T&D Unit2 Notes Final

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22EE403
Transmission and
Distribution
(Lab Integrated)
Department EEE
Batch/Year 2022-26/II Year
Created by Mr. S.Balamurugan
Date 10.01.2024
4
1. TABLE OF CONTENTS
S. No Topic Page No.
1 Table of contents 5
2 Course Objectives 6
3 Pre Requisites 7
4 Syllabus 8
5 Course outcomes 10
6 CO- PO/PSO Mapping 13
7 Lecture Plan 14
8 Activity based learning 16
9 Lecture Notes 19
10 Assignments 56
11 Part A with Answers 59
12 Part B & C Qs 65
13 Supportive online Certification courses 71
Real time Applications in day to day life and to

14 73
Industry
15 Additional Topics 75
16 Assessment Schedule 80
17 Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books 82
18 Mini Project suggestions 84
5
2. COURSE OBJECTIVES
The student should be made to:
• To study the structure of Electric Power System, distribution systems, EHVAC,

HVDC, FACTS and Smart grid.
• To develop expressions for the computation of transmission line parameters
• To develop the equivalent circuits for the transmission lines based on

distance and to determine voltage regulation and efficiency.
• To analyze the voltage distribution in insulator strings to improve the

efficiency and types, construction of cable and also methods to improve the
efficiency.
• To understand the mechanical design of transmission lines, types of

substations, methods of grounding and load forecasting
6
3. PREREQUISITES
SEMESTER 1
SEMESTER 2
SEMESTER 1
7
4. SYLLABUS
22EE403 TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION LTPC
3024
UNIT I STRUCTURE OF POWER SYSTEM 9

Structure of Power System – Overhead and Underground systems – Kelvin’s Law – AC
and DC Distributors - Distributed and Concentrated loads- Interconnection Distributed
system - Trends in Transmission and Distribution: EHVAC, HVDC, FACTS and Smart Grid
(Qualitative treatment only).
List of Experiments:
1. Model the structure of the power system and calculate the parameters of the power
system components
2. Develop and simulate the distributed and concentrated distributor with and without
interconnected system.
UNIT II TRANSMISSION LINE PARAMETERS 9

Parameters of single and three phase Transmission lines with Single and Double circuits
-Resistance, Inductance and Capacitance of Solid, Stranded and Bundled conductors,
Symmetrical and Unsymmetrical spacing and transposition – Application of self and
mutual GMD; Skin and Proximity effects - Effects of earth on the capacitance of the
Transmission line - Interference with neighbouring communication circuits- Formation of
Corona discharge, Critical Voltages and Factors affecting corona.
1. Calculate and simulate the inductance per phase for the different transmission lines.
2. Calculate and simulate the capacitance per phase for the different transmission lines.
UNIT III MODELLING AND PERFORMANCE OF TRANSMISSION LINES 9

Performance of Transmission lines - Short line, Medium line and Long line - phasor
diagram and Generalized circuits constant analysis - surge impedance, Real and
Reactive power flow in lines – Power Circle diagrams -Ferranti effect - Techniques of
Voltage Control and Power factor improvement.
8
1. Model and calculate the real, reactive power and power factor for the nominal
T transmission line
2. Calculate and simulate the real, reactive power and power factor of nominal T
transmission line.
3. Calculate and simulate efficiency and regulation of a short transmission line.
UNIT IV INSULATORS AND CABLES 9

Insulators-Types of Insulators-Insulator material and its properties- Voltage
distribution in insulator string, Improvement of string efficiency, testing of
insulators-Underground Cables-Types of cables- Construction of cable- Insulation
Resistance -Capacitance of Single core and 3-core belted cable-Grading of cables-
Testing of cable fault: Loop tests.
1. Determine capacitance and dielectric loss of an insulating material using
Schering Bridge
2. Study of overhead line insulators, cable and power capacitor.
3. Calculate and simulate string efficiency of a string insulators.
UNIT V MECHANICAL DESIGN OF LINES, GROUNDING AND LOAD

VARIATION 9
Mechanical design of OH lines -Stress and Sag Calculation – Effects of Wind and
Ice loading- Line Supports –Tower Spotting-Types of Towers- Substation layout -
Methods of Grounding- System load variation -Load curves and Load duration
curves -Load forecasting.
1. Forecasting the load and load curves using the AI
2. Calculate the grounding resistance for the different types of earth rods
9
5. COURSE OUTCOMES
On completion of the course, the students will be able to
CO NO. COURSE OUTCOME K-LEVEL
Understand the structure of power system

CO403.1 K3
and various distribution systems
Discuss the Modelling of the transmission
CO403.2 K3
line parameters
Analyse the equivalent circuits for the
CO403.3 K3
transmission lines based on distance
Explain the different types, characteristics of
CO403.4 cables and design the performance K3
parameters of different line insulators

Interpret the significance of sag on overall
CO403.5 K3
design overhead lines
Explain the type of substation, grounding
CO403.6 K2
systems along with the load variation.
10
PROGRAM OUTCOMES (POS)
On completion of the B.E (Electrical and Electronics Engineering) Degree

the Electrical Engineering graduates will be able to
Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science,
engineering fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of
complex engineering problems.
Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze
complex engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first
principles of mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering
problems and design system components or processes that meet the specified
needs with appropriate consideration for the public health and safety, and the
cultural, societal, and environmental considerations.
Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based
knowledge and research methods including design of experiments, analysis and
interpretation of data, and synthesis of the information to provide valid
conclusions.
Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques,
resources, and modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and
modeling to complex engineering activities with an understanding of the
limitations.
The Engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual
knowledge to assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the
consequent responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering practice.
Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional
engineering solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate
the knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.
Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and
responsibilities and norms of the engineering practice.
Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a
member or leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities
with the engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to
comprehend and write effective reports and design documentation, make
effective presentations, and give and receive clear instructions.
Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and
understanding of the engineering and management principles and apply these to
one's own work, as a member and leader in a team, to manage projects and in
multidisciplinary environments.
Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability
to engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of
technological change.
11
PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSOS)
After successful completion of the B.E degree program, the

graduates will be able to
PSO 1: Analyze the performance of complex interconnected Power
system..
PSO 2: Implement latest technological developments in the field of
Control and Automation
PSO 3:Apply cutting edge technology to trouble shoot Electrical
equipment.
PSO4 : Develop managerial skills to establish Start-up Company in the
field of Engineering and Technology..
12
6. CO- PO/PSO MAPPING
Program
Course Out Comes
Program Outcomes Specific

Level of CO
Outcomes
K3,
K5,
K4
K3
K5
K5
K6
A3
A3
A3
A2
A3
A3
A2
PSO-2
PSO-4
PSO-1
PSO-3
PO-10
PO-11
PO-12
PO-2
PO-9
PO-1
PO-3
PO-4
PO-5
PO-6
PO-7
PO-8
CO1
K2 3 3 2 - - - - - - - - - 2 1 - -
CO2
K3 2 3 1 - - - - - - - - - - 1 - -
CO3
K3 2 3 1 - - - - - - - - - 2 1 -
CO4
K2 2 3 2 - - - - - - - - - 2 1 2 -
CO5
K3 2 3 2 - - - - - - - - - 3 2 - -
CO6
K2 3 3 2 - - - - - - - - - 3 2 2 -
CO
3 3 2 - - - - - - - - - 3 2 2 -
13
7
LECTURE PLAN
UNIT II
UNIT 2 TRANSMISSION LINE PARAMETERS 9
Parameters of single and three phase Transmission lines with Single and Double
circuits -Resistance, Inductance and Capacitance of Solid, Stranded and Bundled
conductors, Symmetrical and Unsymmetrical spacing and transposition – Application of
self and mutual GMD; Skin and Proximity effects - Effects of earth on the capacitance
of the Transmission line - Interference with neighbouring communication circuits-
Formation of Corona discharge, Critical Voltages and Factors affecting corona.
1. Calculate and simulate the inductance per phase for the different transmission lines.
2. Calculate and simulate the capacitance per phase for the different transmission
lines.
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Lecture Plan
Mode
No. of Propo Actual Pertai Taxono
Sl. of
Topic period sed Lectur ning my
No. Deliver
s Date e Date CO Level
y
Parameters of single 31.1.24
and three phase
1 Transmission lines with 1 CO2 PPT
Single and Double
circuits
Inductance of Solid, 1.2.24
Stranded and Bundled &
conductors, 2.2.24 Chalk
2 2 CO2
Symmetrical and and Talk
Unsymmetrical spacing
and transposition
Inductance of Solid, 3.2.24
Stranded and Bundled &
conductors, 6.2.24 Chalk
3 2 CO2
and transposition
Capacitance of Solid, 7.2.24
Stranded and Bundled
conductors, Chalk
4 1 CO2
and transposition
Skin and Proximity 8.2.24
effects - Effects of earth Chalk
5 1 CO2
on the capacitance of and Talk
the Transmission line
Interference with 9.2.24 Chalk
6 neighbouring 1 CO2
and Talk
communication circuits-
Formation of Corona 10.2.24
discharge, Critical PPT
7 1 CO2
Voltages and Factors
affecting corona
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8
ACTIVITY BASED
LEARNING
16
8.Activity based learning-1
Title of activity : Hands on experiments
Topic : Inductance Calculation
Time : 30 Minutes
Aim:
Activity can be done in using Matlab software for obtaining the inductance
and capacitance of Three phase transmission line
Observation:
Verify the Matlab results with theoretical values
Question:
The three conductors of a 3-phase line are arranged at the corners of a triangle of
sides 2 m, 2·5 m and 4·5 m. Calculate the inductance per km of the line when the
conductors are regularly transposed. The diameter of each conductor is 1·24 cm.
And verify the same using the program
Code:
clc
clear all
disp('enter 1 for simple config& 2 for bundled config')
Z=input('');
switch Z
case 1
D12=input('enter the distance between 1&2:');
r=input('enter the radius:');
GMD=(D12*D23*D31)^(1/3);
gmr=r*0.7788;
L=0.2*log(GMD/gmr);
C=0.0556/log(GMD/r);
fprintf('inductance:%f\n',L)
fprintf('Capacitance:%f\n',C)
case 2
D31= input('enter the distance between 3&1:');
r=input('enter the radius:');
n=input('enter number of conductors/phase:');
d=input('enter bundle spacing:');
GMD=(D12*D23*D31)^(1/3);
if(n==4)
GMRL=1.09*(0.7788*r*(d^3))^(1/4);
GMRC=1.09*(r*(d^3))^(1/4);
else
GMRL=(0.7788*r*(d^(n-1)))^(1/n);
GMRC=(r*(d^(n-1)))^(1/n);
end
L=0.2*log(GMD/GMRL);
C=0.0556*log(GMD/GMRC);
fprintf('inductance:%f\n', L);
fprintf('capacitance:%f\n',C);
end
Print the results that you have obtained using Matlab code and
verify with the manual calculations
9
LECTURE NOTES
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Line Parameters
An a.c. transmission line has resistance, inductance and capacitance
uniformly distributed along its length. These are known as constants or parameters
of the line. The performance of a transmission line depends to a considerable extent
upon these constants. For instance, these constants determine whether the
efficiency and voltage regulation of the line will be good or poor.
Out of these three parameters of a transmission line, we shall pay
greatest attention to inductance and capacitance. Resistance is certainly of equal
importance but requires less explanation since it is not a function of conductor
arrangement.
Constants of a Transmission Line
Resistance. It is the opposition of line conductors to current flow. The resistance is
distributed uniformly along the whole length of the line as shown in Fig. 2.1 (i)
However, the performance of a transmission line can be analysed conveniently if
distributed resistance is considered as lumped as shown in Fig. 2.1(ii).
Fig 1 Line Parameters Fig 2 Equivalent Circuit
Inductance. When an alternating current flows through a conductor, a changing

