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Mole concept
When students see mole concept questions

Stoichiometry
❖ Stoichiometry : Calculations of the quantities of reactants and

products involved in a chemical reaction.
Methods used :
Mole method (Balancing is required) :

Δ
For example : 2KClO3 2KCl + 3O2
Mole of KClO3 Mole of KCl Mole of O2

= =
2 2 3
Find the mass of O2 that can be obtained from heating 89 g of

KClO3.
Find the mass of O2 that can be obtained from heating 89 g of

KClO3.
2 KClO3 ⟶ 2 KCl + 3 O2
2 x 122.5 = 245 2 x 74.5 = 149 g 3 x 32 = 96 g

● Since, 245 g of KClO3 gives 96 g of O2.
So, 89 g KClO3 will give
It is like unitary method

❖ Concept of limiting Reagent :

(a)Limiting Reagent
:
It refers to reactant which is present in minimum stoichiometry
quantity for a chemical reaction . It is the reactant that is consumed
completely in a chemical reaction.
Divide given moles of each reactant by their stoichiometric

coefficient, the one with least ratio is limiting reagent .
Stoichiometry
❖ Concentration terms :
(a)For solutions (Homogenous mixture ) :
Wt. of Solute
● % by mass (w/W) = × 100
Wt. of solution
[ X% by mass means 100g solution contains X gm solute ; ∴ (100-X) gm

solvent ]
Stoichiometry
Wt. of Solute
● % (w/V) = × 100
Volume of
solution
[ X% (w/V) means 100 mL solution contains X gm solute]
Volume of Solute
● % (v/V) = × 100
Volume of
solution
Stoichiometry
Moles of Solute
● Mole % = × 100
Total moles
● Mole Moles of Solute

fraction = Total moles
Moles of Solute
● Molarity (M) =
Volume of solution (in litre)
Moles of Solute
● Molality (m) =
Mass of solvent (in kg)
Stoichiometry
Moles of Solute
● Parts per million (ppm) = × 106
Mass of solvent
≅ Moles of Solute
× 106
Mass of solution
Stoichiometry
(b) (i) On adding solvent in a solution (dilution) :
No. of moles of solute remains constant :
M f Vf = M iVi
(II) Mixing of two solutions of same solute :
MfVf = M1V1 + M2V2 + . . .

Benzene burns in Oxygen according to the above equation. What is the

Volume of Oxygen (at STP) needed for complete combustion of 39g of
liquid Benzene?
WBJEE 2022
Which of the following has the largest number of atoms?
A. 1g of Ag
B. 1g of Fe
C. 1g of Cl2
D. 1g of Mg WBJEE 2020
Atomic Structure
Atomic Structure
❖ Electromagnetic Spectrum
Atomic Structure
❖ Light:
➢ Photon is considered as massless bundle of energy.
➢ Energy of light E = mc2 ,
where m = mass of light particle , c = speed of light
➢ Ephoton = hν = hc/λ = hc⊽ ≅ 1240 eV . nm

λ (nm)
where h = Planck constant ; λ = wavelength of photon ; ⊽ = wave number
No. of molecules reacting

➢ Quantum efficiency or Quantum yield :
No. of quanta absorbed
Atomic Structure
❖ Bohr’s Model :
➢ Electrostatic force = Kq1q2 / r2 where k = 1 / 4πεo = 9 × 109 N-m2/C2
➢ Bohr quantization rule mvr = n (h/2π) = n.ħ
➢ Kq1q2 / r2 = mv2/r
q1 = charge of electron , q2 = charge of nucleus , m = mass of electron ,

r = radius of Bohr’s orbit
Atomic Structure
n3
➢ Time for one revolution = 2πr/v = 1.52 × 10-
16 Z2
➢ Energy difference between n1 and n2 energy level :
ΔE = En2 - En1 = 13.6 Z2[1/n12 - 1/n22] eV/atom

= IE × [1/n12 - 1/n22]
Atomic Structure
❖ Spectral lines:
➢ Rydberg’s Equation (1/λ) = RH [1/n12 - 1/n22] × Z2
RH ≅ 109700 cm-1 = Rydberg constant
➢ When electrons de-excite from higher energy level(n2) to lower
energy level (n1) in isolated atom , then number of spectral lines

(n2-n1) =
observed in the spectrum (n2-
n1+1)
2
Hydrogen Spectrum
Atomic Structure
❖ Photoelectric effect :
➢ Kinetic energy of photoelectron = hν-w = hν-hνo
❖ De-broglie hypothesis :
➢ λ = h/ mν = h/p
➢ The circumference of the nth orbit is equal to n times of wavelength

of electron i.e, 2πrn = nλ
➢ Number of waves = n = principal quantum number
Atomic Structure
❖ Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle :
➢ Δx . Δp > h/4π or Δx . Δv > h/ (4π m) or Δx . Δλ > λ2/4π
❖ Schrodinger Equation :
∂2 ∂2 ∂2 ∂2
ψ2 + ψ2 + ψ + ψ (E-V)ψ = 0
∂x ∂x ∂x2 ∂x2
Atomic Structure
❖ Quantum number :
➢ Principal quantum number (n) : It determine the size of an orbital.

