Energy & Buildings 216 (2020) 109965

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Energy & Buildings

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/enbuild

A review of building occupancy measurement systems

Kailai Sun a, Qianchuan Zhao a,∗, Jianhong Zou b,c
a
Center for Intelligent and Networked Systems, Department of Automation, BNRist, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
b
Strategy and Development Department, Fujian Electronics and Information (Group) Co., LTD, Fuzhou, China
c
Fujian Nebula Big Data Application Service Co., LTD, Fuzhou, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The human dimension information is crucial for efficient building energy saving, health and productiv-
Received 26 October 2019 ity, comfort conditions and security management. A great number of studies have been developed for
Revised 17 February 2020
occupancy information measurement. However, existing review work has limited coverage on emerging
Accepted 12 March 2020
images/videos based methods. In this paper, many occupancy measurement systems based on different
Available online 13 March 2020
sensors are reviewed, especially images/videos based methods. We conduct a comprehensive analysis
Keywords: based on different types (non-depth or depth cameras) and different installed locations (the room en-
Occupancy measurement trance or interior) of cameras. Considering the motion and static image information, we categorize these
Human dimension studies and compare the merits and limitations. As for other sensors, Wireless Fidelity (WiFi), Passive
Building energy Infrared (PIR) sensors, carbon dioxide (CO2) sensors, electricity meters, this paper analyzes and discusses
Camera their applicable scopes and limitations. Sensor fusion method tends to perform better because different
Sensor fusion
sensors can compensate each other. Moreover, future trends are presented, including the fifth genera-
Deep learning
tion mobile network (5 G), cloud computing platform and artificial intelligence especially deep learning
technologies
© 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction consumption in buildings can be saved with occupancy informa-

1.1. The importance of building occupancy
The human factor has a significant effect on actual energy per-
formance in buildings. The information of the human dimension
in the building environment is crucial for efficient energy use
[31]. Several recent studies showed that about 40% of total en-
ergy in the world consumed by buildings [23]. The total building
energy consumption mainly includes Heating, Ventilating and Air-
Conditioning (HVAC) and lighting systems [95]. The objectives of
research efforts on HVAC and lighting systems operation mainly
include occupants’ comfort conditions and energy saving. Paying
more attention to the human dimension of energy use has sev-
eral potential advantages including enhancing comfort conditions,
health and productivity for building occupants, energy-efficient
and security management [28].
Occupancy information in buildings has a great impact on en-
ergy consumption as well as indoor environment quality [118].
Many studies showed that approximately 10%−40% of the energy
∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: zhaoqc@tsinghua.edu.cn (Q. Zhao).
tion. For instance, energy use can be reduced by turning off the
lighting systems during non-occupied hours, and adjusting the
opening rate of air damper or air conditioner based on occupancy
number information. Authors [51] found the linear correlation be-
tween occupancy rates and total electricity consumption by col-
lecting data in actual four buildings. They also found an effective
method to estimate the electricity consumption per occupant. Zou
[124] set up an occupancy detection software and verified approx-
imately 10% of energy can be saved in the office, through an ac-
tual experiment and application. They turned off/down light and
air conditioner to save energy in zero occupant cases. The au-
thors [78] proposed a learning-based demand-driven control strat-
egy based on occupancy analysis, and they found 20.3% energy
can be saved with the effective occupancy information. They used
a rule-based control method to adjust the sensible cooling tem-
perature of each office based on occupancy presence information.
What’s more, as a crucial parameter input to HVAC and lighting
systems, occupancy information not only can optimize energy con-
sumption but also has the potential to improve occupancy envi-
ronment [48]. Authors [22] considered that thermal comfort de-
pends on many factors such as room temperature, relative humid-
ity (RH), air velocity, occupants’ clothes and occupants’ activity sta-
tus. In order to maintain occupant thermal comfort, they designed