flux is set up which links the conductor. Due to these flux linkages, the conductor
possesses inductance. Mathematically, inductance is defined as the flux linkages per
ampere
𝜓
𝐿 = 𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑟𝑦
𝐼
ψ = flux linkages in weber-turns , I = current in amperes
The inductance is also uniformly distributed along the length of the line as show in
Fig. 2.1(i). Again for the convenience of analysis, it can be taken to be lumped as
shown in Fig. 2.1(ii).
Capacitance. We know that any two conductors separated by an insulating material
constitute a capacitor. As any two conductors of an overhead transmission line are
separated by air which acts as an insulation, therefore, capacitance exists between
any two overhead line conductors. The capacitance between the conductors is the
charge per unit potential difference
𝑄
𝐶 = 𝑖𝑛 𝐹𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑉
Fig 3 Capacitance of Line
where q = charge on the line in coulomb
v = p.d. between the conductors in volts
The capacitance is uniformly distributed along the whole length of the line
and may be regarded as a uniform series of capacitors connected between the
conductors as shown in Fig. 3 (i). When an alternating voltage is impressed on a
transmission line, the charge on the conductors at any point increases and
decreases with the increase and decrease of the instantaneous value of the voltage
between conductors at that point. The result is that a current (known as charging
current) flows between the conductors [See Fig. 3 (ii)]. This charging current flows
in the line even when it is open-circuited i.e., supplying no load. It affects the
voltage drop along the line as well as the efficiency and power factor of the line.
Flux Linkages:
The inductance of a circuit is defined as the flux linkages per unit current.
Therefore, in order to find the inductance of a circuit, the determination of flux
linkages is of primary importance.
Flux linkages due to a single current carrying conductor:
Consider a long straight cylindrical conductor of radius r metres and
carrying a current I amperes (r.m.s.) as shown in Fig.4 (i). This current will set up
magnetic field. The magnetic lines of force will exist inside the conductor as well as
outside the conductor. Both these fluxes will contribute to the inductance of the
conductor.
(i) Flux linkages due to internal flux. Refer to Fig. 4 (ii) where the X-section of
the conductor is shown magnified for clarity. The magnetic field intensity at a point x
metres from the centre is given by
According to Ampere’s law, m.m.f. (ampere-turns) around any closed path equals
the current enclosed by the path.
At small length dl , calculate the magnetic field intensity Hx
ර 𝐻𝑥 𝑑𝑙 = 𝐼𝑥
Fig 4 . Cross section of Conductor
𝐻𝑥 2𝜋𝑥 = 𝐼𝑥
𝐼𝑥
𝐻𝑥 =
2𝜋𝑥
Consider the whole conductor , the current passing is I and consider the small portion of
radius x having current 𝐼𝑥
The current that flows is directly proportional to cross sectional area
𝐼𝑥 𝜋𝑥 2
=
𝐼 𝜋𝑟 2
𝑟2
𝐼𝑥 = 2 𝐼
𝑥
Sub 𝐼𝑥 in 𝐻𝑥
𝑟2 1
𝐻𝑥 = 2 𝐼
𝑥 2𝜋𝑥
𝐼. 𝑥
𝐻𝑥 =
2𝜋𝑟 2
The magnetic flux density are given by
𝐵𝑥 = 𝜇𝐻𝑥
𝐼. 𝑥
𝐵𝑥 = 𝜇 .
2𝜋𝑟 2
Now flux dɸ through cylindrical shell of radial thickness dx and axial length 1 meter
is given by
𝑑𝜑 = 𝐵𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝐼. 𝑥
𝑑𝜑 = 𝜇 . 𝑑𝑥
2𝜋𝑟 2
The total current I links only the part of the conductor. Therefore the flux linkages
per meter length of the conductor is
𝜋𝑥 2
𝑑Ψ = 𝑑𝜑
𝜋𝑟 2
𝜋𝑥 2 𝐼. 𝑥
𝑑Ψ = 𝜇 . 𝑑𝑥
𝜋𝑟 2 2𝜋𝑟 2
𝜇𝐼𝑥 3
= . 𝑑𝑥
2𝜋𝑟 4
The flux linkage for the entire conductor that is from centre to the conductor surface
𝑟
𝜇𝐼𝑥 3
Ψ𝑖𝑛𝑡 = න 4 . 𝑑𝑥
0 2𝜋𝑟
𝜇0 𝐼
𝜓𝑖𝑛𝑡 =
8𝜋
Flux linkages due to external flux:
Now we calculate the flux linkages of the conductor due to external
flux. The external flux extends from the surface of the conductor to
infinity. Referring to Fig. 5, the field intensity at a distance x metres
(from centre) outside the conductor is given by
Fig. 5 External Flux Linkage

𝐼
𝐻𝑥 =
2𝜋𝑥
The magnetic flux density are given by
𝐵𝑥 = 𝜇𝐻𝑥
𝜇𝐼
𝐵𝑥 =
2𝜋𝑥
Now, flux dφ through a cylindrical shell of thickness dx and axial length 1 metre is
𝑑𝜑 = 𝐵𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝜇𝐼
𝑑𝜑 = 𝑑𝑥
2𝜋𝑥
The flux dɸ links all the current in the conductor once and only once.
𝜇𝐼
𝑑Ψ = 𝑑𝜑 = 𝑑𝑥
2𝜋𝑥
Total flux linkages of the conductor from surface to infinity
∞
𝜇𝐼
Ψ𝑒𝑥𝑡 = න . 𝑑𝑥
𝑟 2𝜋𝑥
Overall flux linkages
𝜇0 𝐼 ∞ 𝜇𝐼
Ψ = Ψ𝑒𝑥𝑡 + Ψ𝑖𝑛𝑡 = + ‫𝑟׬‬ . 𝑑𝑥
8𝜋 2𝜋𝑥
∞
𝜇0 𝐼 1 𝑑𝑥
Ψ= + න
2𝜋 4 𝑟 𝑥
Flux linkages in parallel current carrying conductors

Fig. 6 shows the conductors A,B, C etc. carrying currents Ia, Ib, Ic etc. Let
us consider the flux linkages with one conductor, say conductor A. There will be flux
linkages with conductor A due to its own current as discussed previously. Also there
will be flux linkages with this conductor due to the mutual inductance effects of Ib,
Ic, Id etc. We shall now determine the total flux linkages with conductor A.
Flux linkages with conductor A due to its own current
∞
𝜇0 𝐼 1 𝑑𝑥
Ψ𝑎 = + න (𝑖)
2𝜋 4 𝑟 𝑥
Flux linkages with conductor A due to current 𝐼𝑏
The conductor B carrying current 𝐼𝑏 is at a distance 𝑑1 from conductor A. Only the
external flux due to 𝐼𝑏 links with conductor A. This external flux due to 𝐼𝑏 links with
conductor A from 𝑑1 to ∞ and hence the term
𝜇0 𝐼𝑏 ∞ 𝑑𝑥
Ψ𝑏 = න (𝑖𝑖)
2𝜋 𝑑1 𝑥
Flux linkages with conductor A due to current 𝐼𝑐
∞
𝜇0𝐼𝑐 𝑑𝑥
Ψ𝑐 = න (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
2𝜋 𝑑2 𝑥
Total flux linkages with conductor A = (i) + (ii) + (iii) + ......
∞
𝜇0 𝐼 1 𝑑𝑥 𝜇0 𝐼𝑏 ∞ 𝑑𝑥 𝜇0𝐼𝑐 ∞
𝑑𝑥
= + න + න + න + …
2𝜋 4 𝑟 𝑥 2𝜋 𝑑1 𝑥 2𝜋 𝑑2 𝑥
Similarly, flux linkages with other conductors can be determined
Inductance of a Single Phase Two-wire Line

A single phase line consists of two parallel conductors which form a
rectangular loop of one turn. When an alternating current flows through such a loop, a
changing magnetic flux is set up. The changing flux links the loop and hence the loop
(or single phase line) possesses inductance
Consider a single phase overhead line consisting of two parallel conductors A
and B spaced d metres apart as shown in Fig.7. Conductors A and B carry the same
amount of current (i.e. 𝐼𝐴 = 𝐼𝐵 , but in the opposite direction because one forms the
return circuit of the other.
Fig 6 Inductance - Two wire

𝐼𝐴 + 𝐼𝐵 = 0
In order to find the inductance of conductor A (or conductor B), we shall have to
consider the flux linkages with it. There will be flux linkages with conductor A due to
its own current IA and also due to the mutual inductance effect of current IB in the
conductor B. Flux linkages with conductor A due to its own current
∞
𝜇0 𝐼𝐴 1 𝑑𝑥
Ψ= +න (𝑖)
2𝜋 4 𝑟 𝑥
Flux linkages with conductor A due to current 𝐼𝐵
Ψ= න (𝑖𝑖)
2𝜋 𝑑 𝑥
Total flux linkages with conductor A is
Ψ𝐴 = exp. (i) + exp (ii)
∞
𝜇0 𝐼𝐴 1 𝑑𝑥 𝜇0 𝐼𝐵 ∞ 𝑑𝑥
= + න + න
2𝜋 4 𝑟 𝑥 2𝜋 𝑑 𝑥
𝜇0 1 𝜇0 𝐼𝑏
= + log 𝑒 ∞ − log 𝑒 𝑟 𝐼𝐴 + log𝑒 ∞ − log𝑒 𝑑 𝐼𝐵
2𝜋 4 2𝜋
𝜇0 𝐼𝐴
= + log𝑒 ∞ 𝐼𝐴 + 𝐼𝐵 − 𝐼𝐴 log𝑒 𝑟 − 𝐼𝐵 log 𝑒 𝑑
2𝜋 4
𝜇0 𝐼𝐴
= − 𝐼𝐴 log 𝑒 𝑟 − 𝐼𝐵 log𝑒 𝑑
2𝜋 4
Since 𝐼𝐴 + 𝐼𝐵 = 0 or 𝐼𝐵 = - 𝐼𝐴
− 𝐼𝐵 log𝑒 𝑑 = 𝐼𝐴 log𝑒 𝑑
𝜇0 𝐼𝐴
Ψ𝐴 = − 𝐼𝐴 log 𝑒 𝑟 + 𝐼𝐴log𝑒 𝑑
2𝜋 4
𝜇0 𝐼𝐴 𝑑
= + 𝐼𝐴 log𝑒
2𝜋 4 𝑟
𝜇0 1 𝑑
= 𝐼 + log 𝑒
2𝜋 𝐴 4 𝑟
Inductance of conductor A,
Ψ 𝜇0 1 𝑑
𝐿𝐴 = = + log𝑒
𝐼 2𝜋 4 𝑟
4𝜋 𝑥 10−7 1 𝑑
= + log 𝑒
2𝜋 4 𝑟
1 𝑑
𝐿𝐴 = 10−7 + 2 log 𝑒 (𝑖)
2 𝑟
Loop inductance = 2𝐿𝐴
𝑑
= 10−7 1 + 4 log 𝑒 (𝑖𝑖)
𝑟
Note that eq. (ii) is the inductance of the two-wire line and is sometimes called loop
inductance. However, inductance given by eq. (i) is the inductance per conductor
and is equal to half the loop inductance.
Expression in alternate form. The expression for the inductance of a conductor
can be put in a concise form.
1 𝑑
𝐿𝐴 = 10−7 + 2 log 𝑒
2 𝑟
1 𝑑
𝐿𝐴 = 2 𝑥 10−7 + log𝑒
4 𝑟
1 𝑑
= 2 𝑥 10−7 log 𝑒 𝑒 4 + log𝑒
𝑟
𝑑
= 2 𝑥 10−7 log𝑒 −1
𝑟𝑒 4
If we put 𝑟𝑒 −1/4 = 𝑟 ′
𝑑 𝐻
𝐿𝐴 = 2 𝑥 10−7 log𝑒 (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
𝑟′ 𝑚
The radius r′ is that of a fictitious conductor assumed to have no internal flux but
with the same inductance as the actual conductor of radius r. The quantity e^−1/4
= 0·7788 so that
r′ = r e^−1/4 = 0·7788 r
The term r′ is called geometric mean radius (GMR) of the wire. Note that eq.
(iii)gives the same value of inductance LA as eq. (i). The difference is that eq. (iii)
omits the term to account for internal flux but compensates for it by using an
adjusted value of the radius of the conductor.
Note that r′ = 0·7788 r is applicable to only solid round conductor.
A single phase line has two parallel conductors 2 metres apart. The diameter of each
conductor is 1·2 cm. Calculate the loop inductance per km of the line.
Spacing of conductors, d = 2 m = 200 cm
Radius of conductor, r = 1·2/2 = 0·6 cm
Loop inductance per metre length of the line
𝑑
= 10−7 1 + 4 log𝑒
𝑟
200
= 10−7 1 + 4 log𝑒
0.6
= 24.23 𝑥 10−7 𝐻
Loop inductance per km of the line
= 24.23 𝑥 10−7 𝑥 1000 = 24.23 𝑥 10−4 𝐻
Inductance of a 3-Phase Overhead Line

Fig 8 shows the three conductors A, B and C of a 3-phase line carrying
currents 𝐼𝐴 , 𝐼𝐵 and 𝐼𝐶 respectively. Let 𝑑1 , 𝑑2 and 𝑑3 be the spacing's between the
conductors as shown. Let us further assume that the loads are balanced i.e. 𝐼𝐴 + 𝐼𝐵
+ 𝐼𝐶 = 0. Consider the flux linkages with conductor A. There will be flux linkages
with conductor A due to its own current 𝐼𝐴 and also due to the mutual inductance
effects of 𝐼𝐵 and 𝐼𝐶 .
Fig 7 Inductance – Three Phase

