervention required 20-30 4769). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
known as SRA Corrective Reading (Engel-
Rock, E.E., Fessler, M.A., & Church, R.P. (1997). The concomitance of
mann et al., 1999). SRA Corrective Read- minutes of instructional time. After 19 learning disabilities and emotional/behavioral disorders: A conceptual
weeks of intervention, the results of the model. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 30, 245-263.
ing is a Direct Instruction program devel-
Strong, A.C., Wehby, J.H., Falk, K.B., & Lane, K.L. (2004). The impact of a
oped particularly for older students who intervention revealed that students ex- structured reading curriculum and repeated reading on the perfor-
hibited growth in fluency and compre- mance of junior high students with emotional and behavioral disor-
display significant difficulties in reading ders. School Psychology Review, 33, 561-581.
and who have not responded to other hension during the SRA Corrective Read- Wagner, M., Marder, C., Blackorby, J., Cameto, R., Newman, L., Levine, P.,
ing intervention and that the addition of & Davies-Mercier, E. (with Chorost, M., Garza, N., Guzman, A., & Sumi,
reading programs. The program includes C.) (2003). The achievements of youth with disabilities during secondary
scripted lessons focusing on two strands the repeated readings effected further school. A report from the National Longitudinal Transition Study-2
(NLTS2) . Menlo Park, CA: SRI International. Available at
of decoding and comprehension as well increases in these two areas. www.nlts2.org/reports/pdfs/achievements_ywd_sec_school.pdf.
as the materials and instructions for con- As evidenced in these various studies, Wehby, J.H., Falk, K.B., Barton-Arwood, S., Lane, K.L., & Cooley, C.
(2003). The impact of comprehensive reading instruction on the aca-
ducting ongoing assessment with the stu- Direct Instruction offers a promising demic and social behavior of students with emotional and behavioral
disorders. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 11, 225-238.
dents. Students are placed into various approach to increasing the reading
Wehby, J.H., Lane, K.L, & Falk, K.B. (2005). An inclusive approach to
levels of the program based on an initial achievement – and potentially the behav- improving early literacy skills of students with emotional and behav-
ioral disorders. Behavioral Disorders, 30, 155-170.
placement assessment and may practice ioral outcomes – of students with EBD.
a range of reading skills from letter- Although limited in scope, the research
sound correspondence and blending, to that does exist in this area has demon- Katherine Falk is a project coordinator for
reading expository text, to more ad- strated that the type of explicit and the Vanderbilt Behavior Research Center,
vanced comprehension and reasoning systematic instruction found in Direct In- Peabody College of Vanderbilt University,
strategies. struction can improve the poor academic Nashville, Tennessee. She may be reached at
Strong, Wehby, Falk, and Lane (2004) and school outcomes that this population 615/322-8167 or katherine.b.falk@
implemented SRA Corrective Reading with of students so often experiences. vanderbilt.edu. Joseph Wehby is an
six junior high students attending a self- associate professor at Peabody College of
References
contained school for students with EBD. Vanderbilt University. He may be reached
Adams, G. L., & Engelmann, S. (1996). Research on Direct Instruction: 25
Based on the placement assessments, the years beyond DISTAR. Seattle: Educational Achievement Systems. at 615/322-8186 or at joseph.wehby@
B1 level of the SRA Corrective Reading De- vanderbilt.edu.
In This Issue... Feature Issue on Fostering Success in
School and Beyond for Students with
Emotional/Behavioral Disorders
• Students with Emotional/Behavioral Disorders: Volume 18 · Number 2 · Spring 2005
Promoting Positive Outcomes Managing Editor: Vicki Gaylord
Issue Editors:
• School-wide Positive Behavior Support: Mary Quinn
Investing in Student Success American Institutes for Research, Washington, DC
Jennifer McComas
• Fostering Student Success: Five Strategies You Department of Educational Psychology,
University of Minnesota
Can (and Should) Do Starting Next Week Camilla A. Lehr
Institute on Community Integration,
• Creating Caring Schools University of Minnesota
Impact is published quarterly by the Institute
• Ten Alternatives to Suspension on Community Integration (UCEDD), and the
Research and Training Center on Community Living,
College of Education and Human Development,
• Using Self-Monitoring Strategies to Address University of Minnesota. This issue was supported,
Behavior and Academic Issues in part, by Grant #90DD0579 from the Administra-
tion on Developmental Disabilities, US Department
of Health and Human Services; and Grant
• Teaching for Generalization #H133B031116 from the National Institute on
Disability and Rehabilitation Research, US
• Functional Assessment of Classroom Behavior Department of Education.
Problems The opinions expressed are those of the authors

and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Insti-
tute, Center, University, or their funding sources.
• Supporting Social Skill Development For additional copies or information contact:
Institute on Community Integration, University of
• School profiles, success stories, and resources Minnesota, 109 Pattee Hall, 150 Pillsbury Dr. SE,
Minneapolis, MN 55455 • 612/624-4512 • http://
ici.umn.edu.
Impact is available in alternative formats upon
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Feature Issue on Fostering Success in

School and Beyond for Students with

From the Editors

Students with Emotional/Behavioral

School-wide Positive Behavior Support:

Fostering Student Success: Five Strategies

Creating Caring Schools

Fragmented and Marginalized Efforts

Ten Alternatives to Suspension

Using Self-Monitoring Strategies to Address

Teaching for Generalization in Support of

Emotional and Behavior Challenges

Functional Assessment of Classroom

Functional Behavioral Assessment • Test the accuracy of the hypothesis,

Supporting Social Skill Development in

Gresham, F. M. & Elliot, S. N. (1990). Social skills rating system. Circle

been investigated, particularly with chil-

Project SUPPORT: A Transition Program for

Successful Living is Healing: Cleveland’s

Strength-Based Approach use of group meetings is probably the

Turning Around a Minnesota School At-Risk:

Implementing School-wide Positive

Improving Social Development School-Wide:

The large number of students with

The Impact of Explicit Reading Instruction on

Planning Behavior Improvement

Implementing Problem-Solving in Colorado:

[Ernie, continued from page 1]

[Lehr, continued from page 3]

[Stokes, continued from page 15]

[Falk, continued from page 30]

Problems The opinions expressed are those of the authors

Institute on Community Integration Non-Profit Org

Address Service Requested

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