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2020.109965
0378-7788/© 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
2 K. Sun, Q. Zhao and J. Zou / Energy & Buildings 216 (2020) 109965
Fig. 1. Building occupancy information.
a Model Predictive Control (MPC) controller to optimize the supply
air temperature. The MPC received measurements on RH, air veloc-
ity, mean radiant temperature, occupants’ clothing levels and tem-
peratures inside and outside the chamber. The clothing insulation
level was 0.65 when participants wore T-shirts or pants, while 0.95
when they wore one more piece of long sleeve shirt or sweater.
They considered occupants’ activity levels as the metabolic rate of
Fanger’s PMV model [15].
1.2. Building occupancy information
Different types of building occupancy information can be clas-
sified, including detection, counting, identity, track, location and so
on [55]. And their levels are gradually increasing in Fig. 1.
Occupancy detection: This information provides whether at
least a person appears. It can distinguish whether someone or not,
and provide the information of when occupants appear in a par-
ticular room or zone. Information on detection makes it clear that
the controller opens or closes some devices. For example, the on or
off state of smart lamps should depend on the occupancy presence
or absence information for energy saving [69].
Occupancy counting: Based on occupancy detection, the count-
ing information provides more. It not only can obtain the infor-
mation of presence or absence, but also focuses on the number
of occupants in a particular room or zone. The occupant number
in different areas is used as an input parameter to determine the
load of close-loop HVAC and lighting systems [124].
Occupancy identity: Based on occupancy counting, the identity
information is high-level because of its complexity. Every occupant
has a different identity, and algorithms distinguish or recognize
identities based on particular features of each occupant, and the
features may include face features, fingerprint features, personal
computer mac address, mobile application account and so on.
Occupancy tracking: Based on occupancy counting, the track-
ing information is about the particular occupant’s trajectory [87].
That is the movement history record across different areas of the
particular occupant in the building. This may include two parts: if
the occupant identity is prior known, the trajectory of this occu-
pant will be labeled the identity; if the occupant identity is prior
unknown, the trajectory will be labeled an extra mark. Thus the
occupancy tracking is independent of occupancy identity, and this
named Re-ID technology [64] in the field of computer vision if the
identity is prior unknown.
Occupancy location: Based on occupancy identity and occu-
pancy tracking, the location is the combination of two parts. Re-
lating to occupants’ coordinates in the building, the occupancy lo-
cation provides the information who and where is the occupant.
There are many current occupancy measurement technologies
based on sensors [88], including camera sensors, passive infrared
occupancy sensors [40], CO2 sensors, electricity meters, WiFi and
so on. Different sensors can obtain different occupancy informa-
tion and have unique advantages and limitations for occupancy
measurement. It is necessary to categorize measurement meth-
ods based on different sensor types. Although some recent re-
view work [23,28,31,48,118] exists, their coverage on images/videos
based methods is limited. The contributions of this paper are as
follows:
1) We focus on building occupancy information measurement for
energy control and building performance, and review many re-
cent especially five-years studies.
2) Many occupancy measurement systems based on different sen-
sors, cameras, WiFi, PIR sensors, CO2 sensors, electricity sensors
are analyzed and discussed.
3) Due to the rapid development of occupancy measurement
based on cameras, we conduct a comprehensive analysis based
on different types (non-depth or depth cameras) and different
installed locations (the room entrance or interior) of cameras.
4) Some future trends are presented, including sensor fusion
methods, cloud computing platform, and deep learning tech-
nologies.
The remaining parts of the paper are organized as follows.
Section 2 mainly analyzes occupancy measurement methods of dif-
ferent camera types and different camera locations. Section 3 fo-
cuses on other different sensors based occupancy measurement
methods, including WiFi, PIR sensors, CO2 sensors, electricity sen-
sors and so on. Section 4 discusses and compares the advan-
tages and limitations of different sensors and presents some future
trends. Finally, Section 5 concludes this review work.
2. Vision sensors based measurement systems
Comparing with other sensors, images/videos based method has
become a research hot topic for building occupancy measurement
because of the high accuracy [101]. Vision based method utilizes
computer vision technology to process images, obtaining the oc-
cupancy information which includes presence, number, trajectory,
identity and location. The main advantage of occupancy measure-
ment method based on images is that can provide fine-grained
accurate results. Besides, with the development of surveillance
videos, many cameras are installed in buildings and some pub-
lic scenes. Thus many studies ([25,27,36]) utilized existing surveil-
lance videos and avoided placing new cameras. However, the lim-
itations include high computational complexity, privacy issue, the
low image quality of surveillance cameras, the illumination and oc-
clusion problem.
Depending on the types of image information, vision sensors
can mainly be divided into non-depth cameras and depth cam-
eras. As for non-depth cameras, RGB frames or infrared images can
be collected for occupancy measurement, while the depth cameras
can provide RGB frames as well as depth information. Depth cam-
eras can calculate the distance from the camera to objects in the
camera field of view, and the pixel value of depth images rep-
resents this distance [59]. Depth cameras mainly include time of
flight (TOF) cameras [125], binocular cameras [46], structured-light
(SL) depth cameras [37]. TOF cameras emit modulated infrared
light and receive the reflected light. It converts the time of flight
to the phase delay of the signal, and the distance can be calcu-
 K. Sun, Q. Zhao and J. Zou / Energy & Buildings 216 (2020) 109965
Table 1
Comparison of different types of depth cameras.
Depth camera Measurement Speed Accuracy
Time of flight Active Fast Low
Binocular Passive Medium High
Structured-light Active Medium High
Fig. 2. Schematic diagram of four vision situations: (A) Non-depth cameras at the room entrance (overhead); (B) Non-depth cameras at the room interior; (C) Depth cameras
at the room entrance (overhead); (D) Depth cameras at the room interior.
lated [26]. TOF cameras can directly image the measured objects,
having a fast scanning speed and a long depth range [33]. However,
the resolution is small and measurement accuracy is low. Binocu-
lar cameras use passive measurement method and can obtain dif-
ferent images from two cameras, utilize feature matching and tri-
angulation principle to get depth information [93]. Binocular cam-
eras have a higher resolution and measurement accuracy, but have
strict requirement about light and rich texture of measured objects.
A general SL camera consists of a camera and a projector [116].
Similar to binocular cameras, SL cameras project some known pat-
terns on the scene and compare them with captured frames [7].
SL cameras can achieve high precision and accuracy of depth mea-
surement and are able to measure objects with low texture [32].
However, SL cameras have a short depth range and will be affected
by light. The detailed comparison in Table 1.
Depending on the installed locations, vision sensors based can
mainly be divided into the room entrance (overhead) and the room
interior. The schematic diagram is in Fig. 2. The red cameras rep-
resent the depth cameras; the yellow cameras represent the non-
depth cameras. In real applications, these two types of cameras
can work independently or together. Cameras are installed at the
top of room entrance, and researchers utilize the overhead view
to detect and recognize the person motion information of entering
or exiting the room. While cameras are installed at the interior of
room, and researchers utilize the whole room images/videos to cal-
culate occupancy information. Based on different cameras and dif-
ferent installed locations, there are four vision situations: (A) Non-
depth cameras at the room entrance (overhead); (B) Non-depth
cameras at the room interior; (C) Depth cameras at the room en-
trance (overhead); (D) Depth cameras at the room interior. These
four situations also can be used jointly or individually. Many re-
lated studies and methods were divided in Table 2. Choosing cam-
eras and locations is crucial in real applications, thus we analyzed
many studies of different cameras and locations and joint cameras
and joint locations.
3
Resolution Depth range Light requirement Texture requirement
Small Long No NO
Big Short Yes Yes
Medium Short Yes Less
2.1. Non-depth cameras
2.1.1. The room entrance (overhead)
For non-depth cameras at the top of room entrance, they mon-
itor the entrance region through distinguishing persons enter or
exit from the room [1]. The motion features of persons usually
are extracted [107], and the direction of motion provides the oc-
cupancy number increasing or decreasing in the room. Authors