Flux linkages with conductor A due to its own current
∞
𝜇0 𝐼𝐴 1 𝑑𝑥
Ψ= +න (𝑖)
2𝜋 4 𝑟 𝑥
Ψ= න (𝑖𝑖)
2𝜋 𝑑3 𝑥
𝜇0 𝐼𝑐 ∞ 𝑑𝑥
Ψ= න (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
2𝜋 𝑑2 𝑥
Total flux linkages with conductor A is Ψ𝐴 = (i) + (ii) + (iii)
∞
𝜇0 𝐼𝐴 1 𝑑𝑥 𝜇0 𝐼𝑏 ∞ 𝑑𝑥 𝜇0 𝐼𝑐 ∞ 𝑑𝑥
= +න + න + න
2𝜋 4 𝑟 𝑥 2𝜋 𝑑3 𝑥 2𝜋 𝑑2 𝑥
∞ ∞ ∞
𝜇0 1 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= +න 𝐼𝐴 + 𝐼𝑏 න + 𝐼𝑐 න
2𝜋 4 𝑟 𝑥 𝑑3 𝑥 𝑑2 𝑥
𝜇0 1
= [ − log 𝑒 𝑟]𝐼𝐴 − 𝐼𝑏 log𝑒 𝑑3 − 𝐼𝑐 log𝑒 𝑑2 + log𝑒 ∞ (𝐼𝐴 + 𝐼𝐵 + 𝐼𝐶 )
2𝜋 4
Under balanced condition 𝐼𝐴 + 𝐼𝐵 + 𝐼𝐶 = 0
𝜇0 1
Ψ𝐴 = [ − log𝑒 𝑟]𝐼𝐴 − 𝐼𝑏 log 𝑒 𝑑3 − 𝐼𝑐 log 𝑒 𝑑2
2𝜋 4
Symmetrical spacing. If the three conductors A, B and C are placed symmetrically
at the corners of an equilateral triangle of side d, then, 𝑑1 = 𝑑2 = 𝑑3 = d. Under
such conditions, the flux linkages with conductor A become
𝜇0 1
Ψ𝐴 = [ − log𝑒 𝑟]𝐼𝐴 − 𝐼𝑏 log 𝑒 𝑑 − 𝐼𝑐 log 𝑒 𝑑
2𝜋 4
𝜇0 1
= [ − log𝑒 𝑟]𝐼𝐴 − (𝐼𝑏 +𝐼𝑐 ) log𝑒 𝑑
2𝜋 4
𝐴𝑠 𝐼𝐵 + 𝐼𝐶 = -𝐼𝐴
𝜇0 1
= [ − log 𝑒 𝑟] 𝐼𝐴 + 𝐼𝐴 log𝑒 𝑑
2𝜋 4
𝜇0 𝐼𝐴 1 𝑑
= + log 𝑒
2𝜋 4 𝑟
Ψ
Inductance of conductor A, 𝐿𝐴 = 𝐼 𝐴
𝐴
4𝜋 𝑥 10−7 1 𝑑
= + log 𝑒
2𝜋 4 𝑟
1 𝑑
𝐿𝐴 = 10−7 + 2 log 𝑒
2 𝑟
In a similar way, the expressions for inductance are the same for conductors B and C
are calculated
Unsymmetrical spacing. When 3-phase line conductors are not equidistant from each
other, the conductor spacing is said to be unsymmetrical. Under such conditions, the flux
linkages and inductance of each phase are not the same. A different inductance in each
phase results in unequal voltage drops in the three phases even if the currents in the
conductors are balanced. Therefore, the voltage at the receiving end will not be the same
for all phases. In order that voltage drops are equal in all conductors, we generally
interchange the positions of the conductors at regular intervals along the line so that each
conductor occupies the original position of every other conductor over an equal distance.
Such an exchange of positions is known as transposition
Fig. 9 shows the transposed line. The phase conductors are designated as A, B
and C and the positions occupied are numbered 1, 2 and 3. The effect of transposition is
that each conductor has the same average inductance.
Fig 8 Transposition
shows a 3-phase transposed line having unsymmetrical spacing. Let us

assume that each of the three sections is 1 m in length. Let us further
assume balanced conditions i.e.,
𝐼𝐴 = 𝐼(1 + 𝑗0)
𝐼𝐵 = 𝐼(−0.5 − 𝑗0.866)
𝐼𝑐 = 𝐼(−0.5 + 𝑗0.866)
As proved above, the total flux linkages per

metre length of conductor A is
Fig 9 Phasor
Representation
𝜇0 1
Ψ𝐴 = [ − log 𝑒 𝑟]𝐼𝐴 − 𝐼𝑏 log 𝑒 𝑑3 − 𝐼𝑐 log 𝑒 𝑑2
2𝜋 4
Putting the values of 𝐼𝐴 , 𝐼𝐵 and 𝐼𝑐 , we get
𝜇0 1
= − log 𝑒 𝑟 𝐼 − 𝐼(−0.5 − 𝑗0.866) log 𝑒 𝑑3 − 𝐼(−0.5 𝑗0.866) log 𝑒 𝑑2
2𝜋 4
𝜇0 1
= 𝐼 − 𝐼 log 𝑒 𝑟 + 0.5𝐼 log𝑒 𝑑3 + 𝑗0.866 log𝑒 𝑑3 + 0.5𝐼 log 𝑒 𝑑2 − 𝑗0.866𝐼 log𝑒 𝑑2
2𝜋 4
𝜇 1
= 2𝜋0 [4 𝐼 − 𝐼 log 𝑒 𝑟 + 0.5𝐼 (log 𝑒 𝑑3 + log 𝑒 𝑑2) + 𝑗0.866 log 𝑒 𝑑3 − log 𝑒 𝑑2 )
𝜇0 1 𝑑3
= [ 𝐼
2𝜋 4
− 𝐼 log 𝑒 𝑟 − 𝐼 log 𝑒 𝑑2 𝑑3 + 𝑗0.866 𝐼 log 𝑒
𝑑2
]
𝜇0 1 𝑑2 𝑑3 𝑑3
= 2𝜋 4
[ 𝐼 + 𝐼 log 𝑒
𝑟
+ 𝑗0.866 𝐼 log 𝑒
𝑑2
]
𝜇0 𝐼 1 𝑑2 𝑑3 𝑑
= 2𝜋 4
[ + log 𝑒 𝑟
+ 𝑗0.866 log 𝑒 𝑑3 ]
2
Ψ𝐴 Ψ𝐴
Inductance of conductor A, 𝐿𝐴 = 𝐼𝐴
= 𝐼
𝜇0 1 𝑑2 𝑑3 𝑑3
= [ + log 𝑒 + 𝑗0.866 log 𝑒 ]
2𝜋 4 𝑟 𝑑2
4𝜋 𝑥 10−7 1 𝑑2 𝑑3 𝑑3
= [ + log 𝑒 + 𝑗0.866 log 𝑒 ]
2𝜋 4 𝑟 𝑑2
1 𝑑2 𝑑3 𝑑3
𝐿𝐴 = 10−7[ + 2 log 𝑒 + 𝑗1.732 log 𝑒 ]
2 𝑟 𝑑2
Similarly inductance of conductors B and C will be :
1 𝑑3 𝑑1 𝑑1
𝐿𝐵 = 10−7 [ + 2 log 𝑒 + 𝑗1.732 log 𝑒 ]
2 𝑟 𝑑3
1 𝑑2 𝑑1 𝑑2
𝐿𝐶 = 10−7 [ + 2 log 𝑒 + 𝑗1.732 log 𝑒 ]
2 𝑟 𝑑1
Inductance of each line conductor
1
= (𝐿 + 𝐿𝐵 + 𝐿𝐶 )
3 𝐴
1 𝑑2 𝑑3 𝑑3 1 𝑑3 𝑑1 𝑑1 1
= 10−7 [ + 2 log 𝑒 + 𝑗1.732 log 𝑒 ] + 10−7[ + 2 log 𝑒 + 𝑗1.732 log 𝑒 ] + 10−7[
2 𝑟 𝑑2 2 𝑟 𝑑3 2
𝑑2 𝑑1 𝑑2
+ 2 log 𝑒 + 𝑗1.732 log 𝑒 ]
𝑟 𝑑1
1 3 𝑑1 2 𝑑2 2 𝑑3 2 𝑑1 𝑑2 𝑑3
= 𝑥 10−7 [ + 2 log 𝑒 + 𝑗1.732 log 𝑒
3 2 𝑟3 𝑑1 𝑑2 𝑑3
1 3 𝑑1 𝑑2 𝑑3
= 𝑥10−7 + 2 log 𝑒
3 2 𝑟3
1 2 𝑑1 𝑑2 𝑑3
= 10−7 + log 𝑒
2 3 𝑟3
1 𝑑1 𝑑2 𝑑3 1
= 2 𝑥 10−7 + log𝑒 ( )3
4 𝑟3
1 𝑑1 𝑑2 𝑑3 1
= 2 𝑥 10−7 + log𝑒 ( )3
4 𝑟3
1
1 (𝑑1 𝑑2 𝑑3 )3
= 2 𝑥 10−7 log𝑒 𝑒 4 + log 𝑒
𝑟
1
(𝑑1 𝑑2 𝑑3 )3
= 2 𝑥 10−7 log 𝑒 −1
𝑟𝑒 4
1
(𝑑1 𝑑2 𝑑3 )3
= 2 𝑥 10−7 log 𝑒
𝑟′
𝐷𝑒𝑞
= 2 𝑥 10−7 log𝑒 ( )
𝑟1
If we compare the formula of inductance of an unsymmetrically spaced transposed line with that
of symmetrically spaced line, we find that inductance of each line conductor in the two cases will
be equal if
d = 3 𝑑1𝑑2 𝑑3
The distance d is known as equivalent equilateral spacing for unsymmetrically transposed
line.
Concept of Self-GMD and Mutual-GMD
The use of self geometrical mean distance (abbreviated as self-GMD) and
mutual geometrical mean distance (mutual-GMD) simplifies the inductance
calculations, particularly relating to multiconductor arrangements
(i) Self-GMD
In order to have concept of self-GMD (also sometimes called
Geometrical mean radius ; GMR), consider the expression for
inductance per conductor per metre already derived
1 𝑑
𝐿𝐴 = 2 𝑥 10−7 + log𝑒
4 𝑟
1 𝑑
𝐿𝐴 = 2 𝑥 10−7 + 2 𝑥 10−7 log 𝑒
4 𝑟
In this expression, the term 2 × 10-7 × (1/4) is the inductance due to flux
within the solid conductor. For many purposes, it is desirable to eliminate this term
by the introduction of a concept called self-GMD or GMR. If we replace the original
solid conductor by an equivalent hollow cylinder with extremely thin walls, the
current is confined to the conductor surface and internal conductor flux linkage
would be almost zero. Consequently, inductance due to internal flux would be zero
and the term 2 × 10-7 × (1/4) shall be eliminated. The radius of this equivalent
hollow cylinder must be sufficiently smaller than the physical radius of the conductor
to allow room for enough additional flux to compensate for the absence of internal
flux linkage. It can be proved mathematically that for a solid round conductor of
radius r, the self-GMD or GMR = 0·7788 r.
Inductance/conductor/m = 2 𝑥 10−7 loge d /Ds*
where Ds = GMR or self-GMD = 0·7788 r It may be noted that self-GMD of a
conductor depends upon the size and shape of the conductor and is independent of
the spacing between the conductors
(ii) Mutual-GMD
The mutual-GMD is the geometrical mean of the distances form conductor in one phase to
the other phase conductor
The mutual-GMD between two conductors is equal to the distance between their centres
Dm = spacing between conductors = d
For a single circuit 3-φ line, the mutual-GMD is equal to the equivalent equilateral
spacing i.e., 3 𝑑1 𝑑2 𝑑3 .
3
𝐷𝑚 = 𝑑1 𝑑2 𝑑3
The principle of geometrical mean distances can be most profitably employed to 3-φ
double circuit lines. Consider the conductor arrangement of the double circuit shown
in Fig. 10. Suppose the radius of each conductor is r.
Self-GMD of conductor = 0·7788 r
Self-GMD of combination aa´ is
1
𝐷𝑠1 = (𝐷𝑎𝑎 𝐷𝑎𝑎′ 𝐷𝑎′𝑎 𝐷𝑎′𝑎′ )4
Self-GMD of combination bb´ is
1
𝐷𝑠2 = (𝐷𝑏𝑏 𝐷𝑏𝑏′ 𝐷𝑏′𝑏 𝐷𝑏′𝑏′ )4
Self-GMD of combination cc´ is
1
𝐷𝑠3 = (𝐷𝑐𝑐 𝐷𝑐𝑐 ′ 𝐷𝑐′𝑐 𝐷𝑐′𝑐 ′ )4
Equivalent self-GMD of one phase
1
𝐷𝑠 = (𝐷𝑠1 𝐷𝑠2 𝐷𝑠3 ) 3
Mutual-GMD between phases A and B is Fig 10 Double circuit line
1
𝐷𝐴𝐵 = (𝐷𝑎𝑏 𝐷𝑎𝑏′ 𝐷𝑎′𝑏 𝐷𝑎′𝑏′ )4 configuration
Mutual-GMD between phases B and C is
1
𝐷𝐵𝐶 = (𝐷𝑏𝑐 𝐷𝑏𝑐 ′ 𝐷𝑏′𝑐 𝐷𝑏′𝑐′ )4
Mutual-GMD between phases C and A is
1
𝐷𝐶𝑎 = (𝐷𝑐𝑎 𝐷𝑐𝑎′ 𝐷𝑐 ′𝑎 𝐷𝑎′𝑐 ′ )4
Equivalent mutual-GMD,
1
𝐷𝑚 = (𝐷𝐴𝐵 𝐷𝐵𝐶 𝐷𝐶𝐴 ) 3
It is worthwhile to note that mutual GMD depends only upon the spacing and is
substantially independent of the exact size, shape and orientation of the conductor
Inductance Formulas in Terms of GMD
(i) Single phase line Inductance/conductor/m
𝐷𝑚
= 2 𝑥 10−7 log 𝑒
𝐷𝑠
where 𝐷𝑠 = 0·7788 r and 𝐷𝑚 = Spacing between conductors = d
(ii) Single circuit 3-φ line
𝐷𝑚
𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 /𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 2 𝑥 10−7 log𝑒
𝐷𝑠
where 𝐷𝑠 = 0·7788 r and 𝐷𝑚 = 3
𝑑1 𝑑2 𝑑3
Double circuit 3-φ line
𝐷𝑚
𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒/𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 2 𝑥 10−7 log 𝑒
𝐷𝑠
1 1
𝐷𝑠 = (𝐷𝑠1 𝐷𝑠2 𝐷𝑠3 ) 3 ; 𝐷𝑚 = (𝐷𝐴𝐵 𝐷𝐵𝐶 𝐷𝐶𝐴 ) 3
1.Find the inductance per km of a 3-phase transmission line using 1·24 cm diameter
conductors when these are placed at the corners of an equilateral triangle of each
side 2 m.
Solution:
conductor spacing d = 2 m
conductor radius r = 1·24/2 = 0·62 cm.
Inductance/phase/m = 10−7 (0·5 + 2 log 𝑒 D/𝑟) H
= 10−7 (0·5 + 2 log𝑒 200/0·62) H
= 12 × 10−7H
Inductance/phase/km = 12 × 10−7 × 1000
= 1·2 × 10−3 H = 1·2 mH
2. The three conductors of a 3-phase line are arranged at the corners of a triangle
of sides 2 m, 2·5 m and 4·5 m. Calculate the inductance per km of the line when the
conductors are regularly transposed. The diameter of each conductor is 1·24 cm.
Solution:
3-phase line placed at the corners of a triangle of sides 𝐷12 = 2 m, 𝐷23 = 2·5 m and
𝐷31 = 4·5 m. The conductor radius r = 1·24/2 = 0·62 cm
Equivalent equilateral spacing,
𝐷𝑒𝑞 = 3 𝐷12 𝐷23 𝐷31
3
= 2𝑥2.5𝑥4.5
= 2.82 m = 282 cm
𝐷𝑒𝑞
= 2 𝑥 10−7 log 𝑒 ( )
𝑟
282
Inductance/phase/m= 2 𝑥 10−7 log 𝑒 ( 0.62) = 12.74 x 10−7 H
Inductance/phase/km = 12·74 × 10−7 × 1000 = 1·274 × 10−3 H = 1·274 mH

