FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY

JOJO P. BAUTISTA, PhD, LPT, CMPP

CHEMICAL PROCESSING AND PHOTOGRAPHIC PRINTING

Chemical Processing
After the exposure of the film to light in the picture taking or the photographic paper during printing,
the next step would generally be chemical processing. In black and white processing, the steps are
development, stop-bath, and fixation. In color processing, the steps are color development, stop fix and
stabilizer.

Stages of Chemical Processing

1. Development- is the process by which an invisible latent image in an emulsion is made visible. In
black and white emulsion, the image is composed of grains of black metallic silver. In a color
emulsion, the developed silver is replaced with cyan, yellow, and magenta dye. In the development, a
developing agent chemically breaks down or reduce exposed silver hallide crystals to form grains of
metallic silver. This process of reaction is the same in both black and white films and photographic
papers.
2. Stop-bath- it halts the developer action in appropriate moment. It also prevents the contamination of
the developer and fixer from each other.
3. Fixation- a fixer makes the developed image permanent when it is followed by a through washing.
In this processing stage, the unexposed underdeveloped silver halides crystals are dissolved and
removed from the emulsion of the photographic material.

Darkroom
A light tight room used for developing film making contact print and enlargement. A room protected
from rays of light harmful to sensitized materials, plates and papers. A Darkroom is used to process
photographic film, to make prints and to carry out other associated tasks. It is a room that can be made
completely dark to allow the processing of the light-sensitive photographic materials, including film and
photographic paper.

Two distinct sides:

1. Dry Side – Enlarger side and materials that must be kept away from water.
2. Wet Side – Processing area, chemical, stock solutions, trays and other materials.

Chemical Processes:
1. Developing process of film – the latent image becomes permanent and visible in a reverse way thus
producing a negative.
2. Developing process of photo paper – the permanent and visible image produces positive print,
image or photographs.

Two Factors to be considered in developing process:

1. Density – is the degree of darkness of the image developed – too dark or to light.
2. Contrast – is the difference of tone from another.

Factors that affect chemical development of the sensitized material:

1. Concentration or strength of the working solution – used mixture procedure by manufacturers.
2. Temperature of chemical involved in the development process
3. Time of development
4. Agitation of the sensitized material during development.

Chemical Processing:
1. Development– processes of reduction, exposed silver halides are reduced in to metallic silver.

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JOJO P. BAUTISTA, PhD, LPT, CMPP
2. Stop-bath– it is an intermediate bath between development and fixer –To prevent contamination of
the chemical.
3. Fixation– the process of removing unexposed silver halides remaining in the emulsion after the first
stage of development of the latent image.
4. Washing– use of running water.
5. The application “Wetting Agent”/Photo-flo/Foto-glo – to prevent water mark and easier to dry.
6. Drying.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF DEVELOPER

1. Reducers or developing agents – Elon, Hydroquinone
2. Preservative – sodium sulfite
3. Accelerator – sodium carbonate
4. Restrainer or fog preventer – potassium bromide

Chemical component of a fixer:

1. Dissolving Agent – Hypo or sodium thiosulphite
2. Preservative – Sodium sulphite
3. Neutralizer – boric and acetic acid
4. Hardener – Potassium alum.

Two systems of film developing:

1. Repeated use system – after each development the solution is poured in a container for use again.
2. One shot system - after development the solution is poured into the sink.

Faults and Remedy on Negatives:

1. Intensification–under-exposed negative. The addition of minute part of another metal usually
chromium or mercury on the top of the metallic silver formed to strengthen contrast to obtain good
density. Under exposed negatives.
2. Reduction–over exposed negative. The reducing of density in the negative-overexposed negatives
potassium ferricyanide and sodium thiosulphate or Hypo of Framer’s Reducer.
3. Increasing or decreasing development time.
4. Use of development that increase or subdues contrast.