[117] utilized background subtraction within the ROI (region of in-
terest) [18] to obtain foreground areas. By analyzing the people
motion direction which is the difference between twice pixel coor-
dinates, they can determine whether a person entering or exiting
rooms. Owing to only occupants’ head vertexes and shoulders im-
ages will be captured at this overhead view, the privacy issue can
be prevented. However, the background subtraction-based method
usually fails in case of illumination changes or stationary persons.
Ahmed [2] proposed a person-detection and tracking algorithm
based on the overhead view. They utilized features-based rotation
adapted histogram of oriented gradient (rHOG) algorithm to de-
tect persons, and tracker object lists were constructed. Due to the
greater processing time of scanning the whole image, a blob-based
segmentation module was designed to speed up the algorithm.
They used hit rate to indicate occupancy tracking accuracy and the
algorithm reached 99% of accuracy, and the algorithm can handle
occlusion, stationary persons and keep tracking more than 15 s.
However, the conditions of persons stand very near and illumina-
tion changes should be considered, because using a fixed distance
threshold to distinguish tracker clusters is not robust.
The occupancy information can be measured from thermal
cameras. The clear advantages of thermal cameras are preventing
privacy and overcome illumination because they detect thermal
energy instead of vision. Authors [72] installed the sensor node
(thermal camera) on the top jamb of a doorway to get overhead
thermal images. They utilized a per-pixel adaptive threshold for
obtaining high-temperature regions. And then region growing, bolo
4 K. Sun, Q. Zhao and J. Zou / Energy & Buildings 216 (2020) 109965
Table 2
Vision sensors based measurement systems.
References Non-depth cameras Depth cameras The room entrance (overhead)
√ √
[2]
√ √
[117]
√ √
[39]
√ √
[14]
√ √
[79]
√ √
[100]
√ √
[120]
√ √
[62]
√ √
[72]
√ √
[94]
detection and tracking methods are used to count the number of
people entering or leaving the room. The experimental results ver-
ified the effectiveness of their proposed method with a low pixel
resolution (8 × 8 pixels). Authors [16] installed the thermal cam-
eras at 2.85 m of height to detect outdoor people. They segmented
the foreground regions by the adaptive threshold and obtained 97%
recall accuracy of occupancy detection information (i.e. presence
or absence). A study [35] based on border tracking was proposed
for long-term occupancy counting using thermal cameras. They
tracked occupants who near the room border and counted num-
ber based on the direction of occupants.
Except for preventing privacy issue in some ways, the advan-
tages of the overhead view also include person will be hardly oc-
cluded with other objects. However, it also suffers some issues.
For example, existing surveillance videos are not usually equipped
with the overhead view cameras, therefore it is necessary to place
new cameras in the building room entrance. More importantly, the
cumulative errors will appear when a crowd of persons passes at
the same time, once a few errors will result in so much energy
consumption in the next long time. Particularly, if no person is in
the room, the little errors of overhead view cameras will consider
there is at least a person in the room, resulting in the HVAC and
lighting systems will work all the time till the error is cleared.
2.1.2. The room interior
The indoor environment is more complicated because the envi-
ronment contains many kinds of objects. Occlusion between ob-
jects and bodies is more challenging for image processing and
video analysis.
An early study [10] set up a detection system which has three
main parts. Gaussian background subtraction was used for fore-
ground object detection, and Lucas and Kanade tracker [97] was
applied for object tracking. Finally, four classifiers about the hu-
man whole body or upper body were jointly utilized for robustly
recognizing whether the object is a person or not. They also im-
plemented some applications, including occupancy measurement
and activity characterization. The shortcomings mainly come from
the limit of Gaussian background subtraction. It is possible that the
foreground object detection will fail if a person remains static for
a long time.
Authors [14] combined the optical (OP) camera and the infrared
(IR) camera to detect occupants. The IR camera provides effective
heat information. In terms of algorithm, they extracted histogram
of oriented gradient (HOG) features and utilized a three-layer ar-
tificial neural network (ANN) to classify. (HOG is a kind of feature
The room interior Methods
Features-based rHOG, blob-based segmentation
√
Background subtraction; HOG + SVM
Wavelet transformation foreground
segmentation, Adaboost cascade detector,
particle-filter, head validation
HOG + ANN
Water filling cluster, Laplacian of Gaussian filter,
Kalman filter,
Background removal, depth local minima
information, Kalman filter
Canny head contours extraction, depth ranges
feature and local 3D surfaces feature, SVM
√
Haar + HOG, Haar + Contour, Adaboost
classifier; adaptive Gaussian mixture model
(AGMM); dynamic Bayesian network (DBN)
Adaptive threshold, region growing, blob
detection
Window size algorithm, connected component
algorithm, LR, KNN, SVM, DT, RF
Fig. 3. Example provided by [104]. A and B show two-rectangle features. C and D
represent a three-rectangle feature and a four-rectangle feature respectively.
descriptor, which is widely used in human detection [29,109]. The
detection window feature is extracted through computing gradi-
ents, accumulating histogram of gradient directions, normalization
and so on.) Authors [17] also set up a person detection-tracking
system. They utilized background subtraction method to detect re-
gions of pedestrian movement, and then HOG features were ex-
tracted to distinguish whether the ROI is a person or not, and then
the Kalman filter was used for tracking.
Due to the severe occlusion environment, the occupancy mea-
surement methods using a whole human body features often are
not sufficiently robust for detecting the human body in real ap-
plications [10,124]. Many studies focus on head detection or up-
per body detection, instead of a whole human body detection. The
authors [39] trained the head Adaboost cascade detector which
includes Haar features and Adaboost classifiers based on wavelet
transformation foreground segmentation. (Haar features were used
for face detection in a classic study [104]. For example, in Fig. 3,
the value of Haar feature is calculated through the sum of pixels
in gray rectangles subtracts the sum of pixels in white ones.) In
terms of head validation, they designed five simple functions and
tricks to refine the results. Through comparing performance, the
proposed method was much better than the other two methods of
state-of-the-arts. As we know, the method [104] is very famous for
face detection in the field of computer vision. The Haar features
are particularly designed for detecting face regions, and they are
also suitable for head detection.
 K. Sun, Q. Zhao and J. Zou / Energy & Buildings 216 (2020) 109965
The authors [99] utilized background subtraction to obtain fore-
ground, then extracted shape features, and trained support vec-
tor machine (SVM) classifiers to detect occupants’ upper bodies.
A more fine-grained study [71] proposed a head pose estimation
method using Gaussian process regression. For the challenging of
low illuminance and crowd, this study [19] linearly adjusted the
luminance of images, and extracted Aggregate Channel Features
(ACF), and finally trained Adaboost-SVM classifiers. Besides, they
considered temporal information, refining the results based on the
head locations difference between some consecutive frames, and
the precision and recall scores were 0.99 and 0.97. However, the lu-
minance adjusting method is linear, thus the non-linear luminance
condition should be considered. Moreover, as for temporal infor-
mation, the distance threshold must be enlarged if persons move
rapidly.
Authors [94] developed window size algorithm and connected
component algorithm to detect occupancy with low-resolution
thermal imagers (4 × 16 pixels). They obtained up to 100% accu-
racy when detecting presence and counting occupants in a room,
but the number of occupants is limited at 0–3. They divided people
activities into four categories (i.e. sitting on chair, standing, sitting
on ground and lying on ground), and used five machine learning
algorithms to obtain up to 97.5% classification accuracy, including
logistic regression (LR), SVM, k-nearest neighbor (KNN), decision
tree (DT), and random forest (RF). A study [34] focuses on occu-
pancy detection in sports arenas using thermal cameras (384×288
pixels). They used threshold function, splitting regions and remov-
ing infrared reflections to count the number of occupants with an
11.76% mean error. Authors [102] captured binary thermal images,
extracted three different features [9] and classified occupancy in-
formation to count the number of people. They obtained 82.56%
precision accuracy while the maximum people number is three. A
similar study [106] utilized the connected component analysis and
machine learning algorithms to classify the number of occupants.
In summary, based on the occupancy measurement inside the
room, the number of occupants is obtained at every time point.
The measurement algorithms use the current frame results, thus
it will not appear the cumulative errors. With the rapid develop-
ment of surveillance videos in buildings, there are many available