3. Fig shows the spacing's of a double circuit 3-phase overhead line. The phase
sequence is ABC and the line is completely transposed. The conductor radius in 1·3
cm. Find the inductance per phase per kilometre
G.M.R. of conductor = 1·3 × 0·7788 = 1·01 cm
Distance a to b′ = 62 + 32 = 6.7 m
Distance a to a′ = 62 + 62 = 8.48 m
1
Equivalent self G.M.D. of one phase is 𝐷𝑠 = (𝐷𝑠1 𝐷𝑠2 𝐷𝑠3 ) 3
4
𝐷𝑠1 = (𝐷𝑎𝑎 𝐷𝑎𝑎′ 𝐷𝑎′𝑎 𝐷𝑎′𝑎′ )
4
= 1.01 𝑥 10−2 𝑥 8.48 𝑥 1.01 𝑥 10−2 𝑥 8.48 = 0.292𝑚 = 𝐷𝑠3
4
𝐷𝑠2 = (𝐷𝑏𝑏 𝐷𝑏𝑏′ 𝐷𝑏′𝑏 𝐷𝑏′𝑏′ )
4
= 1.01 𝑥 10−2 𝑥 6 𝑥 1.01 𝑥 10−2 𝑥 6 = 0.246 𝑚
1
𝐷𝑠 = (𝐷𝑠1 𝐷𝑠2 𝐷𝑠3 ) 3
3
= 0.292 𝑥 0.246 𝑥 0.292 = 0.275 m
1
Equivalent mutual G.M.D., 𝐷𝑚 = (𝐷𝐴𝐵 𝐷𝐵𝐶 𝐷𝐶𝐴 ) 3
where 𝐷𝐴𝐵 , 𝐷𝐵𝐶 and 𝐷𝐶𝐴 represent the mutual G.M.D. between phases A and B, B
and C and C and A respectively.
1
𝐷𝐴𝐵 = (𝐷𝑎𝑏 𝐷𝑎𝑏′ 𝐷𝑎′𝑏 𝐷𝑎′𝑏′ )4
4
= 3 𝑥 6.7 𝑥 6.7 𝑥 3 = 4.48 𝑚 = 𝐷𝐵𝐶
1
𝐷𝐶𝑎 = (𝐷𝑐𝑎 𝐷𝑐𝑎′ 𝐷𝑐 ′𝑎 𝐷𝑎′𝑐 ′ )4
4
= 6𝑥6𝑥6𝑥6 =6𝑚
3
𝐷𝑚 = 4.48 𝑥 4.48 𝑥 6 = 4.94 𝑚
Inductance per phase per metre length
𝐷𝑚
= 2 𝑥 10−7 log 𝑒 𝐷𝑠
4.94
= 2 𝑥 10−7 log 𝑒 = 5.7 𝑥 10−7 𝐻 /𝑚
0.275
Inductance /phase/km = 5.7 𝑥 10−7 x 1000 = 0.57 𝑥 10−3 𝐻 = 0.57 𝑚𝐻
4. Calculate the inductance per phase per metre for a three-phase double-circuit
line whose phase conductors have a radius of 5·3 cm with the horizontal conductor
arrangement as shown in Fig
Solution.
G.M.R. of conductor = 0·7788 r = 0·7788 × 5·3 × 10−2 = 0·0413 m
1
4
4
= 0.0413 𝑥 24 0.0413 𝑥 24 = 0.995 𝑚
4
4
= 0.0413 𝑥 24 0.0413 𝑥 24 = 0.995 𝑚 = 𝐷𝑠3
1
𝐷𝑠 = (𝐷𝑠1 𝐷𝑠2 𝐷𝑠3 ) 3
3
= 0.995 𝑥 0.995 𝑥 0.995 = 0.995 m
1
Equivalent mutual G.M.D., 𝐷𝑚 = (𝐷𝐴𝐵 𝐷𝐵𝐶 𝐷𝐶𝐴) 3
1
𝐷𝐴𝐵 = (𝐷𝑎𝑏 𝐷𝑎𝑏′ 𝐷𝑎′𝑏 𝐷𝑎′𝑏′ )4
4
= 8 𝑥 32 𝑥 16 𝑥 8 = 13.45 𝑚 = 𝐷𝐵𝐶
1 4
𝐷𝐶𝑎 = (𝐷𝑐𝑎 𝐷𝑐𝑎′ 𝐷𝑐 ′𝑎 𝐷𝑎′𝑐 ′ )4 = 16 𝑥 8 𝑥 40 𝑥 16 = 16.917 𝑚
3
𝐷𝑚 = 13.45 𝑥 13.45 𝑥 16.917 = 14.518 𝑚
𝐷𝑚
L = 2 𝑥 10−7 log 𝑒 𝐷𝑠
14.518
= 2 𝑥 10−7 log 𝑒 = 5.36 𝑥 10−7 𝐻 /𝑚
0.995
5.Find the inductance per phase per km of double circuit 3-phase line shown in Fig.
9·16. The conductors are transposed and are of radius 0·75 cm each. The phase
sequence is ABC.
Solution.
G.M.R. of conductor = 0·75 × 0·7788 = 0·584 cm
Distance a to b = 0.752 + 32 = 3.1 m
Distance a to b′ = 4.752 + 32 = 5.62 m
Distance a to a′ = = 42 + 62 =7.21 m
1
4
4
= 0.584 𝑥 10−2 𝑥 7.21 𝑥0.584 𝑥 10−2 𝑥 7.21 = 0. 205 𝑚 = 𝐷𝑠3
4
4
= 0.584 𝑥 10−2 𝑥 5.5 𝑥 0.584 𝑥 10−2 𝑥 5.5 = 0.18
1
𝐷𝑠 = (𝐷𝑠1 𝐷𝑠2 𝐷𝑠3 ) 3
3
= 0.205 𝑥 0.18 𝑥 0.205 = 0.195 m
1
Equivalent mutual G.M.D., 𝐷𝑚 = (𝐷𝐴𝐵 𝐷𝐵𝐶 𝐷𝐶𝐴 ) 3
1 4
𝐷𝐴𝐵 = (𝐷𝑎𝑏 𝐷𝑎𝑏′ 𝐷𝑎′ 𝑏 𝐷𝑎′ 𝑏′ )4 = 3.1 𝑥 5.62 𝑥 3.1 𝑥 5.62 = 4.17 𝑚 = 𝐷𝐵𝐶
1 4
𝐷𝐶𝑎 = (𝐷𝑐𝑎 𝐷𝑐𝑎′ 𝐷𝑐′ 𝑎 𝐷𝑎′ 𝑐 ′ )4 = 6𝑥4𝑥4𝑥6𝑥 = 4.9 𝑚
3
𝐷𝑚 = 4.17 𝑥 4.17 𝑥 4.9 = 4.4 𝑚
𝐷𝑚
L = 2 𝑥 10−7 log 𝑒
𝐷𝑠
4.4
= 2 𝑥 10−7 log 𝑒 = 6.23 𝑥 10−7 𝐻 /𝑚
0.195
Inductance per phase per km = 6.23 𝑥 10−7 x 1000 = 0.623 mH
Capacitance Calculations
Electric Potential
The electric potential at a point due to a charge is the work done in bringing a unit
positive charge from infinity to that point
Capacitance in a circuit is defined as the charge per unit potential difference
Potential at a charged single conductor
Consider a long straight cylindrical conductor A of radius r metres. Let the conductor
operate at such a potential 𝑉𝐴 that charge 𝑄𝐴 coulombs per metre exists on the
conductor
The electric intensity E at a distance x from the centre of the conductor in air is given by
𝑄𝐴
𝐸=
2𝜋𝑥𝜀0
𝑄𝐴 = charge per metre length

𝜀0 = permittivity of free space Fig 11 Capacitance Single Phase
As x approaches infinity, the value of E approaches zero. Therefore, the potential

difference between conductor A and infinity distant (A plane where E and hence
potential is zero) neutral plane is given by
∞
𝑄𝐴 𝑄𝐴 ∞ 𝑑𝑥
𝑉𝐴 = න 𝑑𝑥 = න
𝑟 2𝜋𝑥𝜀0 2𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 𝑥
Work is done in bringing a unit positive charge against E from infinity to conductor
surface.
Potential at a conductor in a group of charged conductors

Consider a group of long straight conductors A, B, C etc. operating at potentials such
that charges 𝑄𝐴 , 𝑄𝐵 , 𝑄𝐶 etc. coulomb per metre length exist on the respective
conductors
Fig 12 Capacitance – Group of conductors

Let us find the potential at A (i.e. 𝑉𝐴 ) in this arrangement. Potential at A due to its
own charge (i.e. 𝑄𝐴 ) ∞
𝑄𝐴
𝑉𝐴 = න 𝑑𝑥 (𝑖)
𝑟 2𝜋𝑥𝜀0
Potential at conductor A due to charge 𝑄𝐵
∞
𝑄𝐵
= න 𝑑𝑥 (𝑖𝑖)
𝑑1 2𝜋𝑥𝜀0
Potential at conductor A due to charge 𝑄𝑐
∞
𝑄𝑐
= න 𝑑𝑥 (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
𝑑2 2𝜋𝑥𝜀0
Overall potential difference between conductor A and infinite neutral plane is