Equipment for film processing:

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JOJO P. BAUTISTA, PhD, LPT, CMPP
1. Tank or tray
2. Developing reel
3. Opener for film cartridge (pliers). Some .35 mm. films have a reusable cartridge that can be snapped
open by hand but others can only be opened with a pair of pliers.
4. Scissors cut the tongue of the film
5. Thermometer
6. Timer
7. Funnel
8. Photographic sponge
9. Film clips or drying
10. Glass or plastic bottles for storing mixed solutions

Film Processing Procedure

1. Tank Method of Film development
 Developing time about 5-6 minutes. After 5-6 minutes pour out or drain the developer.
 Put in the stop-bath, agitate the tank some more and after 15-20 seconds drain out the stop
bath.
 Next is to pour the fixing bath.
 Agitation should also be done.
 And after 15-20 minutes drain the fixer from the tank.
 You may now wash the negative for several changes of preference in running water for
another 15 to 20 minutes. Water that adheres on the surface of the negative can cause
watermarks if allowed to dry without wiping.
 Hang the negative to dry at a clean, dust free place or better in a negative drier.

2. Tray Method of Film Development

 The developer is placed on a tray.
 In total darkness, remove the film from the cartridge then hold the end of the film and
immerse the film in the developer in the tray making, make sure that the film is thoroughly
dipped until the whole length of the film is evenly wet.
 Developing time of 4-5 minutes is done.
 Then transfer it to the stop-bath for 10-15 seconds.
 Thereafter, place the film in the fixer for about 5 minutes then you can now open the white
light.

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JOJO P. BAUTISTA, PhD, LPT, CMPP

 Developer Formulation:
Typical component of Black and White developer
1. Solvent (water)
2. Developing agent
3. Preservatives
4. Accelerator or activator
5. Restrainer

D-6 film developer formula:

1. Water 52C or 125F - 750ml
2. Elon - 2 grms.
3. Hydroquinone - 5grms.
4. Sodium sulfite - 100grms.
5. Borax (granules) - 2grms.
6. Water to make - 1 liter

 Stop-Bath
Stop-bath can be plain water only with 28% glacial acetic acid.

 Fixing Bath Formula

The chemical components of a fixing bath are:
1. Water
2. Dissolving agent
3. Preservative
4. Neutralizers
5. Hardener

Typical Fixer Formula:

1. Water 50C or 125 F - 600ml
2. Hypo (sodium thiosulfate - 240gms.
3. Sodium sulfite (anyhydrous) - 15gms.

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JOJO P. BAUTISTA, PhD, LPT, CMPP
4. Acetic acid (28%) - 480ml.
5. Boric acid (crystals) - 7.5gms.
6. Potassium amum (fine granular) - 15gms.
7. Water to make - 1 liter

Note: The fixing bath is recommended generally for both films and photographic papers.

What are the Types of Rinse Bath?

a. Water Rinse Bath helps retard the action of the developing agent and remove the excess developer
from the film, thus preventing contamination of the fixing bath. A water rinse is suitable and enough
for most negative, however, it dilutes the fixer. So, when it is used, it should be followed by an acid
bath. The same procedure applies when processing prints.
b. Acid Rinse Bath is sometimes referred to as Stop Bath and is more effective than water rinse as it
instantly neutralizes the action of the developer and stops further development. It also neutralizes the
alkalinity of the developer and prolongs the life acetic acid in 32 oz. of water.
c. Hardening Rinse Bath is used only when it is impossible to control the temperature of the solutions,
particularly the wash water, or when development is done in the high temperature or under tropical
conditions. A typical hardening rinse bath contains the following: 32- oz. water; 1 oz. potassium
chrome alum; and 1 oz. sodium bisulfate. A solution containing potassium chrome alum is very
unsuitable and becomes exhausted quickly with or without use.

PHOTOGRAPHIC PRINTING

Printmaking Process:
1. Printmaking – the final stage in making photographs.
2. Enlarger – It is a machine used in making enlargement. Is a specialized transparency used to
produce prints from film or glass, or from film or glass negatives, or from transparencies.
3. Contact Printing – photograph is made through direct negative and paper contact.