cameras in the room. However, the complexity of the indoor en-
vironment will result in measurement errors, mainly including in-
terference of similar objects and occlusion of other objects. For ex-
ample, the persons in murals and human sculptures may be recog-
nized as occupants, and black round objects may be recognized as
occupant’s head.
Obviously, if we combine the advantages of two kinds of meth-
ods, the results will be improved. A combining study can be found
in [62]. In order to improve the accuracy, the authors combined the
measurement results from cameras at entrances and inside rooms.
In the indoor environment, they utilized two-stage static vision al-
gorithms by detecting head. Both “Haar + HOG” and “Haar + Con-
tour” methods were jointly used to refine the results. As for en-
trances, Gaussian mixture background modeling was used for fore-
ground detection, and the tracking trajectory was applied for dis-
tinguishing whether occupants enter or leave the room.
2.2. Depth cameras
2.2.1. The room entrance (overhead)
Due to the depth cameras have depth information, occupancy
measurement will be more accurate, compared with ordinary OP
cameras. The pixel value of depth cameras represents the distance
between the camera and objects [59]. At the overhead view, the
local minima regions in the depth images are often used for occu-
pancy measurement because the regions may be persons or other
objects.
5
The study of [100] utilized the Cellprofiler software to test algo-
rithms of counting and tracking humans with the Kinect V2 Time-
of-Flight depth camera at building entrances/exits. Firstly, back-
ground subtraction was utilized for obtaining foreground areas.
Due to the distance between head and camera is minimum com-
pared with other bodies, thus they used depth local minima in-
formation for detecting the person’s head. Also, they utilized the
distance information between the person’s head and shoulder to
verify and refine the classification results by using the pixel search
method. Finally, Laplacian of Gaussian edge filter was used for
counting, and the Kalman filter was used for multi-object tracking.
The accuracy of detecting a single person reached 97.50% while the
accuracy of detecting multiple people reached 98.12%.
Petersen [79] proposed an unsupervised method for counting
persons based on Kinect V2 camera at the overhead view. They uti-
lized pixel filter, background subtraction and frame weight filter to
improve the quality of foreground frames. Both the unsupervised
water filling algorithm [121] and Laplacian of Gaussian filter were
used for people detection. The water filling algorithm uses measure
function to distinguish real person or noise, obtaining the bound-
ing boxes of objects. The Kalman filter was used for obtaining the
tracking trajectory and entering or leaving information. And the
accuracy reached 99.2% in room occupancy tests. However, they
showed an example of failure, i.e. a trolley was mistakenly recog-
nized as a person. The reason is that finding a person in depth
images is not equal to finding local minima information due to
the disturbance of other objects. Thus the classification of objects
should be considered.
The above methods only used depth data, not RGB images.
Therefore, the advantages of these methods are that the iden-
tity of people is protected, i.e. privacy problem is solved in most
cases. The depth cameras can operate in weak illumination condi-
tions, and the measurement algorithms often run with low com-
putational complexity. However, the cumulative errors problem is
not solved as Section 2.1.1 mentioned above. What’s more, due to
the existing building surveillance video systems [5,11,49] are not
equipped with depth cameras, and the depth cameras are more ex-
pensive than ordinary cameras, there will be so much cost if using
depth cameras for occupancy measurement.
2.2.2. The room interior
These studies based on depth cameras indoor often focus on
only using depth information or joint RGB data and depth data, i.e.
RGB-D images.
The authors [120] presented a novel two-stage method for oc-
cupants measurement only using depth images. In the first stage,
they extracted the contours of heads with a Canny operator,
and located possible edge points by the non-maxima suppression
(NMS) [76] technology. (NMS can remove unwanted pixels which
are not boundary points in Canny edge detection [13]. For every
pixel in an image, this pixel is checked if it is a local gradient
maximum in its neighborhood pixels at its gradient direction. The
local maximum pixels remain while non-maximum pixels are re-
moved. As a result, it makes blurred edges more sharp and thin.) In
the second stage, they designed a head-shoulder descriptor which
contains three different depth ranges feature and local 3D sur-
faces feature, and then they utilized linear support vector machine
(SVM) for classification. Generally, compared with the methods us-
ing RGB images, vision based methods only using depth informa-
tion which is not sensitive to weak illumination conditions. In a
study of only using depth images [127], the authors utilized Gaus-
sian average background model to obtain foreground, and used an
agglomerative clustering technique for people segmentation with
point clouds. And an Adaboost classifier [89] was used for occu-
pancy detection, counting and density estimation.
6 K. Sun, Q. Zhao and J. Zou / Energy & Buildings 216 (2020) 109965
There are some studies that focus on joint RGB information and
depth information, instead of only using depth information. Due to
directly using RGB-D images is difficult, the authors [66] proposed
a point ensemble image (PEI) representation to overcome this, con-
sidering all of the 3D point cloud coordinates. They used the max-
imum height value in proximal points to extract candidate head
windows, and they designed two features descriptors to extract
features which include color and height information, and finally
Kalman filter and a linear SVM classifier were used for classifica-
tion and tracking. The authors in the study [67] proposed another
method for occupant detection. They obtained the candidate win-
dows by considering the depth discontinuities of head-top against
proximal points. A ring-wedge mask template was designed for
matching the head-shoulder shape. Finally, the histogram of color
and height features were extracted, and a SVM classifier was cas-
caded. Another study based joint RGB-D images can be found [74].
As for Depth images, they utilized depth clustering methods to find
detection windows; as for RGB frames, they extracted Haar and
HOG features and used a SVM classifier to recognize the upper
body. Their superior performance comes from the robust and ac-
curate depth clustering method.
Besides, a joint depth camera and Pan/Tilt/Zoom (PTZ) camera
study can be found in [91]. They utilized background subtraction
to obtain foreground person regions by using the Gaussian Mix-
ture Model which contains three Gaussian kernels. They proposed
SVM-based observation measurement, and a particle filtering al-
gorithm was employed to track occupants. According to the dif-
ferent distance between occupants and PTZ camera or depth cam-
era, they assigned different weights to the two cameras for more
accurate results. Joint depth cameras and other cameras usually
can improve performance. However, the cost has to be consid-
ered because existing building surveillance video systems are not
equipped with depth cameras.
In summary, only using depth images often can overcome weak
illumination and prevent privacy, however, false positive rate will
increase. Even though RGB-D images include more information and
can reach high accuracy, it difficult to avoid privacy issue and com-
putational complexity.
3. Other sensors based measurement systems
3.1. WiFi
WiFi devices are usually installed widely in buildings, therefore
it is regarded as a potential candidate for occupancy measurement.
With the usage of smart mobile devices (MDs), the number of MDS
is related at the number of occupants [23], and MDs can be treated
as signal tags through measuring the MAC address and RSSI. Many
studies [70,73,78,108,122,123] focused on occupancy measurement
based on WiFi technology.
The authors [70] designed an end-to-end non-intrusive occu-
pancy inference system, including a front-end and a back-end.
They analyzed the received data packets of access points (APs) to
obtain occupancy and MAC addresses, by using existing WiFi in-
frastructure. In front-end, the system measures indoor snapshot
occupancy in real-time, while in back-end, the system exploits the
temporal correlation of incorporates historical data to improve per-
formance. However, their algorithm has devices’ long memory be-
cause they used temporal correlation. If the occupant firstly does
not carry her mobile devices into buildings, the errors will in-
crease.
A study [108] considered occupancy information is character-
ized stochastically, and presented a Markov based feedback Recur-
rent neural network (RNN) network method to predict occupancy
information. The WiFi signals are captured by scanning the WiFi
connection data between WiFi APs and occupants’ devices. The au-
thors [122] proposed a WiFi-based non-intrusive occupancy sens-
ing system to obtain occupancy information, by analyzing the WiFi
traffic between COTS APs and MDs. They tested the system in a
practical office area, and reach 98.85% occupancy detection accu-
racy. Similarly, they [123] also presented a WiFi-based occupancy-
driven lighting control system to optimize energy consumption and
improve lighting comfort.