𝑉𝐴 = (i) + (ii) + (iii) + .......
∞ ∞ ∞
𝑄𝐴 𝑄𝐵 𝑄𝑐
= න 𝑑𝑥 + න 𝑑𝑥 + න 𝑑𝑥 + ⋯ .
𝑟 2𝜋𝑥𝜀0 𝑑1 2𝜋𝑥𝜀0 𝑑2 2𝜋𝑥𝜀0
1
= [𝑄 (log𝑒 ∞ − log𝑒 𝑟) + 𝑄𝐵 (log𝑒 ∞ − log𝑒 𝑑1 ) + 𝑄𝑐 log 𝑒 ∞ − log 𝑒 𝑑2 )+. .
2𝜋𝜀0 𝐴
1 1 1 1
= 𝑄𝐴 log𝑒 + 𝑄𝐵 log𝑒 + 𝑄𝐶 log𝑒 + log 𝑒 ∞ 𝑄𝐴 + 𝑄𝐵 + 𝑄𝑐 + ⋯
2𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 𝑑1 𝑑2
Assuming balanced conditions i.e., 𝑄𝐴 + 𝑄𝐵 + 𝑄𝐶 = 0, we have,
1 1 1 1
= 𝑄𝐴 log𝑒 + 𝑄𝐵 log𝑒 + 𝑄𝐶 log𝑒 +…
Capacitance of a Single Phase Two-wire Line
Consider a single phase overhead transmission line
consisting of two parallel conductors A and B spaced d metres apart
in air. Suppose that radius of each conductor is r metres. Let their
respective charge be + Q and − Q coulombs per metre length.
Fig 13 Capacitance Single Phase
The total p.d. between conductor A and neutral “infinite” plane is

∞ ∞ −𝑄
𝑄
𝑉𝐴 = න 𝑑𝑥 + න 2𝜋𝑥𝜀 𝑑𝑥
𝑟 2𝜋𝑥𝜀0 𝑑 0
𝑄 ∞ ∞ 𝑄 𝑑
= log 𝑒 − log 𝑒 = log 𝑒
2𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 𝑑 2𝜋𝑥𝜀0 𝑟
Similarly, p.d. between conductor B and neutral “infinite” plane is
∞
−𝑄 ∞ 𝑄
𝑉𝑏 = න 𝑑𝑥 + න 𝑑𝑥
𝑟 2𝜋𝑥𝜀0 𝑑
2𝜋𝑥𝜀0
−𝑄 ∞ ∞ −𝑄 𝑑
= log 𝑒 − log 𝑒 = log 𝑒
2𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 𝑑 2𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
Both these potentials are w.r.t. the same neutral plane. Since the unlike charges
attract each other, the potential difference between the conductors is
2𝑄 𝑑
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 2 𝑉𝐴 = log 𝑒
2𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
𝑄 𝑄
Capacitance, 𝐶𝐴𝐵 = 𝑉𝐴𝐵
= 2𝑄 𝑑
log𝑒
2𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
𝜋𝜀0 𝐹
𝐶𝐴𝐵 = 𝑖𝑛 (𝑖)
𝑑 𝑚
log 𝑒
𝑟
Capacitance to neutral. Equation (i) gives the capacitance between the
conductors of a two wire line. Often it is desired to know the capacitance between
one of the conductors and a neutral point between them. Since potential of the mid-
point between the conductors is zero, the potential difference between each
conductor and the ground or neutral is half the potential difference between the
conductors. Thus the capacitance to ground or capacitance to neutral for the two
wire line is twice the line-to-line capacitance
Fig 14 Line to Neutral Capacitance

Capacitance to neutral, 𝐶𝑛 = 𝐶𝐴𝑁 = 𝐶𝐵𝑁 = 2 𝐶𝐴𝐵
2𝜋𝜀0 𝐹
𝐶𝑁 = 𝑖𝑛
𝑑 𝑚
log 𝑒 𝑟
Compare the equation for inductance of single phase with capacitance.
One difference between the equations for capacitance and inductance should be
noted carefully. The radius in the equation for capacitance is the actual outside
radius of the conductor and not the GMR of the conductor as in the inductance
formula.
Capacitance of a 3-Phase Overhead Line

In a 3-phase transmission line, the capacitance of each conductor is
considered instead of capacitance from conductor to conductor. Here, again two
cases arise viz., symmetrical spacing and unsymmetrical spacing.
(i)Symmetrical Spacing. Fig shows the three conductors A, B and C of the 3-
phase overhead transmission line having charges 𝑄𝐴 , 𝑄𝐵 and 𝑄𝐶 per metre length
respectively. Let the conductors be equidistant (d metres) from each other. We shall
find the capacitance from line conductor to neutral in this symmetrically spaced line.
Referring to Fig. overall potential difference between conductor A and infinite neutral
plane is given by
∞ ∞ ∞
𝑄𝐴 𝑄𝐵 𝑄𝑐
𝑉𝐴 = න 𝑑𝑥 + න 𝑑𝑥 + න 𝑑𝑥
𝑟 2𝜋𝑥𝜀0 𝑑 2𝜋𝑥𝜀0 𝑑 2𝜋𝑥𝜀0
1 1 1 1
= 𝑄𝐴 log𝑒 + 𝑄𝐵 log𝑒 + 𝑄𝐶 log 𝑒
2𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 𝑑 𝑑
1 1 1
= 𝑄𝐴 log𝑒 + (𝑄𝐵 +𝑄𝐶 ) log 𝑒
2𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 𝑑
Assuming balanced supply, we have 𝑄𝐴 + 𝑄𝐵 + 𝑄𝐶 = 0 Fig 15 Capacitance – Three Phase
𝑄𝐵 + 𝑄𝐶 = - 𝑄𝐴
1 1 1
𝑉𝐴 = 𝑄𝐴 log 𝑒 − 𝑄𝐴 log𝑒
2𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 𝑑
𝑄𝐴 𝑑
= log 𝑒
2𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
Capacitance of conductor A w.r.t neutral
𝑄𝐴 𝑄𝐴 2𝜋𝜀0
𝐶𝐴 = = = 𝑖𝑛 𝐹𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒
𝑉𝐴 𝑄𝐴 𝑑 𝑑
2𝜋𝜀0 log 𝑒 𝑟 log 𝑒 𝑟
Note that the above equation is identical to capacitance to neutral for two-wire line.
Derived in a similar manner, the expressions for capacitance are the same for
conductors B and C
(ii) Unsymmetrical spacing. Fig. 9.25 shows a 3-phase transposed line having
unsymmetrical spacing. Let us assume balanced conditions
Fig 16 Transposition of Line

Considering all the three sections of the transposed line for phase A,
1 1 1 1
Potential of 1st position = 𝑄𝐴 log 𝑒 + 𝑄𝐵 log𝑒 + 𝑄𝐶 log 𝑒
1 1 1 1
Potential of 2nd position = 𝑄𝐴 log𝑒 + 𝑄𝐵 log𝑒 + 𝑄𝐶 log𝑒
1 1 1 1
Potential of 3rd position = 𝑄𝐴 log 𝑒 + 𝑄𝐵 log𝑒 + 𝑄𝐶 log 𝑒
Average voltage on conductor A is

1
𝑉𝐴 = ( 𝑉 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 )
3 1
1 1 1
= [𝑄𝐴 log 𝑒 3 + 𝑄𝐵 + 𝑄𝐶 log 𝑒 ]
3 𝑥 2𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 𝑑1 𝑑2 𝑑3
Assuming balanced supply, we have 𝑄𝐴 + 𝑄𝐵 + 𝑄𝐶 = 0
𝑄𝐵 + 𝑄𝐶 = - 𝑄𝐴
1 1 1
= 𝑄𝐴 log 𝑒 3 − 𝑄𝐴 log 𝑒
6𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 𝑑1 𝑑2 𝑑3
𝑄𝐴 𝑑1 𝑑2 𝑑3
= log 𝑒
6𝜋𝜀0 𝑟3
1 𝑄𝐴 𝑑1 𝑑2 𝑑3
= 𝑥 log 𝑒
3 2𝜋𝜀0 𝑟3
𝑄𝐴 𝑑1 𝑑2 𝑑3 1
= log𝑒 ( )3
2𝜋𝜀0 𝑟3
1
𝑄𝐴 (𝑑1 𝑑2 𝑑3 )3
= log 𝑒
2𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
Capacitance from conductor to neutral is
𝑄𝐴 2𝜋𝜀0
𝐶𝐴 = =
𝑉𝐴 3
(𝑑1 𝑑2 𝑑3
log 𝑒
𝑟
1.A single-phase transmission line has two parallel conductors 3 metres apart, radius
of each conductor being 1 cm. Calculate the capacitance of the line per km. Given
that 𝜀0 =8·854 × 10−12 F/m.
Conductor radius, r = 1 cm
Spacing of conductors, d = 3 m = 300 cm
𝜋𝜀0 𝐹
Capacitance of the line, 𝐶 = 𝑑 𝑖𝑛
log𝑒 𝑚
𝑟
𝜋 𝑥 8.854 𝑥 10−12
𝐶=
300
log 𝑒 1
= 0.4875 10−11 𝑖𝑛 𝐹𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
Capacitance of the line in Km is = 0.4875 10−11 𝑥 1000 = 0.4875 10−8
2.A 3-phase, 50 Hz, 66 kV overhead line conductors are placed in a horizontal plane as
shown in Fig.. The conductor diameter is 1·25 cm. If the line length is 100 km, calculate (i)
capacitance per phase, (ii) charging current per phase, assuming complete transposition of
the line
3
The equivalent equilateral spacing is D = 3
(𝑑1 𝑑2 𝑑3 = 2 𝑠2.5𝑥 4.5 = 2.82 m
Conductor radius, r = 1·25/2 = 0·625 cm
Conductor spacing , d = 2·82 m = 282 cm
(i) Line to neutral capacitance
2𝜋𝜀0 2𝜋 𝑥 8.854 𝑥 10−12 𝐹 𝐹
= = = 0.0091 𝑥 10−9 = 0.0091 𝑥 10−6 = 0.0091 µ𝐹
𝐷 282 𝑚 𝑘𝑚
log𝑒 𝑟 log 𝑒 0.625
Line to neutral capacitance for 100 km line is
C = 0·0091 × 100 = 0·91 μF
𝑉𝑝ℎ 66000 66000
Charging current per phase is 𝐼𝐶 = = 𝑥2𝜋𝑓𝑐 = 𝑥2𝜋 50 𝑥0.0091 𝑥 10−6
𝑋𝑐 3 3
=10·9 A
Skin Effect
When a conductor is carrying steady direct current (d.c.), this current is
uniformly distributed over the whole X-section of the conductor. However, an
alternating current flowing through the conductor does not distribute uniformly,
rather it has the tendency to concentrate near the surface of the conductor as
shown in Fig.. This is known as skin effect.
The tendency of alternating current to concentrate near the surface of a
conductor is known as skin effect.
Fig 17 Skin Effect

Due to skin effect, the effective area of cross-section of the conductor
through which current flows is reduced. Consequently, the resistance of the
conductor is slightly increased when carrying an alternating current. The cause of
skin effect can be easily explained. A solid conductor may be thought to be
consisting of a large number of strands, each carrying a small part of the current.
The *inductance of each strand will vary according to its position. Thus, the strands
near the centre are surrounded by a greater magnetic flux and hence have larger
inductance than that near the surface. The high reactance of inner strands causes
the alternating current to flow near the surface of conductor. This crowding of
current near the conductor surface is the skin effect.
The skin effect depends upon the following factors :
(i) Nature of material
(ii) Diameter of wire − increases with the diameter of wire.
(iii) Frequency − increases with the increase in frequency.
(iv) Shape of wire − less for stranded conductor than the solid conductor.
It may be noted that skin effect is negligible when the supply frequency is low (< 50
Hz) and conductor diameter is small (< 1cm).
Proximity Effect
The alternating magnetic flux in a conductor caused by the current flowing
in a neighbouring conductor gives rise to circulating currents which cause an
apparent increase in the resistance of a conductor. This phenomenon is called
proximity effect
When two or more conductors are placed near to each other, then their
electromagnetic fields interact with each other. Due to this interaction, the current in
each of them is redistributed such that the greater current density is concentrated in
that part of the strand most remote from the interfering conductor.
If the conductors carry the current in the same direction, then the
magnetic field of the halves of the conductors which are close to each other is
cancelling each other and hence no current flow through that halves portion of the
conductor. The current is crowded in the remote half portion of the conductor
When the conductors carry the current in the opposite direction, then the
close part of the conductor carries, the more current and the magnetic field of the
far off half of the conductor cancel each other. Thus, the current is zero in the
remote half of the conductor and crowded at the nearer part of the conductor
Fig 18 Proximity Effect