Factors to consider in selecting negative:

1. Sharpness
2. Density
3. Contrast

General Types of Photographic Printing

1. Contact Printing
The procedure of exposing photographic print materials while it is pressed in contact with the
negative being reproduced. When the photograph is made through direct negative and paper contact,
this process is known as contact printing. This is the simplest and the most economical method of
photographic printing. In terms of print quality, it can surpass enlargement in tonality because there
is no scattering of image forming lights as these can be projected beams of an enlarger. It usually
looks sharper because there is no lens on the printing system to add its aberrations in the print
process and also because details that may be slightly out of focus are not enlarged so the unsharpness
is not apparent.

Contact prints may be made with:

a) Glass and pad. A sheet of clear glass about 2inches bigger than the print size in all slides to give a
border for handling and for its application of pressure. The pad should be of the same size as the
glass.

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JOJO P. BAUTISTA, PhD, LPT, CMPP
b) Pressure printing frame. This is like a picture against hinge back leaf spring on the back. Lock it
into place and it exert pressure against the glass in the frame.
c) Contact printer. This is essentially a glass-top box with an exposing light and a safelight (for proper
arrangement of the negatives and the paper) inside and a hinge pressure cover on the glass. Switches
of the format control the lights.

Contact printers.

Printing procedure:
a. Clean the glass from dust. Dirt, and stains.
b. Place the negative with the base side against the glass and the emulsion facing the emulsion of the
photographic paper.
c. If a film rather than a photographic paper is being exposed, it must be backed with a black paper so
reflected lights will not add unwanted exposure.
d. Arrange the negatives to be printed on the photographic paper so every part of it is accommodated
with extra space on all sides.
e. To prevent movement of the negatives, the used of transparent tape is advice to hold the negative in
place.
f. Then press tightly together the negative and the paper with the glass and the pad.
g. Exposed it to light. Correct exposure is determined with test strips just like in enlargement.
h. Process the exposed photographic paper with the same solutions and processing time as in
enlargement procedure.
i. Then wash and dry.

2. Projection Printing or Enlarging

This is the type of printing where the image in a negative is optically or enlarged onto a print
material for exposure to produce a picture image. The main equipment used is the enlarger.

Enlarger Parts and Functions:

1. Enlarger Head – the main working part of enlarger contains: Light, condenser, lens, negative holder,
the lens itself.
2. Lamp – light that passes through the negative that exposed photo paper.
3. Condenser Lens – lens that spread the light coming from the lamp of the enlarger.
4. Negative carrier – hold the negative flat and level.
5. Lens Aperture – the opening of the lens that controls rays of light passing through it.
6. Lens – it is the one responsible in forming the image coming from the negative.
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JOJO P. BAUTISTA, PhD, LPT, CMPP
7. Focusing Mechanism – it moves the lens up and down to focus the projected image.
8. Enlarger Column – it is the holder of the enlarger head and commonly serves as a rail in controlling
the height of enlarger head.
9. Elevating Control Knob – control size of image by raising or lowering the enlarger head.
10. Base Board – the support of the entire unit of the enlarger.

Essential accessory of an enlarger:

a. Negative carrier
b. Easel or paper holder
c. Timer for consistent and repeatable exposure

Note: There are different sizes of enlargers. The size of the enlarger is dependent on the size of the
negative. There is the 8mm for micro films, the 35mm which is now the most common and popular, and
120mm, or bigger negatives like 4” ×5”.

Common light sources for enlargers:

 Tungsten lamp
 Halogen lamp
 Mercury vapor lamp
 Fluorescent lamp

Two General Types of Enlargers

1. Diffusion type
2. Condenser type

ENLARGING PROCEDURES FOR BLACK AND WHITE NEGATIVE

 Clean both sides of the negative then place it in the negative carrier with the emulsion (dull side0
facing the lens of the enlarger or downward position. Insert the negative in the enlarger.
 Adjust the masking guides of the easel in accordance with the intended size to be printed.
 Turn on the red light (safelight) then turn off the white light.
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JOJO P. BAUTISTA, PhD, LPT, CMPP
 Switch on the enlarger then adjust the lens of the enlarger to its widest aperture (This will allow the
brightest image on the easel).
 Adjust focus by the rotating knob. For desired size of the image, adjust the elevating knob. For
bigger magnification, push the enlarger up and for smaller magnification, pull the enlarger down, and
then tighten the elevating knob securely. Focus may now be finely readjusted.
 Switch off the enlarger light. Close down the lens aperture two to three times from its optimum
aperture (be guided by its click stop adjustment).
 If this is the first time that the negative is being printed, make a series of test strips or trial exposures
on strips of photographic papers exposed at different exposure time generally 2 seconds interval
each. Make sure that the photographic papers are placed in the easel emulsion side (shiny side) up
when making the exposure.
 Process the test strips by immersing it in the developing solution for 1 to 1 ½ minutes.
 Slip the exposed photographic paper into the developing solution to wet them evenly.
 Then transfer it to the stop-bath for 10-15 seconds then in the fixing bath for a minute or so.
 When the right exposure has been selected, make a full print.
 Process it then evaluate the print for overall quality. Consider for possible cropping, for local
exposure control.
 Generally, overexposed and underdeveloped prints are often mottled and lack contrast on
shadow areas and good gradation of tone in the highlights. Under exposed and overdeveloped
prints usually lack details in the highlights and they often show chemical fog or yellow stains.
 Current fixing baths only require 10-15 minutes fixing time. Formerly it was 20-30 minutes.
 Wash the prints in running water for another 20-30 minutes.
 Dry the prints.

Special Techniques
Cropping - Excluding or omitting some images on the negative from the final print. Local exposure
control is achieved by either burning or dodging.
Burning-in - Adding of exposure time on a specific area to bring out details.
Dodging - Holding the back of some lights to a specific area to make it lighter in density.

Note: You can use your hand or improvise with a thick paper material for both burning-in and dodging
technique.

Equipment for paper developing:

1. Three plastic trays,
2. Metal, plastic, or bamboo tong preferably with rubber ends to hold the prints.
3. Rubber (surgical) hand gloves.
4. Timers
5. Paper cutter
6. A bigger tray or tank for washing prints

COLOR PRINTING PROCESS:

A color negative film is printed on a color photographic paper which is essentially similar to the
films used in a camera except that the emulsion layer is coated in a paper base and couplers which are
colorless. Colored couplers are not used because the prints would then be unsuitable for direct viewing.
Color printing uses yellow, magenta, and cyan inks to produce various colors by subtractive mixing
to give blue, green, and red. (Each color ink should be thought of as transmitting two of the additive
primaries, which is the same as absorbing one of the additive primaries.)

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JOJO P. BAUTISTA, PhD, LPT, CMPP
Color and density of a photograph taken with a color negative film can be adjusted quite freely to a
certain extent. Raising the density will make the image darker while lowering it will make the image lighter,
and by adding cyan we can give the image an overall bluish tinge while removing yellow will emphasize
magenta and cyan giving the image a purplish tinge.

Color Film Processing

The most important point emphasized in connection with film processing in the strict adherence to
the instructions for the mixing of solutions and carrying out of processing steps. The mixing and processing
operations are not so difficult, yet they are exacting in the steps in the sense that the steps must be
standardized critically if repeatable results are to be obtained.
a) Temperature control. Temperature control for film developing are crucial and appreciable
deviation can result in speed and color balance changes, in addition, physical defects such as
reticulations is too high. Normal color negative developing temperature is 38°C, process C-
41
b) Agitation. Proper agitation is important throughout color film developing but it is crucial
during the entire developing steps.

The C-41 film processing steps:

1. Color developer
2. Bleach-fix
3. Stabilizer

1) Color Printing. Printing of color negatives are basically the same as black and white negatives. The
major difference lies in the use of filters. Filters are used for corrections of density and color balance.
Basically though, the print can be made darker or lighter by increasing or decreasing exposure time.
Color balance can be subtlety or radically altered by changing the filter pack.