In Table 3, WiFi based measurement methods are usually used
to detect and count occupants. The range of time interval is 1 s-
5 min and could be used in the building indoor environment
and energy control. Although WiFi based occupancy systems are
widely available in buildings and the experiment results are ef-
fective, there are many obvious limitations. The conditions include
that occupants forget to bring or take away MDs, carrying multiple
MDs, and WiFi is turned off in MDs. Moreover, With the wide us-
age of the fourth generation mobile network (4 G) (del [30]) and
the rapid development of the fifth generation mobile network (5 G)
[77], occupants may tend to not connect the WiFi devices.
3.2. PIR sensors
The PIR sensors are able to detect infrared radiation changes
and reflect the movement information of objects. In Table3, there
are many studies [82,86,105,113,115] using PIR sensors for occu-
pancy measurement.
The authors [86] analyzed the occupancy presence data which
was collected by using plug-load meters and PIR sensors at every
user’s desktop in the office. The K-means clustering algorithm was
used for extracting features, and the presence accuracy of 89–99%
and the absence accuracy of 87–96% can be achieved. However, ev-
eryone must be equipped with a PIR sensor, and the cost is large
and it takes up too much space. What’s more, real-time detec-
tion needs to be further considered in real applications. A study
[105] proposed an occupants counting system based on distributed
strategical methods. Every office gateway was equipped with a pair
of two PIR sensors which are outward and inward, and they de-
signed a direction-based distributed algorithm and a probabilistic
distance-based distributed algorithm to determine the occupant’s
movement direction. They used empirical occupancy information
from PIR sensors to predict the building performance in an office
floor simulation. A study [82] proposed an occupancy counting sys-
tem based on a single PIR. They collected the data of 7 different
conference rooms, and clustered raw PIR signals to extract mo-
tion behavior by using an iHMM model. Besides, different regres-
sion models based on extracted motion data were utilized for oc-
cupancy counting. However, the assumption that motion increases
with the increasing of occupancy number may be undermined in
practice.
Actually, PIR sensors can only detect the motion of occupants,
but often fail for static occupants. In order to enable PIR sensors for
stationary occupancy detection, the authors [113] designed an opti-
cal shutter based on a Lavet motor PIR sensor to reduce false neg-
ative rates. The stationary occupancy accuracy reached 100% and
the power consumption reduction nearly reached 85% compared
to ordinary PIR sensors.
In Table 4, PIR sensors can detect occupancy presence or ab-
sence with high accuracy and sense the occupancy immediately.
Generally speaking, PIR sensors have the advantages of low cost,
low computational cost, low energy consumption, high reliability
and easy to be applied to the environment. However, PIR sensors
only can provide binary information and the inherent noise needs
to be filtered. Different distances between PIR sensors and people
will result in different accuracy. Moreover, static occupancy detec-
tion is still an important issue to be solved.
 K. Sun, Q. Zhao and J. Zou / Energy & Buildings 216 (2020) 109965
Table 3
Comparison of the detailed information of WiFi based measurement systems.
References Occupancy information Time interval
[70] Occupancy counting 5 min
[108] Occupancy counting 30 s
[122] Occupancy detection, counting 1s
[123] Occupancy detection 30 s
[73] Occupancy counting – 86.7%
Table 4
Comparison of the detailed information of PIR sensors based measurement systems.
References Occupancy information
[82] Occupancy counting
[86] Occupancy detection
[105] Occupancy counting
[115] Occupancy detection
[113] Occupancy detection
3.3. CO2 sensors
Occupancy can be measured through carbon dioxide (CO2) con-
centration in some ways. A study [60] confirmed the relatively high
correlation between occupancy number and CO2 concentration by
analyzing the CO2 levels of a Taiwan hospital over four seasons.
They used linear regression analysis method to fit this relation, and
found the occupancy number accounts for nearly 40% changes in
CO2 concentration. Occupancy measurement methods based CO2
sensors mainly can be divided into two categories, physical mod-
els based differential equations and statistical models based data.
The authors [110] derived a partial differential equation-
ordinary differential equation coupled system to estimation oc-
cupancy information in a conference room. They conducted the
first experiment to determine system parameters, and took the
other two experiments to verify the effectiveness of the proposed
method. Comparing with ordinary differential equations to de-
scribe CO2 mass balance, the study [112] employed the stochastic
differential equations to reduce measurement errors. And they uti-
lized maximum likelihood algorithm and Kalman filter to estimate
occupancy number. The authors [126] predicted occupancy num-
ber through comparing dynamic physical and statistical modeling
methods. They found that utilizing a combination of average and
first order differential CO2 concentrations can reach the best re-
sult.
A study [45] improved the Extreme Learning Machine (ELM)
by adding a feature layer and scale features to extract valid fea-
tures. In order to overcome the measurement noise, they smoothed
CO2 data by translating into a quadratic optimization problem
and solved it. The authors [6] proposed a semi-supervised Hu-
man Occupancy Counter Plus (DA-HOC ++) model through a semi-
supervised domain adaptation method to train CO2 data. Com-
paring with support vector regression technique (SVR) and Sea-
sonal Decomposition for Human Occupancy Counting (SD-HOC),
the proposed model can improve the performance accuracy of
8%−10%. The Bayesian inference and Markov chain Monte Carlo
methods were used to estimate the distribution of occupants in a
multi rooms building [81]. A study [63] designed an indoor occu-
pancy counting algorithm through training models and Kalman fil-
ter. They trained historical measurement data to obtain parameters
by minimizing optimization function, and utilized Kalman filter to
estimate occupancy number.
In Table 5, CO2 sensors can provide occupancy detection infor-
mation and occupancy counting information. The time interval de-
pended on air change rate. And the error is wider when the peo-
ple number increases. In summary, the advantages of occupancy
measurement by CO2 sensors are non-intrusive type and low cost.
7
Accuracy People number
90.6% 0–25
80.9% 0–20
Detection: 98.85% Counting: 90.4% 0–32
98.7% 0–1
0–250
Time interval Accuracy People number
30 s 86% 0–14
2 mintues 87–96% 0–1
1s Better –
8.76 s 100% 0–1
18 s 97.2% 0–1
However, the drawbacks include the time delay due to the slow gas
mixture rate, the unpredictable opening of windows and doors, the
improper place locations and numbers. Moreover, CO2 generation
rates can change widely between different persons and different
activity levels.
3.4. Electricity meters
The occupancy schedule of a room can be inferred from the
electricity meters [47]. The method based on electricity meters do
not need to add additional expensive sensors, and usually only can
detect occupancy, i.e. distinguish whether the occupant is present
or absent.
The authors [75] proposed a system to predict room-level occu-
pancy detection i.e. whether the room is occupied or not by only
using smart meters data. They derived the feature sets including
appliances state, appliance energy and house-level occupancy data.
They utilized F-measure to indicate the accuracy of occupancy de-
tection. Adaboost and Random Forest classifiers were utilized to
achieve 90% accuracy. The authors [52] extracted 35 features from
the electric load curve by off-the shelf electricity meters. Through
comparing many machine learning methods, they found that uti-
lizing Principal component analysis (PCA) and SVM classifiers can
achieve the best classification accuracy between 83% and 94%. A
large-scale study [83] proposed a method to detect occupancy
by analyzing more than 50 0 0 households over an 18-month pe-
riod. They also predict the present and future occupancy informa-
tion, and achieve 90.1% classification accuracy by using many ma-
chine learning methods. A study [3] proposed the novel concept
of standby state for further energy saving, expect for the state of
occupants presence or absence. KNN method was used to classify
and achieve 94% F-measure. A study [103] utilized a feature se-
lection method named Mutual Information to reduce the sparsity
of datasets. And Random Forest and Decision Tree classifiers were
used to achieve the high occupancy detection F-measure of 83.37%
and 82.79%. Additional information about weather, local events,
and neighborhood will improve precision [83].
However, the issue of lack of datasets often occurs because la-
beling ground truth occupancy data requires a high effort. A study
[8] utilized several unsupervised algorithms (HMM, GeoMA, PHT)
to detect occupancy. And the results showed that their unsuper-
vised algorithms outperform some supervised ones. As for the low
resolution issue, a study [92] proposed an actual consumption esti-
mation method to generate data. Moreover, electricity meters will
leak privacy information about a home or building. The two stud-
ies [20,21] proposed the methods of using thermal energy storage
to prevent occupancy detection.
8 K. Sun, Q. Zhao and J. Zou / Energy & Buildings 216 (2020) 109965