Each value of n represents a shell of orbital. Possible values of n = 1, 2,
3, 4, . . . . .
➢ Azimuthal quantum number (l) : It determine the shape of an orbital.
Each value of l represents a subshell of an orbital. Possible values of l
= 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . . .(n-1)
➢ Magnetic quantum number (ml) : It determine the orientation of an
orbital in space . Possible values of m = -l , -l+1 , . . . , 0, 1, 2, l
➢ Spin quantum number (ms) : It is intrinsic property of an electron.

The electron has two spin states. Possible values of s = +½ , -½
Atomic Structure
❖ Important points on quantum number :
➢ Orbital angular momentum = h/2π [l(l+1)]½
➢ Spin magnetic moment = [n(n+1)]½ B.M.
➢ Maximum number of electrons in a shell = 2n2
➢ Maximum number of electrons in a subshell = 2(2l+1)
➢ Maximum number of electrons in an orbital = 2

Atomic Structure
❖ Important points on quantum number :
➢ Total number of orbitals in a subshell = 2l + 1
➢ Number of subshells in a shell = n
➢ Number of orbitals in a shell = n2
➢ Radial Nodes = (n - l - 1)
➢ Angular nodes = l
➢ Total nodes = (n-1)

Electronic Configuration
Aufbau Rule
( n + l ) Rule
n + l are different n + l are same
Greater the n+l Greater the n

value, greater value, greater
the energy of the energy of
orbital orbital
Electronic Configuration
Pauli’s Exclusion
Principle
Aufbau Rule Hund’s Rule
↑↓ ↑↑ ↑↓ ↑↓
↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ ↑
In Bohr model of atom, radius of hydrogen atom in ground state is r 1 and
radius of He+ ion in ground state is r2. Which of the following is correct?
WB JEE 2022
Which one of the following is the correct set of four quantum numbers
(n,l,m,s)
WB JEE 2022
Gaseous state
Gaseous state
❖ Experimental gas laws :
Boyle’s Law V ∝ 1/p T & n constant P1V1 = P2V2
Charles's Law V∝ T P & n constant V1/T1 = V2/T2
Gay Lussac’s law P∝ T V & n constant P1/T1 = P2/T2
Avogadro’s law V∝ n T & P constant V1/n1 = V2/n2

Gaseous state
❖ Dalton’s law of partial pressure:
Ptotal = PA + PB + . . .
PA = mole fraction × Total Pressure
% of gas in mixture = Partial pressure
× 100
Total pressure
Gaseous state
❖ Graham’s law of Diffusion or Effusion :
r ∝ 1/ √d or r ∝ 1/ √M or r ∝ P/ √M
r1/r2 = √(d2 / d1) = √(M2 / M1)
Moles diffused Distance travelled in a narrow tube

r= =
Time taken Time taken
Gaseous state
❖ Types of speeds :
√3RT √3PV √3P
➢ Root mean square speed, u = = =
√M √nM √d
u1 + u2 + …+ un √8RT
➢ Average speed = = = ū
N √πM
√2RT
➢ Most probable speed = = umps
√M
➢ Relationship between three types of speeds =
Most probable : average : r.m.s. = √2 : √(8/ π) : √3 = 1 : 1.13 : 1.22
Gaseous state
❖ Vander Waals equation of states:
[ P + (an2)] (v-nb) = nRT

V2
A and b are Vander waals constants and different for each gas.
Gaseous state
❖ Interpretation of deviation from Vander Waals
equation :
PV a
= 1-
➢ At low pressure Z = RT VRT
PV Pb
➢ At high pressure Z = RT = 1+
RT
PV
➢ When P—->0 Z= = 1 ; PV = nRT
RT
Gaseous state
❖ Boyle temperature (TB) :
The temperature at which a real gas obeys Boyle’s law (i.e,

behaves as an ideal gas) in low pressure range.
a
TB = bR
❖ Critical temperature (Tc) :
The maximum temperature at which a gas can be liquified, i.e,

the temperature above which a liquid cannot exist.
8a
TC 27bR
=
Gaseous state
❖ Critical Pressure (PC) :
Minimum pressure required to cause liquefaction at the

temperature TC.
a
PC = 27b2
❖ Critical Volume (Vc) :
Volume occupied by one mole of gas at critical temperature and

critical pressure.
VC = 3b
Avogadro’s law is valid for?
A. All gases
B. Ideal gas
C. Vander waal gas
D. Real gas WB JEE 2022
Avogadro’s law is valid for?
A. All gases
B. Ideal gas
C. Vander waal gas
D. Real gas WB JEE 2022
WB JEE 2020
Periodic Properties
Atomic radius
Vanderwaal
Covalent radius Metallic radius
radius
It is one - half of the It is one-half of the It is one -half of the
internuclear distance distance between the internuclear distance
nuclei of two adjacent between two adjacent
between the two
metal atoms atoms in two nearest
covalently bonded atoms neighbouring molecules
rcovalent < r metallic < r van der