Equipment:
1. Enlarger with built dial-in filter or with provision for placing filters between the light source and
the negative. Light source is generally a tungsten-halogen lamp. The use of fluorescent lamp is
not advised.
2. Color photographic papers.
3. Filters (acetate color printing filters such as CP2B, CP 05M, etc.)
4. Safelights (such as Kodak safelight filters No. 3 with 15 watts bulb).

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JOJO P. BAUTISTA, PhD, LPT, CMPP
Printing procedure in color printing of a negative.

1. Prepare chemical solutions by carefully following the instructions given with the photographic paper
and the chemicals.
2. Place the negative in the enlarger with the emulsion side toward the lens of the enlarger. Use 50
M+50 Y filter or others as specified in the paper instructions to make a test strip of series of four
exposures at the same magnification as will be used in the first print. Exposure time is 10 seconds
each of f4, f5.6, f8, and f11.
3. Process the print then dry it.
4. Then judge the best test strip for color balance. Look at sensitive areas or at the middle as flesh tones
or persons and decide on what color or colors is in excess and how much is excess-light,
considerable, great.
5. Based on the above decision, select a filter pack that will control the color of the exposing light. Add
to filter pack, filter of the same color or colors as those in excess in the test. Add 10 filter for a slight
change, 20 for considerable change, and for great change 30 filter (20 filter + 10 filter). Some
exposure color casts may require as much as 50 filter addition to the pack.
6. Make another test exposure based on the estimated filter pack and the corresponding additional
exposure time.
7. depending on the experience of the one printing, a third, fourth, or even a fifth strip may be
necessary until the desired color balance and density is obtained.

COLOR COMPARED TO BLACK AND WHITE:

Since we live in a world of color it is only natural that is general, we find color photographs more
realistic than black and white photographs. Comparatively speaking, black and white photographs are more
of an abstraction from reality, or in other words, they are commonly accepted on their merits and pictures. In
a portrait, it is the likeness that is considered as the paramount importance, but other types of black and
white prints tend to be judged without reference to or regard for the appearance of the original scene. As a
result, tone rendition in black and white prints can vary over a wide range and still remain satisfactory.
In the Forensic Photography, generally, fingerprints and handwritings, or other printed materials
which are subject for examination, analysis, comparison and evaluation are black and white (for contrast) in
their original appearance, so the use of color photographs is not advised.
In the case of color photographs, however, an average observer tends to make a more direct
comparison between subject and reproduction. His thoughts and comments will be based on a considerably
greater extent on his recollection of the original scene or his conception of how the original scene should
have appeared.
If the color photograph is to be satisfactory, skin and other objects which have definite appearance in
the mind of the observer must be represented with reasonable accuracy, both in terms of tone rendition and
color rendering. Color adds a more “dimension” (figurative sense) to the mere reproduction of the scene in
tone of gray. Color photograph is subject to a more orientation and greater range effect than black and white
photographs.

Problems in color photography:

1. color quality of illumination. The problem in color work is the fact that a color film does not “see”
color as the human eye. The color of light is bluer with higher temperature and yellower with lower
temperature. Color temperature is expressed in degree Kelvin (K) obtained by adding 273 to the
temperature in degree centigrade.
2. subject contrast. Depends largely on one factor-lighting contrast which is the ration between the
highest and lowest amount of illumination falling on the principal subject.
3. exposure accuracy. Color films, particularly the reversal type have much less exposure latitude than
black and white films. Exposure setting must therefore be determined with greater degree of
accuracy. Use of exposure meter is highly advised in the setting of correct exposure.

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JOJO P. BAUTISTA, PhD, LPT, CMPP
4. color perception. Inexperience observer sometimes cannot recognized subtle tints mixtures and
reflections brought about by the effects of lighting condition and their surroundings.
5. color harmony. The systematic arrangement of colors to give a pleasing effect. This subject is
complex because of personal taste. This is a problem in commercial photography and illustrative
work but seldom in forensic work.
6. color blindness. People with this defective color vision have difficulty in distinguishing and naming
colors. They sometime see part of the spectrum as gray.

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