Table 5
Comparison of the detailed information of CO2 sensors based measurement systems.

References Occupancy information Time interval Accuracy People number

[112] Occupancy detection, counting 5 min Detection: 94% Counting: 77% 0–7
[126] Occupancy counting 5 min 70–76% 0–200
[45] Occupancy counting Real-time 94% 0–35
[6] Occupancy counting 30 s 59.45%−63.75% 0–230
[63] Occupancy counting – 88.81% 0–4

Table 6
Sensor fusion based occupancy measurement systems.

References Sensors Occupancy information Methods

[24] Temperature, humidity, CO2 , air pressure Occupancy counting CDBLSTM

[12] Temperature, humidity, CO2 , air pressure, light Occupancy detection LDA, CART and RF
[50] Temperature, humidity, CO2 , light, meter Occupancy counting CART, SVM and ANN
[58] Temperature, humidity and CO2 Occupancy counting Physics-based inverse model
[68] Temperature, humidity, CO2 , light Occupancy detection Sparse auto-encoder, SVM, Softmax
[54] Proximity switch, IR, mat, camera Occupancy counting Movement direction recognition, counting
software
[72] Temperature, humidity, light, PIR, Long-wave infrared Occupancy counting Per-pixel adaptive threshold, region growing,
radiation blob detection algorithm
[107] CO2 , camera Occupancy counting Video recognition, the conservation equation of
CO2
[85] Thermal sensor, camera Occupancy detection Data averaging, background subtraction, ROI
based segregation