Atomic radius
Variation of atomic radius in period (from left to right)
Zeff increases
Atomic size decreases
● Number of orbitals remain constant.
C N O
Atomic radius
Variation of atomic radius in group (from top to bottom)
● Number of orbital increase
● Effective nuclear charge (Zeff) almost remain same

because of increased screening effect of inner shells
electrons
● The effect of increased number of atomic shells

overweight the effect of increased nuclear charge.
No of shell Atomic radius

increase increase
Atomic radius
Exception :
● Atomic radius of inert gas (zero group) is largest in a period
Van der Waals radius > covalent radius

Atomic radius
Screening effect = nuclear charge

Nearly same
Element Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn
1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1
Atomic radius (A) 1.44 1.32 1.22 1.16 1.15 1.25
8 7 7 7
Decreases Increases
Due to increase in nuclear charge Screening effect > nuclear charge
Atomic radius
Exception : 5
B
Increase down the group

Generally atomic radius
13
3s23p1 Al
31
4s23d104p1 Ga
49
Poor screening of d orbital In
So effective nuclear charge increases and size 81
decreases slightly Tl
Actual order : Tl > In >Al > Ga > B
Atomic radius
Exception :
3d series
4d series
5d series
Expected: increases down the group
Actual order : 3d < 4d ≅ 5d

Ti < Zr ≅ Hf (lanthanide contraction)
Ionization Energy
Amount of energy required to remove the most loosely bound electron from an
isolated gaseous atom to form a cation.
Neutral atom
[ 1st Ionization Energy ]
Monovalent cation
[ 2nd Ionization Energy ]

Divalent cation
[ 3rd Ionization Energy ]
IE1 < IE2 < IE3 < …...

Factors Affecting Ionization Energy
● Size : Size ↑ ⇒ I.E ↓
More I.E.
Less I.E.
● Zeff Zeff ↑ ⇒ I.E. ↑
● Electronic configuration:
2s2 2p3
Fully filled Half filled
● Penetration effect of the electron:
The order of I.E. is as follows: s > p > d > f
Ionization Energy
Moving from left to right in a period I.E. ↑ (Zeff ↑)

Moving from top to bottom in a group I.E. ↓ (Size↑)
Exception :
Excepted : IE
Li Be B C N O F Ne
2s1 2s2 2s22p1 2s12p2 2s22p3 2s22p4 2s22p4 2s22p6
Full filled s orbital Half filled p orbital

IE1 Be > B but IE2 of B > Be IE1 of N > O
Actual order : Li < B <Be < C < O < N < F < Ne
Ionization Energy
5 6
Exception :
B C
13 14
Al Poor screening effect of d orbital, Zeff
Si
31 32
Ga Ge
Actual order : B > Tl > Ga > Al > In
49 50
In Actual order : C > Si > Ge > Pb > Sn Sn
81 82
Tl Poor screening effect of f orbital, Zeff Pb
Poor screening effect of 4f orbital, Zeff
Excepted : IE Excepted : IE
Electron Gain Enthalpy ΔHeg
Overall change in energy during the addition of an electron.

Electron affinity
The tendency to gain an electron in outermost shell.
Electron Affinity is measured in terms of ΔHeg

Factors affecting Electron affinity
1
E. A 𝝰
● Atomic radius or size of the atom : Atomic Size
Nuclear Charge 𝝰 E. A
● Nuclear charge :
● Half filled and fully filled electronic configuration :
Atoms having above configuration is most stable and they do not show
tendency to accept the extra electron.

Electron affinity
❖ In a period, atomic size decreases with increase in effective nuclear

charge and hence increase in electron affinity.
Exception :
The values of electron affinity of inert gases are zero, because there
outermost orbit has fully-filled p orbitals.
Electron affinity
❖ The values of electron affinity normally decreases on going from top to

bottom in a group because the atomic size increases which decreases
the actual force of attraction by the nucleus.
Electron affinity
Excepted : EA
4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Be B C N O F Ne
1s2 2s2 1s2 2s2 2p1 1s2 2s2 2p2 1s2 2s2 2p3
Full filled p orbital (stable) Half filled p orbital (stable)
EA of N < C
EA of Be < B
Actual : F > O > C > B > N > Be
● The E.A. of 2nd period is lower than E.A. of 3rd period elements.
● E.A (F) < E.A. (Cl) F is small size and
Expected: F > Cl > Br > I Actual : Cl > F > Br > I incoming e- experience
repulsion
● Expected: Cl > S > P > Si Actual : Cl > S > Si > P
Electronegativity
● Ability of an atom in a chemical compound to
attract shared electrons to itself
● Defined in bonded state
Pauling scale :
● Method for calculating relative electronegativities of most elements