If DC flows on the surface of the conductor, then the current are uniformly
distributed around the cross section area of the conductor. Hence, no proximity
effect occurs on the surface of the conductor. The proximity effect is important only
for conductor sizes greater than 125 mm2
1. Frequency – The proximity increases with the increases in the frequency.
2. Diameter – The proximity effect increases with the increase in the conductor.
3. Structure – This effect is more on the solid conductor as compared to the
stranded conductor (i.e., ASCR) because the surface area of the stranded
conductor is smaller than the solid conductor.
4. Material – If the material is made up of high ferromagnetic material then the
proximity effect is more on their surface.
The proximity effect can be reduced by using the ACSR (Aluminium Core Steel
Reinforced) conductor. In ACSR conductor the steel is placed at the centre of the
conductor and the aluminium conductor is positioned around steel wire.
The steel increased the strength of the conductor but reduced the surface area of
the conductor. Thus, the current flow mostly in the outer layer of the conductor and
no current is carried in the centre of the conductor. Thus, reduced the proximity
effect on the conductor.
Effect of Earth on Capacitance of Overhead Transmission Lines
In determination of capacitance of transmission lines, the presence of
earth is ignored. But it is not true; the presence of earth affects the electric field of a
line and so the capacitance. The effect of earth on capacitance can be modelled by
the method of images.
The electric field of too long, parallel conductors having charge +q and -q
per unit is such that it has a zero potential between the conductors, as depicted in
Fig. If a conducting sheet of infinite dimensions is placed at the zero potential
planes, the electric field is not disturbed. Further, if the conductor carrying charge -q
is now removed, the electric field above the conducting sheet stays intact, while that
below it disappears.
Fig 19
Using these well known facts in reverse, the presence of ground below a charged
conductor can be replaced by a fictitious conductor having equal and opposite
charge and located as far below the ground surface as the overhead conductor
above it—such a fictitious conductor is the mirror image of the overhead conductor.
This method of producing the same electric field as in the presence of earth is called
the method of images originally suggested by Lord Kelvin
Effect of Earth on the Capacitance of a Single Phase
Transmission Line
Considering the case of a single phase overhead line, assume conductors A’ and B’
as image conductors of conductors A and B respectively, as shown in Fig. Let the
height of conductors be h metres above the earth and charge of +q coulombs per
metre length and -q coulombs per metre length on the conductors A and B
respectively.
Fig 20
The equation for the voltage drop VAB as determined by two charged conductors A and
B and their images A’ and B’ may be written as follows:
Substituting qA = q’B = + q and q’A = qB = -q we have,
Capacitance between conductors A and B,
The above expression for capacitance reveals that the presence of earth modifies the radius of
conductor r to
The effect of earth on the capacitance of the system is to increase it. However, normally the
distance of separation between the conductors is much smaller than the height of the
conductor from the ground, therefore
and for all practical purposes the effect of earth on line capacitance
can be neglected.
Interference with neighbouring communication circuits
It is a common practice to run communication lines along the same route
as the power lines since the user of electrical energy is also the user of electrical
communication system. The transmission lines transmit bulk power at relatively
higher voltages. These lines give rise to electromagnetic and electrostatic fields of
sufficient magnitude which induce currents and voltages respectively in the
neighbouring communication lines. The effects of extraneous currents and voltages
on communication systems include interference with communication service e.g.,
superposition of extraneous currents on the true speech currents in the
communication wires, hazard to person and damage to apparatus due to extraneous
voltages. In extreme cases the effect of these fields may make it impossible to
transmit any message faithfully and may raise the potential of the apparatus above
the ground to such an extent as to render the handling of the telephone receiver
extremely dangerous.
Electromagnetic Effects: Consider Fig. a, b and c are the power conductors
of a 3-phase single circuit line on a transmission tower and d and e are the
conductors of a neighbouring communication line running on the same transmission
towers as the power conductors or a neighbouring separate line. Let the distances
between power conductors and communication conductors be Dad, Dae, Dbd, Dbe,
Dcd and Dce respectively and the currents through power conductors be Ia, Ib and
Ic respectively such that Ia + Ib + Ic = 0. The flux linkage to conductor d due to
It is to be noted that larger the distance between the power conductors and the
communication conductors, smaller is the value of mutual inductance and since the
current through the power conductors is displaced by 120°, there is appreciable
amount of cancellation of the power frequency voltages. But the presence of
harmonics and multiples of third harmonics will not cancel as they are in phase in all
the power conductors and, therefore, are dangerous for the communication circuits.
Also, since these harmonics come within audio frequency range, they are dangerous
for the communication circuits.
Electrostatic Effects: Consider again Fig. Let q be the charge per unit length of the
power line. The voltage of conductor d due to charge on conductor can be obtained
by considering the charge on conductor a and its image on the ground. Let conductor
a be at a height ha from the ground. Therefore, the voltage of conductor d will
approximately be
FORMATION OF CORONA
WHAT IS CORONA?
Corona was electrical discharge emerge around overhead line conductor, due to air
flow where would disturb radio waves and creating lost power. When a normal ac
voltage is applied across two conductors with enough spacing between them, there
is no change in the atmospheric conditions surrounding the conductors. But if the
voltage exceeds a particular limiting value, then the air surrounding the conductors
will gets ionized and luminous glow (weak purple color) will rise with hissing sound.
This phenomena is called corona.
WHAT ARE THE EFFECTS OF CORONA?

1.Power loss
2.The 3rd harmonic components makes the current non-sinusoidal and this increase
the corona loss.
3.The ozone gas formed chemically reacts with the conductor and can cause
corrosion.
4.Light (faint violet glow).
5.Audible noise (hissing or cracking).
6.Insulation damage
7.Radio, television and computer interference.
WHAT ARE THE METHODS TO REDUCE CORONA EFFECTS?

a. Increase the diameter of the conductor -i.e. ACSR conductors
b. Increase the space between the conductors
c. Using bundled conductors -produced less resistances and reduce losses
d. Since the shape of conductors affect corona loss, cylindrical shape conductors
have uniform field that reduces corona loss than any other shape
e. Void free solid conductors and insulators should be used.
f. By using corona rings
Disadvantages & Advantages of Corona Effect
1. Disadvantages:
The corona effect has following disadvantages:
A non-sinusoidal voltage drop occurs in transmission line due to non-sinusoidal corona

current, which causes interference with neighboring communication circuits due to elec-
tromagnetic transients and electrostatic induction effects.
Ozone gas is produced due to the formation of corona, which chemically reacts with the
conductor and causes corrosion.
The energy dissipated in the system due to corona effect is called as Corona loss. The
power loss due to corona is undesirable and uneconomical. The efficiency of transmission
line is highly reduced due to the loss of power or energy.
2. Advantages:
Corona effect may highly affect the efficiency of transmission lines, however it also provides
safety to the transmission line.
The main advantages of corona effects are:
Due to corona across the conductor, the sheath of air surrounding the conductor
becomes conductive which rises the conductor diameter virtually. This virtual increase in
the conductor diameter, reduces the maximum potential gradient or maximum
electrostatic stress. Thus, probability of flash-over is reduced.
Effects of transients produced by lightning or electrical surges are also reduced due to
corona effect. As, the charges induced on the line by surge or other causes, will be
partially dissipated as a corona loss. In this way, corona protects the transmission lines
by reducing the effect of transients which are produced by voltage surges.
Factors Affecting Corona Discharge:
Supply Voltage: The electrical corona discharge mainly depends upon the electric field
intensity produced by the applied system voltage. Therefore, if the applied voltage is
high, the corona discharge will cause excessive corona loss in the transmission lines. On
contrary, the corona is negligible in the low-voltage transmission lines, due to the
inadequate amount of electric field required for the breakdown of air.
Conductor Surface: The corona effect depends upon the shape, material and
conditions of the conductors. The rough and irregular surface i.e., unevenness of
the surface, decreases the value of breakdown voltage. This decrease in
breakdown voltage due to concentrated electric field at rough spots, give rise to
more corona effect. The roughness of conductor is usually caused due to the
deposition of dirt, dust and scratching. Raindrops, snow, fog and condensation
accumulated on the conductor surface are also sources of surface irregularities
that can increase corona.
Air Density Factor: Air density factor also determines the corona loss in
transmission lines. The corona loss in inversely proportional to air density factor.
Power loss is high due to corona in Transmission lines that are passing through a
hilly area because in a hilly area the density of air is low.
Spacing between Conductors: Design engineers calculate the spacing

between the two conductors in the transmission line after careful and extensive
research. As the phenomenon of corona discharge is affected by the conductor
spacing. If the distance between two conductors is very large as compared to the
diameter of conductor, the corona effect may not happen. It is because the larger
distance between conductors reduces the electro-static stress at the conductor
surface, thus avoiding corona formation.
Atmosphere: As corona is formed due to ionization of air surrounding the

conductors, therefore, it is affected by the physical state of atmosphere. In the
stormy weather, the number of ions is more than normal weather. The decrease in
the value of breakdown voltage is followed by the increase in the number of ions.
As a result of it, corona occurs at much less voltage as compared to the
breakdown voltage value in fair weather.
What are Corona rings?
Corona rings are metallic rings of toroidal shaped, which are fixed at the end of
bushings and insulator strings. This metallic ring distributes the charge across a
wider area due to its smooth round shape which significantly reduces the
potential gradient at the surface of the conductor below the critical disruptive
value and thus preventing corona discharge.
Critical Voltages – Effect on Line Performance.
The phenomenon of hissing noise, faint violet glow and production of ozone gas
surrounding the overhead lines, due to ionization of air is called Corona.
The critical disruptive voltage is defined as the minimum value of phase to neutral voltage
at which corona occurs. Is the minimum phase to the neutral voltage at which glow
appears all along the line conductor. It is denoted by Vd
For a given transmission conductor, the gradient is maximum at the surface i.e. at a
distance of radius r from the center. So if there are two conductors each of radius r and
distance between them is Vd then potential gradient at the surface of the conductor is
given by
Critical Visual Disruptive Voltage: The minimum value of phase to neutral voltage for
which corona becomes visible is called Critical Visual Disruptive voltage denoted as VV
Power Loss Due to Corona: The formation of corona is always accompanied by the loss of
energy which is dissipated in the form of light, heat, sound and chemical action. When
disruptive voltage is exceeded, the power loss due to corona is given by:
Where,
f = supply frequency in Hz
V = phase-neutral voltage (r.m.s.)
Vc = disruptive voltage (r.m.s.) per phase
In all, electrical corona discharge is an important factor in transmission and sub-

transmission systems which should be taken into account to ensure both reduction in
energy loss and increment in system safety. Corona effect causes corrosion at conductor's
surface, and pose a threat to the signal integrity of data communication. Several
techniques have been implemented to reduce the corona effect to some extent. Such as
some present day methods include increasing the conductor's diameter, spacing between
the transmission line conductors, using hollow conductors and corona rings.
VIDEO LECTURES
Sl.N Topic Provider Link

o.
1 Electrical Distribution System NPTEL https://onlinecourses.nptel
Analysis By Prof.G. B. Kumbhar .ac.in/noc19_ee61/
IIT Roorkee
2 Electrical Distribution System NPTEL https://nptel.ac.in/courses
Analysis /108/107/108107112/
3 Power Quality in Power IIT Madras https://nptel.ac.in/courses

Distribution Systems /108/106/108106025/
E Books
S.No Name of the Book Link
1 Electric Power System by C L Wadhwa
2 Modern Power System Analysis by Nagrath

and Kothari
3 Power System Engineering by RK Rajput

https://drive.google.com/drive/f
olders/12TT8EJFgPpkg -
GGTvRybV8JKpvPRVJzt?usp=sha
4 Principles of Power System by V K Metha
ring
5 Electric Power System by Das
6 Power System Analysis by Hadi Sadat

10
ASSIGNMENTS
56
1.A 3 phase double circuit line has the configuration as shown in fig.the radius
of each conductor is 0.9 cm. find the inductance per phase per km of line
length
2. Find the inductance per phase per km of double circuit 3 phase line shown
in Figure. The line is completely transposed and operates at a frequency of 50
Hz. The conductor radius is 6mm
3.Determine the capacitance per phase of the double circuit line as shown in
fig. the diameter of each conductor is 2.1793 cm
4. A 200 km 3 phase transmission line has its conductors placed at the corners of
equilateral triangle of 2.5m side. The radius of each conductor is 1 cm. Calculate line
to neutral capacitance of the line and charging current per phase if the line is
maintained at 66kv,50 HZ
5. A three-phase double circuit, bundled conductors. Each conductor is stranded,

r=1.8cm and conductor spacing is 45cm. Find Ca and admittance.
11
PART A
2 MARKS QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS
59
K
S.No Part A (Q & A) COs
Level
Why is electrical power preferably to be transmitted at a high
voltage?
1 Electric power is preferably transmitted at a high voltage because it K1 CO2
improves transmission efficiency, reduces percentage line drop and
reduces the cost of conductor material
What is a feeder
2 A feeder is a conductor which connects the substation or localized K1 CO2
generating station to the area where power is to be distributed
Give reason why the transmission lines are three phase 3 wire
circuits while distribution lines are three phase 4 wire circuits
The transmission is at very high voltage level and such a balanced
three phase system does not require neutral conductor. Hence the
3 transmission line circuits are 3 phase 3 wire circuits. While K1 CO2
distribution, it is necessary to supply single phase loads along with
the three phase loads. For single phase distribution a neutral
conductor is must. Hence distribution lines are 3 phase 4 wire
circuits
List out the advantages of high
voltage A.C transmission
• Reduction of current and losses
4 • Reduction of volume of conductor material K1 CO2
• Improvement in voltage regulation
• Increase in transmission efficiency
• Reduction in %line drop
State the meaning of an electrical grid
An electrical grid is a network in which the various generating,
5 K1 CO2
transmission and distribution systems are interconnected with each
other to supply electricity to the consumers
List the various elements of power system
The various elements of power system are generators,
6 transformers, transmission lines, bus bars, circuit breakers, isolating K1 CO2
switches, feeders, distributors, service mains etc
State the practical transmission and distribution voltage levels

commonly used
Generating station : 6.6kV, 11kV or 22kV Primary
transmission : 11kV/132kV/220kV/400kV Secondary
7 K1 CO2
transmission : 11kV/22kV/33kV
Primary distribution : 6.6kV/3.3kV/11kV Secondary
distribution : 400V/230V
K
Level
What is service mains
The small cables used to connect the distributors and the actual
8 consumer premises are called service mains K1 CO2
What is skin effect and its consequence

Skin effect is defined as the tendency for the alternating current
(AC) to flow mostly near the outer surface of a conductor which
causes non-uniform distribution of current. Thus the current density
is largest near the surface of the conductor and decreases with
9 greater depths inside the conductor. The effect becomes more and K1 CO2
more apparent as the frequency increases.
Due to reduction in effective area of cross section offered to the
flow of current through the conductor, the resistance of conductor
increases.
What is proximity effect

Due to non uniform distribution of current, the current density is
non uniform which increases the effective resistance of the
10 conductor. As the distance between the conductor goes on K1 CO2
reducing, the distribution of current becomes more and more non
uniform. This is known as proximity effect.
What is meant by transposition of line conductors?