3.5. Sensor fusion based measurement systems
The data coming from only one type of sensors is difficult to
provide reliable occupancy information. Due to each sensor has
own unique advantages and limitations, sensor fusion technology
can boost the measurement performance in most cases. This tech-
nology combines different types of sensors, taking full advantages
of sensors and overcoming their limitations for occupancy infor-
mation measurement. This technology collects and fuses different
types of data, and selects the important features to obtain more ac-
curate occupancy information. A summary on sensor fusion based
occupancy measurement systems is presented in Table 6.
A study [50] utilized multiple sensors for occupancy estima-
tion in a private office. They collected data such as temperature,
relative humidity, CO2 concentration, lighting usage and PC usage,
and they used Classification and Regression Trees (CART), SVM and
ANN classification algorithms to estimate occupancy. Considering
the influence of seasonal changes, they also analyzed and com-
pared the seasonal long-term and short-term estimation perfor-
mance. However, it is necessary to expand the method to other
big open offices in buildings. The authors [12] collected data from
light, humidity, temperature and CO2 sensors, and utilized Linear
Discriminant Analysis (LDA), CART and RF models to select fea-
tures and classify occupancy status (occupied or non-occupied). In-
dependent and joint sensors strategies were used to reach higher
accuracy of occupancy detection. With the development of deep
learning, features will be automatically learned and extracted to
achieve high performance. An advanced study [24] proposed a con-
volutional deep bidirectional long short-term memory (CDBLSTM)
network to classify the range of occupants. They measured hu-
midity, CO2, temperature and air pressure data, and set occupancy
ranges to train models. The most advantage of this structure is that
LSTM network can learn temporal dependencies information, thus
they achieved the state-of-the-art level.
In most studies, the ground truth data of occupancy informa-
tion usually comes from cameras. Therefore, fusion strategies with
cameras will provide more accurate performance. A new study
[85] fused a thermal sensor and a camera for occupancy detection.
They averaged data from the thermal sensor which can measure
the surface temperature of objects. As for the image processing al-
gorithm, they used a background subtraction method to detect dy-
namic events while used a prior ROI based segregation method to
detect static events. The results of fusion ensured improved per-
formance. The authors [54] utilized eight sensors for visitor count-
ing in a café room, and the sensors contain triangulation proxim-
ity switch, IR photocell with reflector, background suppression sen-
sor, piezoelectric mat, switching mat, thermal camera, stereoscopic
camera and network camera. The experiment results suggested the
potential energy saving in air transportation. They analyzed and
compared the errors of every sensor, proving the importance of
choosing a suitable sensor and indicating the triangulation prox-
imity switch is most suitable for directional counting in demand-
controlled ventilation (DCV) applications. A study [107] combined
and inter-calibrated video data and CO2 concentration to improve
the occupancy detection performance. They put the camera at the
top of the room entrance and used the massive conservation equa-
tion of CO2 to estimate occupancy number. Their results verified
the energy saving potential.
4. Discussions
Choosing suitable sensors is crucial in real applications. We
have compared different types of sensors in Table 7, and evalua-
tion indicators contain occupancy information, existing infrastruc-
ture, privacy issue and processing complexity. Especially, due to vi-
sion based occupancy measurement method is a recent research
hot topic, we also have compared different types of cameras and
installed locations in Table 8.
In Table 7, each sensor has some advantages and drawbacks.
In terms of acquired occupancy information, camera sensors can
obtain images/videos information which is more comprehensive.
The information of WiFi is able to identify occupants’ identities,
while the information of electricity meter is difficult to accurately
count occupants in recent studies. However, in terms of informa-
tion processing complexity, camera sensors usually take a large
cost of computation, while the signal processing of PIR sensors,
CO2 sensors, electricity meter often have low computation con-
sumption. The privacy issue from camera sensors, WiFi and elec-
tricity meter should be considered in real applications. Because of
different mechanisms and buildings control effects of different sen-
sors, we also discuss the application scopes of different sensors. (1)
Due to existing infrastructure is equipped in buildings, occupancy
 K. Sun, Q. Zhao and J. Zou / Energy & Buildings 216 (2020) 109965
Table 7
Comparison of different types of sensors.
Sensor Occupancy information
Camera Detection, counting, identity, track, location
WiFi Detection, counting, identity
PIR Detection, counting
CO2 Detection, counting
Electricity meter Detection
Table 8
Comparison of different types of cameras and installed locations.
Situation Camera Installed location Cost Privacy issue
A Non-depth The room entrance (overhead) Low Partial
B Non-depth The room interior Low Yes
C Depth The room entrance (overhead) High Partial
D Depth The room interior High Yes
measurement methods based WiFi can be easily used. This type
of methods provide occupancy information and control HVAC and
lighting systems after occupants’ devices are connected with APs.
Therefore, detailed device information has the potential to provide
detailed occupancy information, such as occupancy identity and
tracking information. However, both WiFi users in nearby rooms or
outside walkways and room users with no using WiFi will corrupt
the occupancy measurement. Moreover, occupants carry multiple
MDs or forget to bring or take away MDs will reduce the accuracy
of counting even detection information. For example, the only peo-
ple in the room go out but forget to take away his/her MDs. In ad-
dition, many MDs turn to sleep mode at no use, and low-frequency
signal transmission may mislead occupancy measurement meth-
ods. (2) PIR sensors can be easily used to detect infrared radiation
changes. Occupants’ movement can be immediately sensed for di-
rectly switch lights and appliances or more complex control strate-
gies. In general, PIR sensors are not easy to detect static occupancy.
However, a sensor for stationary occupancy detection is developed
in a recent study [113]. PIR sensors have the advantages of low
computational cost, low energy consumption, high reliability [111].
In [105], the empirical occupancy information from PIR sensors can
be used to explore the building simulation performance. The mea-
surement range of PIR sensors is limited, and greater distances be-
tween PIR sensors and people will result in lower accuracy. (3) CO2
concentrations can be used as an input to build up physical mod-
els and statistical models to improve the buildings’ performance in
Section 3.3. In occupancy measurement, CO2 sensors can mainly
provide occupancy counting information. However, the variance of
the error is larger when the people number increases. The time lag
and air change rate are important indicators worth considering. In
real applications, the opening of windows or doors and installation
locations need to be controlled. (4) Due to existing infrastructure is
equipped in buildings, data of electricity meters can be easily ob-
tained. However, labeling ground truth occupancy datasets is still
an issue. Electricity meters could not provide quick occupancy in-
formation to control lighting and HVAC systems in real time. Meth-
ods based on electricity meters are hard to predict fine-grained oc-
cupancy information. Many recent studies in Section 3.4 only focus
on occupancy detection (i.e. occupancy presence or absence). And
occupancy privacy is still an important issue. (5) Compared with
the above sensors, methods based cameras can provide immedi-
ate and comprehensive occupancy information for control strate-
gies. So many methods based on other sensors obtain ground truth
from cameras. Methods can get real-time images from cameras and
analyze occupancy information to control lighting or HVAC sys-
tems. However, many problems haven’t been solved yet. Especially,
with the rapid development of deep learning and computer vision,
the performance improves while the computation complexity in-
9
Existing infrastructure Privacy issue Processing complexity
Partial Partial High
Yes Yes Medium
No No Low
No No Low
Yes Yes Low
Computation complexity cumulative error Weak illumination Occlusion
Low Yes No Partial
High No No Yes
Low Yes Yes Partial
High No Yes Yes
creases. The safe [53] and lightweight neural network [42] are re-
search trends.
With the development of surveillance video, most buildings
have installed ordinary cameras, and it brings great convenience
for occupancy measurement. In Table 8, occupancy measurement
methods based on images/videos can provide more comprehensive
information and fine-grained accurate results, while the illumina-
tion, privacy, occlusion and large computation are main limitations.
The choice of different cameras and locations plays a very import
role in occupancy measurement systems. Depth cameras can mea-
sure occupancy in weak illumination conditions, but depth cam-
eras are expensive and not equipped in most existing buildings,
and only using depth information will increase false positive rate.
Using cameras to measure occupancy often bring the privacy is-
sue, though the issue can be partially solved at the overhead view.
If cameras are installed at the room entrance (overhead), measure-
ment methods based on motion detection will result in cumulative
errors which can affect energy saving and comfort. If cameras are
installed at the room interior, the occlusion between people and
other objects will be a problem worth considering, and the com-
putation complexity will increase. The detailed information is com-
pared in Table 9. The accuracy of overhead measurement methods
(situation A or C) is usually higher than that of interior measure-
ment methods (situation B or D). Moreover, the response time of
overhead measurement methods is short because motion detection
has to run in real time. However, overhead measurement meth-
ods are hard to provide occupancy detection information (i.e. oc-
cupancy presence or absence) because of the cumulative errors.
Generally speaking, Sensor fusion technology is a better choice
to enhance performance. Because different sensors can compensate
each other, and take full advantages of other sensors while over-
coming own limitations for occupancy measurement.
As for future trends, the fifth generation mobile network (5 G),
cloud computing platform and artificial intelligence especially deep
learning technologies are gradually widely developed. With the de-
velopment of 5 G networks technology, it will bring greater band-
width, provide higher data rates, achieve the acceptable Quality of
Service (QoS) and reduce network complexity [80]. The data trans-
mission rate of sensors will be speeded up greatly, and the re-
sponse speed of occupancy measurement systems will be acceler-
ated. In recent years, cloud-based data processing is an important
aspect of computations [4]. Both demand of computational capa-
bility and increasing storage size could be solved by cloud infras-
tructures.
Besides, artificial intelligence especially deep learning has been
successfully applied in many challenging areas, mainly including
image processing and natural language processing. Deep learning
can automatically learn to extract features [57] from large sen-
10 K. Sun, Q. Zhao and J. Zou / Energy & Buildings 216 (2020) 109965