(All bond energies are in kcal/mol)
●
● EA-B = Bond enthalpy/Bond energy of A - B bond.
● EA-A = Bond energy of A - A bond
● EB-B = Bond energy of B - B bond
Electronegativity
Factors affecting Electronegativity.
● Size : Size ↑ ⇒ EN ↓
● Zeff : Zeff ↑ ⇒ EN ↑ σ ↑ ⇒ EN ↓
● Charge on cationic species :
A3+ > A2+ > A+1 (for the same element)
Greater the charge on cation, greater EN value
● Charge on anionic species : A3- < A2- < A-
● State of hybridization : Greater the % s character ⇒ greater the attraction on the
shared sp > sp2 > sp3
● Moving left to right along the period ⇒ Zeff ↑ E.N ↑
● Moving top to bottom down the group ⇒ Size ↑ E.N ↓
Redox reactions
Redox Reactions L-1: Rules to calculate oxidation number

Redox Reactions: Rules to calculate oxidation number
● The oxidation state of hydrogen is generally +1 (when attached to a

more electronegative element).
Eg. H-Cl, H-F, NH3
● But when it is attached to a least electronegative element, its oxidation

state is taken as -1.
Eg. NaH, MgH2
● The O.S of oxygen is generally -2 (when attached to a least

electronegative atom)
Eg. MgO, Na2O, H2O
● Peroxides (一O一O一): O.N of O is -1
● Superoxides (O2-): O.N of O is -½
● Oxyfluorides:
Eg. OF2, O2F2
Radicals Name O.S
X- (F-, Cl-, Br-, I- ) Halides -1
O2- Oxide -2
N3- Nitride -3
P3- Phosphide -3
S2- Sulphide -2
Radicals Name O.S
OH- hydroxide -1
CN- cyanide -1
NC- isocyanide -1
SO42- sulphate -2
SO32- sulphite -2
The sum of O.N of all the elements present in a

molecule is equal to net charge present on it.
Highest Oxidation State: Oxidising Agent

Lowest Oxidation State: Reducing Agent
n-factor
Acids: No. of H+ given Base: No. of OH- given
HCl NaOH
H2SO4 Al(OH)3
HNO3 NH4OH
H3BO3
H3PO4
H3PO3
H3PO2
n-factor
Salts: Total +ve or -ve charge
NaCl
AlCl3
Al2(SO4)3
n-factor
For reactions: Σ (Change in OS x no. of atoms)

Normality
N = no. of gram equivalent/V(in L)
Gram eq= Given wt/Eq. wt

Question
In [Ni(CO)4], the OS of Ni is?
a. 4
b. 0
c. 2
d. 8
Chemical Equilibrium
❖ Law of chemical equilibrium :

[X]x [Y]y
For the reaction : aA(aq) + bB(aq) ⇌ xX(aq) + yY(aq) Kc =
[A]a[B]b
❖ Types of equilibrium constant :
[X]x [Y]y
KC= Equilibrium constant in terms of molar concentration =
[A]a[B]b
pxX PyY
Kp= Equilibrium constant in terms of pressure =
PaAPbB
❖ Predicting the direction of a reaction:

[C]c
aA(aq) + bB(aq) ⇌ cC(aq) + dD(aq) Qc
[D]da
= [A] [B]b
● If QC> KC , the reaction proceeds towards the direction of
reactants
● If QC< KC , the reaction proceeds towards the direction of products
● If QC= KC , the reaction mixture is at equilibrium.

❖ Le- Chatelier Principle :

If a system in equilibrium is subjected to a change of
concentration , temperature or pressure , the equilibrium shifts in
a direction so as to undo the effect of the change imposed.
➢ Effect of change in concentration : As we add or remove

reactant (or product) the ratio of equilibrium concentration
become Q (Reaction quotient )
● Q < K : Equilibrium shift towards forward direction

● Q > K : Equilibrium shift towards backward direction
➢ Effect of change in pressure :

➢ Effect of change in temperature :
● For endothermic reaction, as temperature increases, Reaction
shift in forward direction.
● For exothermic reaction, as temperature increases, Reaction shift
in backward direction.
➢ Addition of inert gas :
● For reactions in which np= nr , there is no effect of adding an inert
gas at constant volume or constant pressure on the equilibrium.
● For reactions in which np≠ nr , there is no effect of adding an inert
gas at constant volume but at constant pressure equilibrium shift
towards larger mole side.

Ionic Equilibrium
Acids and Bases Theories
Acid - Base Theories
Arrhenius concept Bronsted - Lowry Lewis Acids and

of Acids and Bases Acids and Bases Bases
Lewis Acids and Bases
● Acid is a species which accepts electron pair
● Base is a species which donates an electron pair.

