Chapter 7

Structural Organisation
in Animals
TISSUE
♦ Human body is composed of billions of cells to perform various function.
♦ Division of labour contributes to survival of multicellular organisms
e.g., Hydra.
♦ No division of labour in unicellular organism.
♦ A group of similar cells along with intercellular substances which per-
form a specific function.
♦ Organs such as stomach, lungs, heart and kidney comprise a specific
proportion and pattern of all basic types of tissues.
♦ Organ system: Two or more organ perform a common function by
physical/chemical interaction e.g., Digestive system.
Different types of cells
♦ Hydra
Number of cells in thousands
♦ The skin is the largest organ in the body.

TYPES OF TISSUES
Based on: Structure of cells vary according to their function

Epithelial Connective Muscular Neural

tissue tissue tissue tissue

CELL JUNCTIONS

Tight Junctions Adhering Junctions Gap Junctions

Prevent leakage Perform cementing Facilitate the cells to communicate
of substance to keep neighbouring with each other by connecting the
across a tissue cells together cytoplasm of adjoining cells, for rapid
transfer of ions, small molecules and
sometimes big molecules.
 Characteristics Squamous Cuboidal Columnar Ciliated Glandular
Figure I.*

II.**
Cells Single thin Single layer of Tall and slender Cuboidal or Cuboidal or
layer of flattened, cube-like columnar columnar
irregular boundaries
Nucleus Central Central At base Central or at Central or at

Simple
base base

epithelium
(single-layered)
Function Diffusion Secretion and Secretion and Move particles Specialised
boundary absorption absorption or mucus in a for secretion
specific direction

Example: Cavities, Duct, Tubules

Location Air sacs of Tubular parts of Stomach and Inner surface of Salivary
lungs, walls nephron (PCT), intestine inner organs, glands

(Avascular)
of blood vessels ducts of glands bronchioles and
fallopian tubes

EPITHELIAL TISSUE
2 or more cell layers

Function Protection against mechanical and chemical stresses

Limited role in secretion and absorption

epithelium
Compound
(multi-layered)
Location Dry surface of skin, buccal cavity, pharynx, inner lining of ducts of salivary glands and pancreatic ducts

Example: Skin
 Free surface of epithelial tissue  Epithelial tissue provides a  Its cells are compactly  Microvilli present in PCT of
faces body fluid or outsides covering of a lining for packed with little nephron and small intestine
environment some part of the body intercellular matrix increase surface area for
absorption
 Transitional Epithelium Stratified Epithelium
Thinner and more elastic  Type of compound epithelium
Lines the inner surface  Found in dry surface of skin
of the urinary bladder and moist surface of buccal
and ureter cavity and pharynx

Glands (Glandular epithelium)

I.* Based on the number of cells
• Number of cells Unicellular Multi-cellular
• Example Goblet cells Salivary glands
(Secrete mucus) (secrete saliva)

II.** Based on the mode of pouring their secretions

Exocrine glands Endocrine glands

Ducts Present Absent
Secretions Mucus, saliva, Hormones
earwax, oil, milk,
digestive enzymes and
other cell products
 Endocrine glands directly release their secretions into the
fluid bathing the gland

CONNECTIVE TISSUE (VASCULAR)

 Most abundant and widely distributed tissue
 Linking and supporting other tissues and organs
 Range from soft connective tissues to specialised types
 Components of Connective tissue:
Matrix/ground substance: Modified polysaccharides or intercellular
material
Cells: Fibroblasts, macrophages, adipocytes etc.
Fibres: Fibroblasts secrete collagen or elastin fibres
In all connective tissues except blood have fibroblast cells
to produce fibre of structure of proteins called collagen or elastin
Fibres provide strength, elasticity and flexibility to the tissue

 THREE TYPES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE
I. LOOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
 Cells and fibres are loosely packed in semi-solid ground substance
Types

Areolar tissue Adipose tissue

Major cells Fibroblasts, Adipocytes

macrophages, mast cells
Function(s) Serve as support Reservoir of stored
framework for epithelium fats
Location Beneath skin Mainly beneath skin
Macrophage
Fat storage
Fibroblast area
Collagen Nucleus
fibres Plasma
membrane
Mast cell

Excess of nutrients not meant for immediate use are converted to fats
and are stored in adipose tissue 

II. DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE

 Fibroblasts and fibres are compactly packed in matrix
Types

Dense regular Dense irregular

Cells and Parallel bundles of Fibroblasts and fibres
fibres collagen fibres are oriented differently
Function(s) Tendons (attach skeletal Skin
muscles to bone)
Ligaments (attach bone to bone)
Arrangement Collagen fibre Collagen fibre
 III. SPECIALISED CONNECTIVE TISSUE
1. Skeletal Connective Tissues

Cartilage Bones

Matrix Solid, pliable Hard and non-pliable

Cells in Chondrocytes Osteocytes

lacuna

Location/ Tip of nose, outer ear joints, Constitutes main structural

Functions between vertebrae, limbs and
hands in adults
Most of the cartilages in
vertebrate embryos are
replaced by bones in adults
framework
Interact with skeletal muscles
to bring movements
Bone marrow in some bones
is the site of production of
blood cells
Support & protect softer
tissues & organs

Diagram
Collagen fibers
Collagen fibers
Cartilage cell
(chondrocyte)

• Cartilage resists compression.