Transposition is the periodic swapping of positions of the
11 conductors of a transmission line, so that each conductor occupies K1 CO2
the original position of every other conductor over an equal
distance so as to achieve balance in the three phases
What are the advantages of using bundled conductors
• Reduction in corona loss
• Minimization of interference with communication circuit.
12 • Reduction in voltage drop which increases circuit capacity and K1 CO2
boosting of operating voltage.
• Low reactance, increase in capacitance and surge impedance
loading
Distinguish between self and mutual GMD
GMR : the distances of the various conductors from one conductor
and the radius of the same conductor, is called geometric mean
13 radius (GMR also called self GMD) and denoted by Ds K1 CO2
GMD distances between m conductors of wire-A and n conductors
of wire-B) is called geometric mean distance(GMD, often called
GMD) and denoted by Dm
K
Level
Mention the advantages of transposition of conductors
When conductors are not transposed at regular intervals, the
inductance and capacitance of the conductors will not be equal.
14 When conductors such as telephone lines are run in parallel to K1 CO2
transmission lines, there is a possibility of high voltages induced in
the telephone lines. This can result in acoustic shock or noise.
Transposition greatly reduces this undesired phenomenon
What are the factors to be considered while designing a
transmission line
• Type and size of conductor
• Voltage level
15 K1 CO2
• Power flow capability, stability and efficiency of transmission
• Line regulation and control of voltage
• Power system structure
• Economic aspects
What are the advantages of double circuit lines.
• Continuity of supply is possible
16 • More reliable. K1 CO2
• Less spacing of conductors required
• Less inductance and reactance. Efficiency is enhanced as
compared with single circuit lines.
Define Electric Potential
17 The electric potential at a point due to a charge is the work done K1 CO2
in bringing a unit positive charge from infinity to that point.
Define Inductance.
When an alternating current flows through a conductor, a changing
flux is set up which links the conductor. Due to these flux linkages,
18 the conductor possesses inductance. Mathematically, inductance is K1 CO2
defined as the flux linkages per ampere
𝜓
𝐿 = 𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑟𝑦
𝐼
Define Capacitance.
We know that any two conductors separated by an insulating
material constitute a capacitor. As any two conductors of an
overhead transmission line are separated by air which acts as an
19 insulation, therefore, capacitance exists between any two overhead K1 CO2
line conductors. The capacitance between the conductors is the
charge per unit potential difference
𝑄
𝐶 = 𝑖𝑛 𝐹𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑉
Define Resistance.
20 It is the opposition of line conductors to current flow. The K1 CO2
resistance is distributed uniformly along the whole length of the line
S.
K
N Part A (Q & A) COs
Level
o
Define Geometric mean distance
GMD stands for Geometrical Mean Distance. GMD is also known
21 as mutual GMD because it is used in the calculation of the mutual K1 CO2
inductance of the transmission line. It is often denoted by the
symbol Dm.
Define Geometric mean radius
GMR stands for Geometrical Mean Radius. GMR is also known
22 as Self GMD or Self-Geometrical Mean Distance. GMR is usually K1 CO2
denoted by the symbol DS.
What are the disadvantages of corona
A non-sinusoidal voltage drop occurs in transmission line due to
non-sinusoidal corona current, which causes interference with
neighboring communication circuits due to electromagnetic
transients and electrostatic induction effects.
Ozone gas is produced due to the formation of corona, which
23 K1 CO2
chemically reacts with the conductor and causes corrosion.
The energy dissipated in the system due to corona effect is called
as Corona loss. The power loss due to corona is undesirable and
uneconomical. The efficiency of transmission line is highly reduced
due to the loss of power or energy.
What is corona?
Corona was electrical discharge emerge around overhead line
24 K1 CO2
conductor, due to air flow where would disturb radio waves and
creating lost power
What is skin effect
When a conductor is carrying steady direct current (d.c.), this
current is uniformly distributed over the whole X-section of the
25 conductor. However, an alternating current flowing through the K1 CO2
conductor does not distribute uniformly, rather it has the tendency
to concentrate near the surface of the conductor is known as skin
Effect
What is mutual GMD
The mutual-GMD is the geometrical mean of the distances form
conductor in one phase to the other phase conductor
26 K1 CO2
The mutual-GMD between two conductors is equal to the distance between
their centres
S.
K
N Part A (Q & A) COs
Level
o
What are the effects of corona ?

Interference with communication lines
Violet glow of discharge
27 K1 CO2
Voltage drop
What is symmetrical Spacing ?

If all the three conductors are placed equally then it is symmetrical
28 K1 CO2
spacing
What is Unsymmetrical Spacing ?
29 K1 CO2
When three phase line conductors are not in equi distant then it is
unsymmetrical spacing
What are the constants of the transmission line ?

1. Resistance
30 K1 CO2
2. Inductance
3. Capacitance
12
PART B
LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS
65
K
S.No Part B COs
Level
Derive an expression for the capacitance of a 3 phase
1 overhead transmission line with symmetrical and K2 CO2
unsymmetrical spacing
Derive the expression for capacitance of a single phase
2 transmission line K2 CO2
Derive the expression for the inductance of a single phase

3 transmission line K2 CO2
Derive an expression for the inductance of a 3 phase overhead

4 transmission line with symmetrical and unsymmetrical spacing K2 CO2
Explain clearly skin effect and proximity effect when referred

5 to overhead transmission lines K2 CO2
Find the inductance of a per phase per meter of a double

circuit 3 phase line shown in fig . the conductors are having
radius 5.3cm with horizontal conductor arrangement
6 K3 CO2
Find the inductance of a per phase per km of a double circuit 3

phase line shown in fig . the conductors are transposed and of
radius 0.75cm
7. K3 CO2
Explain the Phenomenon of Corona in detail

8. K2 CO2
K
S.No Part B COs
Level
Fig shows the spacings of a double circuit 3-phase overhead
line. The phase sequence is ABC and the line is completely
transposed. The conductor radius in 1·3 cm. Find the
inductance per phase per kilometre
9 K2 CO2
A 3-phase, 50 Hz, 132 kV overhead line has conductors placed

in a horizontal plane 4 m apart. Conductor diameter is 2 cm. If
10 K2 CO2
the line length is 100 km, calculate the charging current per
phase assuming complete transposition
Explain the Interference with neighboring communication
11 K2 CO2
circuits
Explain the advantages and disadvantages of corona in detail
12 K2 CO2
Explain the derivation for critical voltages in corona

13 K2 CO2
A 3-phase, 50 Hz, 132 kV overhead line has conductors placed in a

horizontal plane 6 m apart. Conductor diameter is 4 cm. If the line
14 length is 150 km, calculate the charging current per phase assuming K3 CO2
complete transposition
Find the inductance per phase per km of double circuit 3 phase line
shown in Figure. The line is completely transposed and operates at a
frequency of 50 Hz. The conductor radius is 6mm
15 K3 CO2
K
S.No Part B COs
Level
Two conductors of a single-phase line, each of 1 cm diameter,
are arranged in a vertical plane with one conductor mounted 1
m above the other. A second identical line is mounted at the
same height as the first and spaced horizontally 0·25 m apart
16 from it. The two upper and the two lower conductors are K2 CO2
connected in parallel. Determine the inductance per km of the
resulting double circuit line.
Derive the expression for an inductance of a three-phase

transmission line having un-equal spacing between the
17 K2 CO2
conductors
A 3-phase, 50 Hz, 132 kV overhead line has conductors placed

in a horizontal plane 4 m apart. Conductor diameter is 2 cm. If
18 K2 CO2
the line length is 100 km, calculate the charging current per
phase assuming complete transposition
Explain the Interference with neighboring communication
19 K2 CO2
circuits
A three-phase double circuit, bundled conductors. Each conductor is
stranded, r=1.8cm and conductor spacing in a bundle is 45cm. Find Ca
and admittance
20 K2 CO2
A three-phase double circuit, bundled conductors. Each conductor is

stranded, r=1.8cm and conductor spacing is 45cm. Find Ca and
admittance.
21 K3 CO2
K
S.No Part B COs
Level
A single phase line has 2 parallel conductors 2m apart . The

diameter of each conductor is 1.2 cm. calculate the loop
23 K2 CO2
inductance per Km of the line
A 200 km 3 phase transmission line has its conductors placed at

the corners of equilateral triangle of 2.5m side. The radius of
24 each conductor is 1 cm. Calculate line to neutral capacitance of K2 CO2
the line and charging current per phase if the line is maintained
at 66kv,50 HZ
Find the inductance per km of a 3-phase transmission line using
1·24 cm diameter conductors when these are placed at the
25 K2 CO2
corners of an equilateral triangle of each side 2 m.
A single phase transmission line has two parallel conductors 3 m

apart, the radius of each conductor being 1 cm. Calculate the
loop inductance per km length of the line if the material
26 K2 CO2
of the conductor is (i) copper (ii) steel with relative permeability
of 100.
A 3-phase, 50 Hz, 132 kV overhead line has conductors placed in

a horizontal plane 4 m apart. Conductor diameter is 2 cm. If the
27 line length is 100 km, calculate the charging current per phase K2 CO2
assuming complete transposition
A 3-phase line has conductors 2 cm in diameter spaced

equilaterally 1 m apart. If the dielectric strength of air is 30 kV
(max) per cm, find the disruptive critical voltage for the line.
28 Take air density factor = 0•952 and irregularity factor mo = 0•9. K3 CO2
K
S.No Part B COs
Level
A 3-phase, 220 kV, 50 Hz transmission line consists of 1·5 cm
radius conductor spaced 2 meters apart in equilateral triangular
formation. If the temperature is 40ºC and atmospheric pressure
29 K2 CO2
is 76 cm, calculate the corona loss per km of the line. Take mo =
0·85
Fig shows the spacing of a double circuit 3-phase overhead line.

The phase sequence is ABC and the line is completely
transposed. The conductor radius in 1·3 cm. Find the
inductance per phase per kilometer
.
30 K2 CO2
13
SUPPORTIVE ONLINE
CERTIFICATION
COURSES
71
ONLINE COURSES
S. Name of the course Source Link

No
1 Power System Engineering NPTEL https://nptel.ac.in/courses/108/10
5/108105104/
2 Power System Generation, NPTEL https://nptel.ac.in/courses/108/10

Transmission and Distribution 2/108102047/
3 Power Engineering: Power System Udemy demy.com/course/power-system-

Analysis - Part 2 analysis-part-2-equipment-models/
4 Transmission Power Engineering Udemy https://www.udemy.com/course/tr

Fundamentals ansmission-power-engineering-
fundamentals/
72
14
REAL TIME
APPLICATIONS IN DAY
TO DAY LIFE AND TO
INDUSTRY
73
REALTIME APPLICATIONS[K4,CO4]
S.No Topics
1 Transmission Line with Capacitance Analysis MATLAB Simulink
2 Transmission Line Analysis MATLAB Simulink
Electric Transmission Lines Work