BF3 + :NH3 → BF3 : NH3
Example -
Lewis Acids Lewis Bases
AlCl3 H2O
Co3+ NH3
Mg2+ OH-
Ionic Equilibrium
❖ pH Concept :
● pH = -log [H+] or -log [H3O+] or [H+] = 10-pH
● Ionic product of water : Kw = 1 × 10-14 = [H3O+] [OH-] at 298K
● KW increases with increase in T.
● pH + pOH = PKw = 14 ( AT 298K)

Ionic Equilibrium
❖ pH calculation of weak acid (HA) :
pH = ½ (pKa - log C)
❖ pH calculation of weak base (BOH) :
pOH = ½ (pKb - log C)

❖ pH calculation of mixture of two weak acid HA and HB :
[H+] = √(Ka1C1 + Ka2C2)

Ionic Equilibrium
❖ Salt hydrolysis :
● Salt of SA + WB :
pH = 7 - ½ (pKb + log C)
● Salt of WA + SB :
pH = 7 + ½ (pKa + log C)
● Salt of WA + WB :
pH = 7 + ½ (pKa - pKb)
Ionic Equilibrium
❖ Buffer solutions :
Whose pH does not change significantly on adding a small

quantity of strong base or strong acid.
➢ Types:
Acidic Buffer : Weak Acid + Conjugate Base

Examples : CH3COOH and CH3COONa ; NaHCO3 and H2CO3 .
Basic Buffer : Weak Base + Conjugate Acid
Examples : NH3 and NH4Cl ; RNH2 and RNH3Cl .

Ionic Equilibrium
❖ Henderson’s equation:
For acidic buffer solution : pH = pKa + log([salt]/[acid])
For basic buffer solution : pH = pKb + log([salt]/[base])

Ionic Equilibrium
❖ Solubility(S) and Solubility product (KSP):
AxBy ⇌ xAy+ + yBx-
- xS yS
KSP = (xS)X . (yS)y = xxyy . (S)x+y
● If Q < KSP , the solution is unsaturated, no precipitation takes place.

● If Q = KSP , the solution is saturated.
● If Q > KSP , the solution is super saturated, precipitation takes place
Q. pKa values of four acids are given below at 25oC.
The strongest acid is -
A 2.0
B 2.5
C 3.0
D 4.0
A 2.0
B 2.5
C 3.0
D 4.0
Solution
More is Ka, lesser is pKa (pKa = -log Ka), more is

acidic strength.
Chemical Bonding
VBT
It explains the formation of covalent bond.
The main points of this theory are:
● A covalent bond is formed by the overlap of atomic

orbitals of bonding atoms.
● In order to show overlap, the bonding atoms must come

close such that their orbitals can overlap
VBT
Following overlappings are not allowed.

Negative overlapping:
Not allowed Not allowed Not allowed

Sigma σ
● When orbitals overlap along their internuclear axis, σ - bnd is formed

Example : The bond formed by overlapping of s - s , s - p, s p - p (axial),
sp3 - s, sp2 - s, sp3 - sp3, sp3 - sp2 and sp - sp atomic orbitals
Sigma bond
s-s overlapping
Sigma bond
s-p overlapping
pi(𝞹) bond and Delta(𝝳) Bond
● When two p-orbitals overlap along the lateral axis(side way), 𝞹-
bond is formed
VSEPR theory
● The shape of a molecule depends upon the number of valence shell e-

pairs (bonded or unbonded) around the central atom.
● Pairs of e- in the valence shell repel one another since their e- clouds
are negatively charged.
● These pairs of e- tend to occupy such positions in space that

minimise repulsion and thus maximise distance between them.
The repulsive interaction of electron pairs decreases in the order :
lone pair (lp) - lone pair (lp) > lone pair (lp) - bond pair (bp) > bond pair (bp) -bond pair (bp)
LP – LP repulsion
LP – BP repulsion
BP – BP repulsion
VSEPR theory
The actual shape of the molecules containing lone pairs is a little distorted from
the basic shape as in the NH3 and H2O molecules. The bond angles are not
109028’ but 1070 and 104.50 respectively due to presence of one lone pair in NH3
and two lone pairs in H2O.
.. ..
O
H 104.5o H
Hybridisation
● Intermixing of the orbitals of slightly different energies, so as to redistribute their

energies resulting in the formation of new set of orbitals of equivalent energies
and shape.
s + p (Atomic orbitals) = Hybrid orbitals
● The phenomenon is called hybridisation.

Salient Features of hybridisation
● Only orbitals of almost similar energies and belonging to the same atom or ion
undergo hybridization.
● The number of hybrid orbitals produced is equal to the number of pure orbitals
mixed during hybridization.
● Most of the hybrid orbitals are similar in shape, size and energy.
4 sets of sp3 orbitals

Types of hybridisation
s+p s+p+d
sp dsp2
sp2 sp3d
sp3 dsp3
sp3d2
To predict hybridisation following formulae may be used: d2sp

3
No. of hybrid orbital = 1/2 [Total number of valence e- in the central atom + total
number of monovalent atoms - charge on cation + charge on anion]
Geometry in which the central atom has no lp of e-
Number of electron Arrangement of Molecular

Examples
pairs electron pairs Geometry
2 BeCl2, HgCl2
3 BF3
4 CH4, NH4+
Number of Arrangement of electron

Molecular Geometry Examples
electron pairs pairs
5 PCl5
6 SF6
Number of Arrangement of electron