• Calcium salts and collagen fibres in ground substance provide strength to the bones.
• Lacunae are small cavities enclosing bone cells within matrix secreted by them.

2. Fluid Connective Tissues

 Blood – main circulating fluid that helps in the transport of various substances
 Composed of plasma, RBC, WBC, platelets
 Fibroblasts and fibres are absent in blood

RBC Platelets WBC

 MUSCULAR TISSUE
 nMyofibrils  nMuscle fibres  Muscle
 Show contractility and return to their uncontracted state in a coordinated fashion
 Play an active role in all movements
Parameters Skeletal muscle Smooth/Visceral Cardiac muscle
fibres muscle fibres fibres
Shape Cylindrical Spindle/fusiform Cylindrical
No. of nuclei Multi-nucleated Uninucleated Uninucleated
Location of nuclei Peripheral nuclei Central Central
Striations Striated Non striated Faint striations
Branching Unbranched Unbranched Branched
Under control of Yes (Voluntary) No (Involuntary) No (Involuntary)
will
Junctions Absent Present Present
Attached to bones Blood vessels,
Location e.g., Biceps stomach, intestine Heart wall

Communication junctions (intercalated discs) at some fusion points allow the

cells of cardiac muscles to contract as a unit

NEURAL TISSUE
 Exerts the greatest control over the body’s responsiveness to changing conditions.
Neural Tissue

Neurons Neuroglial cells

Composition Unit of neural system More than one half the
volume of neural tissue
Excitability Yes No
Function Respond to changing conditions Protect and support neurons
through various stimuli

Axon
Cell body with nucleus
Dendrite
Neuroglea
Upon suitable stimulation, the electrical disturbance generated travels swiftly along
the plasma membrane of neuron. 
 Our heart consists of all four types of tissues.
 Complexity in organ and organ systems display certain discernable trend called
evolutionary trend.
 INTRODUCTION (Cockroach)
 Classification
Kingdom : Animalia
Phylum : Arthropoda
Class : Insecta
Genus : Periplaneta
Species : americana
Characteristics
Size 0.6-7.6 cm (1/4 inches to 3 inches)
Colour Brown or black colour; Bright yellow, red and green
coloured reported in tropical regions
Habitat Damp places throughout world
Habit Omnivorous, Nocturnal
 Economic Residents of human homes and are
importance serious pests & vectors of several diseases and spoil
food & contaminate it with their smelly excreta

MORPHOLOGY  Exoskeleton: Head, brown chitinous plates

called sclerites Dorsal plates – Tergites
Ventral plates – Sternites
Plates connected by a thin, flexible articular/
arthrodial membrane.
 34-53 mm long with wings extend
beyond the tip of abdomen in males. Pronotum Appendages:
Body Division: Compound eye  Filiform antennae
• Long, sensory thread like
 Head (6 segments) • Segmented arise from membranous
• Triangular, right angle to socket
longitudinal body axis • Present in front of eyes
• Help in monitoring environment
 Mesothoracic wings/
 Thorax (3 segments) Forewings/Tegmina (1 pair)
• Prothorax • Opaque, dark and leathery
• Mesothorax • Cover hindwings at rest
• Metathorax • Do not help in flight
 Metathoracic wings/
Hindwings (1 pair)
• Transparent and
membranous
• Meant for flight
 Abdomen  Legs (3 pairs)
(10 segments) • 1 pair of walking legs on
Broader in females than males  Anal cerci (1 pair) each thoracic segment

Neck: Head connected to thorax by short extension of prothorax.