3
working
Reference Links
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mQZvoXT5xeo
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NRrdfq0q3wo&t=413shttps://www.youtub
e.com/watch?v=g-81RQllYzo&t=15s
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qjY31x0m3d8
74
15
Additional Topics
75
Conductor Types
A conductor is one of the most important components of overhead lines.
Selecting a proper type of conductor for overhead lines is as important as
selecting economic conductor size and economic transmission voltage. A good
conductor should have the following properties:
• high electrical conductivity
• high tensile strength in order to withstand mechanical stresses
• relatively lower cost without compromising much of other properties
• lower weight per unit volume
Conductor Materials
Copper was the preferred material for overhead conductors in earlier days, but,
aluminium has replaced copper because of the much lower cost and lighter weight
of the aluminium conductor compared with a copper conductor of the same
resistance. Following are some materials that are considered to be good
conductors.
Copper: Copper has a high conductivity and greater tensile strength. So, copper in
hard drawn stranded form is a great option for overhead lines. Copper has a high
current density which means more current carrying capacity per unit cross-sectional
area. Therefore, copper conductors have relatively smaller cross-sectional area. Also,
copper is durable and has high scrap value. However, due to its higher cost and non-
availability, copper is rarely used for overhead power lines
Aluminium: Aluminium has about 60% of the conductivity of copper; that means,
for the same resistance, the diameter of an aluminium conductor is about 1.26 times
than that of a copper conductor. However, an aluminium conductor has almost half
the weight of an equivalent copper conductor. Also, tensile strength of aluminium is
less than that of copper. Considering combined factors of cost, conductivity, tensile
strength, weight etc., aluminium has an edge over copper. Therefore, aluminium is
being widely used for overhead conductors.
Cadmium-copper: Cadmium-copper alloys contain approximately 98 to 99% of
copper and up to 1.5% of cadmium. Addition of about 1% of cadmium to copper
increases the tensile strength by up to 50% and the conductivity is reduced only by
about 15%. Therefore, cadmium-copper conductors can be useful for exceptionally
long spans. However, due to high cost of cadmium, such conductors may be
uneconomical in many cases.
Other materials: There are many other metals and alloys that conduct electricity.
Silver is more conductive than copper, but due to its high cost, it is not practical in
most of the cases. Galvanised steel may also be used as a conductor. Although steel
has very high tensile strength, steel conductors are not suitable for transmitting
power efficiently due to the poor conductivity and high resistance of steel. High
strength alloys such as phosphor-bronze may also be used sometimes at extreme
conditions
Types Of Conductors
As it is already mentioned above, aluminium conductors have an edge
over copper conductors considering combined factors of cost, conductivity, tensile
strength, weight etc. Aluminium conductors have completely replaced copper
conductors in overhead power lines because of their lower cost and lower weight.
Though an aluminium conductor has larger diameter than that of a copper
conductor of same resistance, this is actually an advantage when 'Corona' is taken
into consideration. Corona reduces considerably with increase in the conductor
diameter. Following are four common types of overhead conductors used
for overhead transmission and distribution to carry generated power from generating
stations to the end users
AAC : All Aluminium Conductor

AAAC : All Aluminium Alloy Conductor
ACSR : Aluminium Conductor, Steel Reinforced
ACAR : Aluminium Conductor, Alloy Reinforced
AAC : All Aluminium Conductor
This type is sometimes also referred as ASC (Aluminium Stranded
Conductor). It is made up of strands of EC grade or Electrical Conductor grade
aluminium. AAC conductor has conductivity about 61% IACS (International Annealed
Copper Standard). Despite having a good conductivity, because of its relatively poor
strength, AAC has limited use in transmission and rural distribution lines. However,
AAC can be seen in urban areas for distribution where spans are usually short but
higher conductivity is required.
AAAC : All Aluminium Alloy Conductor

These conductors are made from aluminium alloy 6201 which is a high
strength Aluminium-Magnesium-Silicon alloy. This alloy conductor offers good
electrical conductivity (about 52.5% IACS) with better mechanical strength. Because
of AAAC's lighter weight as compared to ACSR of equal strength and current
capacity, AAAC may be used for distribution purposes. However, it is not usually
preferred for transmission. Also, AAAC conductors can be employed in coastal areas
because of their excellent corrosion resistance.
ACSR : Aluminium Conductor, Steel Reinforced
ACSR consists of a solid or stranded steel core with one or more layers of
high purity aluminium (aluminium 1350) wires wrapped in spiral. The core wires may
be zinc coated (galvanized) steel or aluminium coated (aluminized) steel.
Galvanization or aluminization coatings are thin and are applied to protect the steel
from corrosion. The central steel core provides additional mechanical strength and,
hence, sag is significantly less than all other aluminium conductors. ACSR
conductors are available in a wide range of steel content - from 6% to 40%. ACSR
with higher steel content is selected where higher mechanical strength is required,
such as river crossing. ASCR conductors are very widely used for all transmission
and distribution purposes.
Aluminium Conductor, Alloy Reinforced
ACAR conductor is formed by wrapping strands of high purity aluminium
(aluminium 1350) on high strength Aluminium-Magnesium-Silicon alloy (6201
aluminium alloy) core. ACAR has better electrical as well as mechanical properties
than equivalent ACSR conductors. ACAR conductors may be used in overhead
transmission as well as distribution lines.
Conductor Configurations
Several conductor configurations are possible, but three configurations are
the most common i.e. horizontal configuration (or horizontal disposition of
conductors), vertical configuration and triangular configuration
In most cases flat horizontal or vertical configurations are employed from
mechanical considerations, particularly when suspension insulators are used. In
horizontal configuration, all the conductors are mounted over one cross-arm
Though such an arrangement of conductors needs supports of smaller
height but needs a wider right of way. In certain congested areas where it is not
possible to have horizontal arrangement of conductors, the conductors are placed in
vertical formation (along the length of pole one below the other). The drawbacks of
vertical formations are taller towers and more lightning hazards. There are places
where both horizontal and vertical formations are applied.
Vertical configuration Horizontal Configurations

Parameters of transmission line
The performance of transmission line depends on the parameters of
the line. The transmission line has mainly four parameters,
resistance, inductance, capacitance and shunt conductance. These
parameters are uniformly distributed along the line. Hence, it is also
called the distributed parameter of the transmission line
The inductance and resistance form series impedance whereas

the capacitance and conductance form the shunt admittance. Some
critical parameters of transmission line are explained below in detail
Line inductance – The current flow in the transmission line induces the
magnetic flux. When the current in the transmission line changes, the
magnetic flux also varies due to which emf induces in the circuit. The
magnitude of inducing emf depends on the rate of change of flux. Emf
produces in the transmission line resist the flow of current in the
conductor, and this parameter is known as the inductance of the line.
Line capacitance – In the transmission lines, air acts as a dielectric
medium. This dielectric medium constitutes the capacitor between the
conductors, which store the electrical energy, or increase the
capacitance of the line. The capacitance of the conductor is defined as
the present of charge per unit of potential difference.
Capacitance is negligible in short transmission lines whereas in
long transmission; it is the most important parameter. It affects the
efficiency, voltage regulation, power factor and stability of the system.
Shunt conductance – Air act as a dielectric medium between the
conductors. When the alternating voltage applies in a conductor, some
current flow in the dielectric medium because of dielectric imperfections.
Such current is called leakage current. Leakage current depends on the
atmospheric condition and pollution like moisture and surface deposits.
Shunt conductance is defined as the flow of leakage current
between the conductors. It is distributed uniformly along the whole
length of the line. The symbol Y represented it, and it is measured in
Siemens.
16
ASSESSMENT
SCHEDULE
80
Assessment Schedule
Assessment Name Assessment Date
Internal Assessment I 14.02.2024
Internal Assessment II
03-04-2024
Model Examination 25.04.2024

17
PRESCRIBED TEXT
BOOKS &
REFERENCE BOOKS
82
TEXT BOOKS AND REFERENCE BOOKS
TEXT BOOKS:
1. D.P.Kothari, I.J. Nagarath, ‘Power System Engineering’, Mc Graw-Hill
Publishing Company limited, New Delhi, Third Edition, 2019.
2. C.L.Wadhwa, ‘Electrical Power Systems’,New Academic Science Ltd,
seventh Edition 2016.
3. S.N. Singh, ‘Electric Power Generation, Transmission and
Distribution’, Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi, Second
Edition, 2008.
4. V K Metha,” Principles of power system”, S .Chand and company
limited
REFERENCES:
1. B.R.Gupta, ‘Power System Analysis and Design’ S. Chand, New
Delhi, Fifth Edition, 2011.
2. Luces M.Fualken berry, Walter Coffer, ‘Electrical Power Distribution
and Transmission’, Pearson Education, 2007.
3. Arun Ingole, "power transmission and distribution" Pearson
Education, 2017
4. J.Brian, Hardy and Colin R.Bayliss ‘Transmission and Distribution in
Electrical Engineering’, Newnes; Fourth Edition, 2012.
5. G.Ramamurthy, “Handbook of Electrical power Distribution
83
18
MINI PROJECT
SUGGESTIONS
84
1. A three phase transposed line has its conductors placed at a
distance of 11m, 11 m & 22 m. The conductors have a diameter
of 3.625cm as shown in Figure 1 Calculate the inductance of the
transposed conductors. Determine the inductance per phase per
kilometer of the above three lines. Verify the results using the
MATLAB program.
Fig 1
Figure 1
2. Verify the results using the MATLAB program. A three phase

transposed line has its conductors placed at a distance of 11m, 11 m
& 22 m. The conductors have a diameter of 3.625cm as shown in
Figure 1. Calculate capacitance of the transposed conductors.
Determine the inductance and capacitance per phase per kilometer
of the above three lines.
3. Find the loop inductance and reactance per km of a single phase

overhead line consisting of two conductors each 1.213cm diameter.
The spacing between conductors is 1.25m and frequency is
50Hz.Verify the results with the available software.
4.A 345-kV double-circuit three-phase transposed line is composed
of two ACSR, 1,431,000-cmil, 45/7 Bobolink conductors per phase
with vertical conductor configuration as show in figure 2. The
conductors have a diameter of 1.427 inch and a GMR of 0.564 inch.
The bundle spacing in 18 inch. Find the inductance per phase per
Kilometer of the Line and Verify the results using available software
Fig 2
5. A 345-kV double-circuit three-phase transposed line is composed
of two AC SR, 1,431,000-cmil, 45/7 Bobolink conductors per phase
with vertical conductor configuration as show in figure 2. The
conductors have a diameter of 1.427 inch and a GMR of 0.564 inch.
The bundle spacing in 18 inch. Find the capacitance per phase per
Kilometer of the Line and Verify the results using available software
THANK YOU
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1

S. No Topic Page No.

6 CO- PO/PSO Mapping 13

8 Activity based learning 16

11 Part A with Answers 59

13 Supportive online Certification courses 71

Real time Applications in day to day life and to

17 Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books 82

18 Mini Project suggestions 84

The student should be made to:

• To study the structure of Electric Power System, distribution systems, EHVAC,

• To develop expressions for the computation of transmission line parameters

• To develop the equivalent circuits for the transmission lines based on

• To analyze the voltage distribution in insulator strings to improve the

• To understand the mechanical design of transmission lines, types of

UNIT I STRUCTURE OF POWER SYSTEM 9

UNIT II TRANSMISSION LINE PARAMETERS 9

UNIT III MODELLING AND PERFORMANCE OF TRANSMISSION LINES 9

UNIT IV INSULATORS AND CABLES 9

UNIT V MECHANICAL DESIGN OF LINES, GROUNDING AND LOAD

On completion of the course, the students will be able to

CO NO. COURSE OUTCOME K-LEVEL

Understand the structure of power system

parameters of different line insulators

On completion of the B.E (Electrical and Electronics Engineering) Degree

After successful completion of the B.E degree program, the

Program Outcomes Specific

Verify the Matlab results with theoretical values

Fig 1 Line Parameters Fig 2 Equivalent Circuit

Inductance. When an alternating current flows through a conductor, a changing

Fig. 5 External Flux Linkage

Flux linkages in parallel current carrying conductors

Inductance of a Single Phase Two-wire Line

Fig 6 Inductance - Two wire

Flux linkages with conductor A due to current 𝐼𝐵

= 24.23 𝑥 10−7 𝑥 1000 = 24.23 𝑥 10−4 𝐻

Inductance of a 3-Phase Overhead Line

Fig 7 Inductance – Three Phase

Flux linkages with conductor A due to current 𝐼𝐵

shows a 3-phase transposed line having unsymmetrical spacing. Let us

As proved above, the total flux linkages per

Putting the values of 𝐼𝐴 , 𝐼𝐵 and 𝐼𝑐 , we get

Inductance/phase/km = 12·74 × 10−7 × 1000 = 1·274 × 10−3 H = 1·274 mH

𝑄𝐴 = charge per metre length

As x approaches infinity, the value of E approaches zero. Therefore, the potential

Potential at a conductor in a group of charged conductors

Fig 12 Capacitance – Group of conductors

Overall potential difference between conductor A and infinite neutral plane is

Fig 13 Capacitance Single Phase

The total p.d. between conductor A and neutral “infinite” plane is

Fig 14 Line to Neutral Capacitance

Capacitance of a 3-Phase Overhead Line

Fig 16 Transposition of Line

Average voltage on conductor A is

Fig 17 Skin Effect

Fig 18 Proximity Effect

Substituting qA = q’B = + q and q’A = qB = -q we have,

Capacitance between conductors A and B,

WHAT ARE THE EFFECTS OF CORONA?

WHAT ARE THE METHODS TO REDUCE CORONA EFFECTS?

The corona effect has following disadvantages:

A non-sinusoidal voltage drop occurs in transmission line due to non-sinusoidal corona

The main advantages of corona effects are:

Factors Affecting Corona Discharge:

T&D Unit2 Notes Final

T&D Unit2 Notes Final