Molecular Geometry Examples
electron pairs pairs
7 IF7
Geometry in which central atom has one or more lp of e-
No. of
Molecule No. of lone Arrangement of
Bonding Shapes and Examples
Type pairs electron pairs
Pairs
AB2E 2 1 Bent, SO2, O3
AB3E 3 1 Trigonal Pyramidal, NH3
AB2E2 2 2 Bent, H2O

No. of
Molecule No. of lone Arrangement of
Type pairs electron pairs
Pairs
AB4E 4 1 See saw, SF4
AB3E2 3 2 T- Shape, ClF3

No. of
Molecule No. of lone Arrangement of electron
Type pairs pairs
Pairs
AB5E 5 1 Square Pyramidal, BrF5
AB4E2 4 2 Square Planar, XeF4

MOT
Given by hund and Mulliken
● Two atomic orbital come nearer and then overlap each other to form two molecular
orbitals (MO)
● Combination of two atomic orbital (AO) forms two molecular, orbital (MO):
ABMO (antibonding molecular orbital)

AO + AO
BMO (bonding molecular orbital)
● Energy of BMO < Energy of ABMO.

Linear Combination of Atomic Orbitals (LCAO)
- Combination by addition (Constructive interference) :

When the two e- waves are in-phase i.e., they have the same sign, they will add
up to give a new wave function expressed as 𝝍b
(shows high amplitude)
Wave function for bonding molecular orbitals is 𝝍b = 𝝍A + 𝝍B

𝝍A = wave function of atom A 𝝍B = wave function of atom B
- Combination by subtraction (Destructive interference) :

When the two e- waves are out-of-phase i.e., they have opposite sign of the wave
functions, then they will combine by subtraction.
The resulting wave function is expressed as 𝝍a
(shows much less amplitude)
Wave function for antibonding molecular orbital is 𝝍a = 𝝍A – 𝝍B

Energy level diagram for molecular orbitals
Two 1s atomic orbitals combine to form two molecular orbitals :
Bonding Mo: σ1s Antibonding Mo: σ1s
2s and 2p atomic orbitals give rise to the following eight

molecular orbitals:
Bonding Mo: Antibonding Mos:

σ2s σ2pz π2px π2py σ*2s σ*2pz π*2px π*2py
MOT
❖ Order of energy in molecular orbitals of diatomic molecules.

● From H2 to N2
σ 1s < σ *1s < σ 2s < σ *2s < 𝜋 2px = 𝜋 2py < σ 2pz < 𝜋 *2px = 𝜋 *2py < σ *2pz
● For O2 and F2:
σ 1s < σ *1s ; < σ 2s < σ *2s < σ 2pz < 𝜋 2px = 𝜋 2py < 𝜋 *2px = 𝜋 *2py < σ *2pz
σ *, 𝜋 * = antibonding molecular orbital
σ, 𝜋 = bonding molecular orbital
N b - Na
Bond order =
2
Nb = No. of electron in bonding MO’s
Na = No. of electron in antibonding MO’s
MOT
● If bond order = 0, it means species does not exist.
● Bond order of 1, 2 and 3 corresponds to a single bond, double and triple bond
respectively.
● Bond order ↑ stability of molecule ↑ bond length ↓

Magnetic property
One or more e- in MOs

All e- in MOs are paired
are unpaired
Diamagnetic Paramagnetic
MOT
Molecule or Bond order

MO configuration Magnetic
ion behaviour
H2 (σ 1 s)2 1 Diamagnetic
H2+ (σ 1 s)1 0.5 Paramagnetic
H2 (σ 1s)2. (σ * 1s)1 0.5 Paramagnetic
KK(σ 2s)2, (σ * 2s)2 (σ 2pz)2

O22- (𝜋 2px)2, (𝜋 2py)2 1 Diamagnetic
(𝜋 *2px)2, (𝜋 *2py)2
KK(σ 2s)2, (σ * 2s)2 (σ 2pz)2

F2 (𝜋 2px)2, (𝜋 2py)2 1 Diamagnetic
(𝜋 *2px)2, (𝜋 *2py)2
Hydrogen
Isotopes of hydrogen
Isotopes
Deuterium
Protium 2 H or 2 D Tritium
1 H 1 1 3 H or 3 T
1 1 1
● Mostly deuterium is found as HㅡD.
● Conc. of tritium = 1 atom per 1018 atom of protium. H2

= 12.3 yrs
● Tritium is radioactive and emits low energy β particle.
● H2 is more reactive than D2 due to lower B.D.E

Commercial Production of hydrogen by Electrolysis of water
Electrolysis of acidified water using

platinum electrodes is used for the
bulk preparation of hydrogen.
Electrolysis
2H2O(l) Traces of 2H2(g) + O2(g)
acid/base
At Cathode:
H+ + e− ⟶ H
H + H ⟶ H2↑
At Anode:
4OH− ⟶ 2H2O + O2 + 4e−
Commercial Production of Hydrogen by Bosch Process
The largest quantity of H2 is produced by this

process. Its prepared by water gas.
(a) Preparation of water gas:
Ratio of CO & H2 is called as “synthesis gas or

syngas”.
Commercial Production of Hydrogen by Bosch Process
(b) Separation of CO from water gas.