It provide great mobility of head in all directions.
The sclerite of prothorax is large and is known as a pronotum.
Head capsule bears a pair of compound eyes. 
 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Alimentary canal Accessory glands

Well developed with a mouth  Salivary gland
surrounded by mouth parts • 1 pair
 Foregut (Lined by cuticle entirely) • Present near crop
• Pharynx (shorts tubular)
• Oesophagus (Narrow tubular)  Salivary reservoir
• Crop (sac like for temporary
storage of food)  Hapatic/gastric caecae
• Gizzard/proventriculus • Ring of 6-8 blind tubules
• Outer thick circular muscles • At the junction of foregut
and inner six chitinous teeth and midgut
• Grinding of food particles • Secrete digestive joice

 Mesenteron/Midgut  Malpighian tubules (part

(Between foregut and of excretory system)
hindgut) • 100-150 in number
• Yellow coloured, thin
filamentous tubules at the
 Hindgut (Broader than midgut) junction of midgut and
• Ileum hindgut
• Colon
• Rectum (Opens out through anus)
Head bears appendages forming biting and chewing type of mouth parts

Ocellus Labrum
Compound eye Upper lip

Mandible
Maxilla

Grinding region (Grinding

Incising
region of food)
Mandidble
Mandible
Hypopharynx
Labrum

Labium

Maxilla Labium Maxilla

Lower lip
 BLOOD VASCULAR SYSTEM
Open type

Heart Blood vessels Haemolymph

 Elongated muscular tube with  Poorly developed  Composed of

13 chambers colourless
 Open into haemocoel
plasma and
 Lying along mid dorsal line of
haemocytes
thorax and abdomen
 Visceral organs
 Funnel shaped chambers with
bathed in
ostia on either on either side
haemolymph
 Blood flows anteriorly in heart

Anterior Alary muscles Chambers of

aorta heart

Open circulatory system of cockroach

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
 Network of trachea (thin, branching tubes) that open
through 10 pairs of spiracles present on lateral side of the body.
 Opening of spiracles is guarded by sphincters.
 Site for exchange of gases: Tracheoles by diffusion.

EXCRETORY SYSTEM
 Malpighian tubules, lined by glandular and ciliated cells.
 They absorb nitrogenous waste products and convert them into uric acid which
is excreted out through hindgut.
 Excretory product: Uric acid (Uricotelic).
 Other excretory structures: Fat body, nephrocytes and uricose glands.
 NERVOUS SYSTEM (Spread Throughout Body)
Parameters Head Ventral part of body
 Proportion  Bit of nervous system  Most part of nervous system
of nervous  Supra-oesophageal  Paired longitudinal
system ganglion (brain) connectives with series
Supply nerves to of fused segmentally
Antennae and compound arranged ganglia
eyes (Each compound • 3 ganglia in thorax
eye consists of 2000 • 6 ganglia in abdomen
hexagonal ommatidia
& situated at dorsal
surface of head)
• Sense organs: Antennae, Labial palps, Eyes, Maxillary palps, Anal cerci
• Cockroach has mosaic vision with more sensitivity and less resolution
• If head of cockroach is cut off, it will still live for as long as one week 

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM [Dioecious]

MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Testis
1 pair, lateral side Phallic gland
th th
4 -6 abdominal Long tubules Mushroom
segments Small tubules gland
th th
6 -7
External genitalia/gonapophysis abdominal
Seminal vesicle segments
Components Vas deferens Accessory
reproductive
Ejaculatory duct gland
1. Chitinous asymmetrical structure Opens through male genital
2. Present around male gonopore pore which is ventral to anus
3. Three phallomeres: Anal cercus
(a) Right phallomere Pseudopenis
(b) Ventral phallomere Caudal/anal style
Tibillator
(c) Left phallomere 1 pair, only in males

th th
Male genital pouch Dorsally by 9 and 10 terga
th
(Lies at the hind end Ventrally by 9 sternum
of abdomen) Contains dorsal anus, ventral male genital pore gonapophysis
 FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Ovary
1 pair
nd th
2 -6 abdominal segments
1 ovary contains 8 ovarioles
• Each ovariole contains chain
of developing ova
Spermatheca Oviduct
1 pair
th Common oviduct or vagina
6 abdominal segment
Collaterial gland
1 pair
Secrete ootheca
Genital chamber
Genital pouch
Gonapophyses Vestibulum

th th th
7 sternum (boat shaped) along with 8 and 9 sterna

Female gonopore, spermathecal pores and collaterial glands Anterior

part

Path of sperms
 Testes → Vas deferens → Seminal vesicle → Ejaculatory duct →
Male genital pore → Spermatheca of female during copulation
Path of ova
 Female genital pore  Common oviduct/Vagina  Oviduct 
Ovary (Ovarioles)
Sperms
Ova Sperm
Anal cerci Anal style
Paired, long Paired, short Female genital pouch (brood pouch)
Fertilisation
Jointed Unjointed
Secretion of collaterial glands form ootheca
Filamentous Thread like On an average, female produces 9-10 ootheca
Both ♀ & ♂ Only ♂ each containing 14 to 16 fertilised eggs

• Ootheca is a dark reddish to blackish brown capsule about 3/8" (8 mm) long.
• Female deposits ootheca in crack or crevice
13 times moulting (Paurometabolous development indirect)
• Nymph Adult
• Next to last nymphal stage has wing pads but only adult cockroaches have wings

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