Table 9
Comparison of the detailed information of vision sensors based measurement systems.

References Situation Resolution Time interval Accuracy Occupancy information

[2] A 640 × 480 – 99.1% Occupancy tracking

[117] AB – 5 min 97.2% Occupancy counting
[39] B 400 × 304 0.41 s 84.2% Occupancy tracking
[14] B 320 × 240 30 s 96% Occupancy detection
[94] B 4× 16 1s 100% Occupancy counting
[102] B 4× 16 10×60–120 s 80+% Occupancy counting
[79] C 512 × 424 0.03 s 99.2% Occupancy counting
[100] C 512 × 424 – 98.1% Occupancy tracking
[120] D 640 × 480 3s 95.6% Occupancy counting
[62] CD 320 × 240 30 s Precision 0.75 Occupancy counting

Fig. 4. Example provided by [56]. The architecture of LeNet-5 convolutional neural network, including convolutional layers, subsampling layers, full connection layers and so
on.

sors data. In Fig. 4, the authors [27] utilized a simple convolutional
neural network (CNN) named LeNet-5 [56] and sliding windows
methods to detect head for people counting in classrooms. (CNN
is a deep learning algorithm that can automatically extract visual
features instead of manual design features. The CNN model pa-
rameters can be trained by back-propagation or gradient descent
so as to obtain the expected output. CNN is specifically designed
to handle two-dimension data, like image, and is widely used in
face recognition ([90,96]), object detection [84], Re-ID [114], im-
age segmentation [41] and so on. In general, different computer
vision tasks are solved by different network architecture and lay-
ers. Convolutional layers: extract feature maps by trainable kernels
(filters); pooling or subsampling layers: reduce the size of feature
maps; full connection or dense layers: extract 1-D features; resid-
ual or densely connected layers: extract features from the com-
bination of previous and current layers [43].) Due to the R-CNN
[38] is time-consuming, this study [36] utilized “HOG + Adaboost”
method to propose head regions and utilized joint CNN and SVM
classifiers to refine the results for occupancy counting. The study
[65] proposed a fully convolutional neural network and obtained
confidence coefficient maps for the crowd counting and density
distribution. The study [119] used RGB, depth images and flow data
information to train CNN. The main idea of this study is that they
used multitask loss to implement joint human detection and head
pose estimation. The authors [124] utilized SVM, CNN and K-means
cascaded algorithms to count occupants’ heads. Deep learning ap-
proaches have already achieved significant performance, however
the limitations have been reported recently. For example, a study
[98] trained the “path” to attack detectors and classifiers. They
trained CNN to generate an adversarial patch, and the person de-
tectors will not correctly recognize persons with the path. The au-
thors [61] proposed a generative adversarial network to improve
the attacking ability of the adversarial patch. They tested and at-
tacked some open-source typical neutral networks, and showed
the strong attacking ability of reducing the classifiers’ performance.
Even though the study [44] gave partial explanations of the adver-
sarial patch, this problem has not been solved effectively.
5. Conclusions
In this paper, we have reviewed many occupancy measurement
systems based on different sensors, especially images/videos based
methods. Occupancy information is crucial to optimize the control
strategy, provide building detailed simulation information. We em-
phasize the importance of building occupancy, and introduce dif-
ferent types and levels of building occupancy information includ-
ing detection, counting, identity, track, location and so on. We an-
alyze occupancy measurement systems based on the use of differ-
ent sensors, cameras, WiFi, PIR sensors, CO2 sensors, and electric-
ity sensors. Images/videos based method has become a research
hot topic in recent years, thus we focus on the analysis of cam-
eras in different aspects. Different types (non-depth or depth cam-
eras) and different installed locations (the room entrance or in-
terior) of cameras can obtain different images/videos information.
And the joint motion and static image processing methods often
can get better performance. We compare the advantages and limi-
tations of different sensors, and discuss their applicable scopes and
limitations. When we select sensors in real applications, sensor
fusion method tends to perform better because different sensors
can compensate each other. We also present some future trends
including the fifth generation mobile network (5 G), cloud com-
puting platform and artificial intelligence especially deep learning
technologies. Hopefully, deep learning method has already gradu-
ally used for occupancy measurement, however, the potential risks,
for example adversarial patch attack need to be avoided.
Author contributions
KL collected references, and wrote initial draft of the
manuscript. QC designed the framework of the review, refined the
ideas, provided partial references and revised the manuscript. JH
discussed the vision situations, and summarized the differences
between different measurement systems.
 K. Sun, Q. Zhao and J. Zou / Energy & Buildings 216 (2020) 109965
Funding
This work is supported by Key R&D Project of Chinaunder Grant
No. 2017YFC0704100, 2016YFB0901900, National Natural Science
Foundation of China under Grant No. 61425024, the 111 Interna-
tional Collaboration Program of China under Grant No. BP2018006,
2019 Major Science and Technology Program for the Strategic
Emerging Industries of Fuzhou under Grant No. 2019−Z-1, and in
part by the BNRist Program under Grant No. BNR2019TD01009.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the ab-
sence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be
construed as a potential conflict of interest.
Supplementary materials
Supplementary material associated with this article can be
found, in the online version, at doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2020.109965.
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