Water gas is mixed with twice its volume with steam at
673K with FeCrO4 catalyst which oxidises CO to CO2
This reaction is called as “Water gas shift reaction”.
Syngas is processed through Bosch’s process to obtain H2.

Chemical Properties of Hydrogen:
Covalent or Molecular Hydrides:
Covalent or molecular hydrides are the compounds of
hydrogen with p-block elements. The most common
hydrides are CH4, H2O, NH3 etc. Covalent hydrides are
volatile compounds.
Molecular hydrides are further classified according to

their relative number of electrons and bonds in their
Lewis structures.
● Electron deficient molecular hydrides:
● Electron-precise hydrides
● Electron-rich hydrides:
● Electron deficient molecular hydrides

The elements do not complete their octet even after
making bonds with hydrogen.
These are formed by Group 13 elements and some Group 2
elements
Eg. B2H6, AlH3, BeH2, MgH2 etc.
● Electron precise molecular hydrides.
They complete their octet after bond formation and no lone
pair of electrons is left after bonding.
These are formed by Group 14 elements.
Eg. CH4, SiH4
● Electron rich molecular hydrides.
They have lone pair of electrons on them after completing their
octet.
These are formed by Group 15, 16, 17 elements
Eg. :
Structure of Hydrogen peroxide:
Hydrogen peroxide is non-linear, non-planar molecule. It has an
open book type of structure. The molecular dimensions of H2O2 in
the gas phase and solid phase and solid phase slightly differ from
each other as shown below.
● H2O2 structure in gas phase, dihedral angle is 111.5o.

● H2O2 structure in solid phase at 110 K, dihedral angle is
90.2o.
Chemical Properties
Decomposition: H2O2 is an unstable liquid
Disproportionation reaction
s and p block elements

Flame colouration of Alkali metals
When alkali metals or their salts are kept in Bunsen
flame (oxidizing flame) the e− in the shell absorb energy
and get excited. When they fail back to the original
energy level they emit light in visible region
corresponding to particular frequencies.
Fr being radioactive does not give flame colouration

Chemical Properties of Alkali Metals
Alkali metals are highly reactive elements. The cause for

their high chemical reactivity is :
(i) Low value of first ionization energy
(ii) Large size
The reactivity of these metals increase down the group.

Chemical Properties: Reaction with Liquid Ammonia
● Alkali metals dissolve in ammonia giving deep blue

solutions which is conducting in nature.
M + (x + y) NH3 ⟶ [M(NH3)x]+ + [e(NH3)y]–

responsible for blue color
● The blue color is due to ammoniated e– which

absorbs energy in the visible region of light & then
imparts color.
● In concentrated solution the blue color changes to

bronze color and become diamagnetic.
Nature of Carbonate and Bi carbonate Salts
● Except Li2CO3 other metal carbonates do not
decompose even at high temperature due to their high
ionic character.
● Order of Solubility in water:
Li2CO3 < Na2CO3 < K2CO3 < Rb2CO3 < Cs2CO3
● Except LiHCO3, all the alkali metal bicarbonate exist.
● NaHCO3 exist in polymeric form and KHCO3 exist in

dimeric form due to the presence of intermolecular
hydrogen bonding.
Anomalous behavior of Lithium
● Small size of Lithium
● High polarizing power (large charge/size

ratio)
It has high covalent character in its compounds

& hence they are soluble in organic solvent.
Alkaline Earth Metals
● Group 2 elements known as alkaline earth

metals because they form hydroxides on
reaction with water which are strongly
alkaline in nature.
● Electronic Configuration : [noble gas] ns2

Chemical Properties : Reactivity towards Halogens
● Except for Be halides, all are ionic
● Be halides are covalent and soluble

in organic solvents.
ClㅡBeㅡCl monomer
dimer 1200K monomer
Solid ⟶ polymer
Vapour ⟶ dimer
Vapour ⟶ monomor at 1200K
Chemical Properties : Solution in liquid ammonia
All dissolved in liquid ammonia to give deep blue

black solution forming ammoniated ions.
M + (x + 2y) NH3 ⟶ [M(NH3)x]2+ + 2[e(NH3)y]-
[M(NH3)6]2+ can be recovered.

Thermodynamics
First law of thermodynamics
➢ Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed , it

can simply be converted from one form to another.
➢ Internal energy of system remains constant unless

energy is transferred from surrounding in the form
of heat or work.
❏ ΔU = q + W
● Enthalpy of a system is defined as
H = U + PV
So dH = dU + d(PV)
● At constant pressure P, we have heat capacity

qP = n CPΔT
This value is equal to the change in enthalpy, that is,
qP = n CPΔT = ΔH
● Similarly, at constant volume V, we have
qV = n CVΔT
This value is equal to the change in internal energy,
qV = n CVΔT = ΔU
Process Expression for w Expression for q ΔU ΔH Work on PV-graph
Reversible
isothermal 0 0
process
Irreversible
isothermal q = Pext (V2-V1) 0 0
process
Isobaric w = -Pext(V2-V1)
q = ΔH =nCpΔT ΔU = nCVΔT ΔH = nCpΔT
process = - nRΔT
Isochoric
w=0 q = ΔU = nCVΔT ΔU = nCVΔT ΔH = nCpΔT
process
q=0
Reversible PV𝛾 =constant
adiabatic TV 𝛾–1 =constant ΔU = nCVΔT ΔH = nCpΔT
process TP1– 𝛾/𝛾 = constant
Irreversible
adiabatic
process
Polytropic
ΔU = nCVΔT ΔH = nCpΔT
process
Entropy
Measure of the randomness (disorder) of
a system.
Second law of thermodynamics
➢ The entropy of an isolated system / Universe

always tends to increase in a spontaneous process
the entropy of the Universe increases.
For a spontaneous/irreversible process:
ΔS universe = ΔS system + ΔS surroundings > 0
For a reversible process:
ΔS universe = ΔS system + ΔS surroundings = 0

Gibbs Free Energy (G)
G = H - TS
ΔG = ΔH - TΔS (at constant temperature)
-ΔG = useful work done by the system
Criteria for spontaneity

ΔG < 0: Process is spontaneous
ΔG = 0: Process is at equilibrium
ΔG > 0: Process is non spontaneous

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One Shot | Full Syllabus Chemistry Class 11 | PYQs | WB JEE

When students see mole concept questions

❖ Stoichiometry : Calculations of the quantities of reactants and

Mole method (Balancing is required) :

Mole of KClO3 Mole of KCl Mole of O2

Find the mass of O2 that can be obtained from heating 89 g of

Find the mass of O2 that can be obtained from heating 89 g of

2 x 122.5 = 245 2 x 74.5 = 149 g 3 x 32 = 96 g

So, 89 g KClO3 will give

It is like unitary method

❖ Concept of limiting Reagent :

Divide given moles of each reactant by their stoichiometric

(a)For solutions (Homogenous mixture ) :

[ X% by mass means 100g solution contains X gm solute ; ∴ (100-X) gm

● Mole Moles of Solute

(b) (i) On adding solvent in a solution (dilution) :

No. of moles of solute remains constant :

(II) Mixing of two solutions of same solute :

MfVf = M1V1 + M2V2 + . . .

Benzene burns in Oxygen according to the above equation. What is the

Which of the following has the largest number of atoms?

➢ Ephoton = hν = hc/λ = hc⊽ ≅ 1240 eV . nm

No. of molecules reacting

➢ Electrostatic force = Kq1q2 / r2 where k = 1 / 4πεo = 9 × 109 N-m2/C2

➢ Bohr quantization rule mvr = n (h/2π) = n.ħ

q1 = charge of electron , q2 = charge of nucleus , m = mass of electron ,

➢ Energy difference between n1 and n2 energy level :

ΔE = En2 - En1 = 13.6 Z2[1/n12 - 1/n22] eV/atom

➢ Rydberg’s Equation (1/λ) = RH [1/n12 - 1/n22] × Z2

RH ≅ 109700 cm-1 = Rydberg constant

➢ When electrons de-excite from higher energy level(n2) to lower

energy level (n1) in isolated atom , then number of spectral lines

➢ Kinetic energy of photoelectron = hν-w = hν-hνo

➢ The circumference of the nth orbit is equal to n times of wavelength

❖ Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle :

➢ Δx . Δp > h/4π or Δx . Δv > h/ (4π m) or Δx . Δλ > λ2/4π

➢ Principal quantum number (n) : It determine the size of an orbital.

➢ Spin quantum number (ms) : It is intrinsic property of an electron.

❖ Important points on quantum number :

➢ Orbital angular momentum = h/2π [l(l+1)]½

➢ Spin magnetic moment = [n(n+1)]½ B.M.

➢ Maximum number of electrons in a shell = 2n2

➢ Maximum number of electrons in a subshell = 2(2l+1)

➢ Maximum number of electrons in an orbital = 2

❖ Important points on quantum number :

➢ Total number of orbitals in a subshell = 2l + 1

➢ Number of subshells in a shell = n

➢ Number of orbitals in a shell = n2

➢ Total nodes = (n-1)

n + l are different n + l are same

Greater the n+l Greater the n

❖ Experimental gas laws :

Boyle’s Law V ∝ 1/p T & n constant P1V1 = P2V2

Charles's Law V∝ T P & n constant V1/T1 = V2/T2

Gay Lussac’s law P∝ T V & n constant P1/T1 = P2/T2

Avogadro’s law V∝ n T & P constant V1/n1 = V2/n2

❖ Dalton’s law of partial pressure:

❖ Graham’s law of Diffusion or Effusion :