OUTLINE:

By: Mr. Leymar C. Arpon

BSED-SCIENCE (SC2-2)
I. INTRODUCTION

a. Introducing the reporters

ii. PRELIMINARY ACTIVITY

4 PICS ONE WORD

1. PSEUDOPODS
• A pseudopod is an extension of the amoeba's cytoplasm that
function for locomotion. They function like a false foot.
2. Flagellates
• These protozoa use flagella as a means of locomotion.
Flagella
• are long, whip-like structures used for motility.
3. Cilia
• The short, hair-like structures found on the surface of protozoa
re called cilia.
4. AMOEBOIDS
• use their pseudopods to eat.
5. Chromatophores
• are pigment-containing cells that are responsible for
physiological color change.
6. Sporozoa
• are nonmotile, meaning that they are not able to move by
themselves

II. TRIVIA
• Did you know that the term protozoa mean "first Animals"?
 VI. ORIGIN OF PROTOZOA
• The animals included in phylum Protozoa can be defined as
microscopic and a cellular animalcules without tissues and organs.
They have one or more nuclei. Protozoa exist either singly or in
colonies. Almost about 50,000 species are known till date. Anton Van
Leeuwenhoek was the first to observe protozoa (Vorticella convellaria)
under a microscope. He called them animalcules. Gold fuss coined the
term Protozoa which in Greek means first animals (Proto= first;
zoans=animals). Hyman and other zoologists preferred to call them as
acellular animals. The body of protozoans is unicellular. They are
generally referred to as acellular rather than unicellular as the so called
single cell performs all the life activities. Though it is structurally
equivalent to a single cell of the metazoan body, it is functionally
equivalent to the whole metazoan animals.
V. DEFINITION OF PROTOZOA
• Protozoa are unicellular mostly microscopic organisms and are classified
under sub kingdom protozoa of the kingdom protista.
• Protozoa are eukaryotic cells having a distinct nucleus as well as
endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus, mitochondria etc. in the cytoplasm.
• According to Levine (1985) about 65,000 species of protozoa have so per
been named of which mostly are free leaving. Nearly 7000 protozoan sp.
are parasitic both in vertebrate and invertebrate animals.
• Those parasitic protozoa which infect domesticated animals and birds &
those, which are zoonotic are important to us.
• Literally, 'Proto' means first and 'zoan' means animals – first animal life
which appear in this universe. The flagellates are the most primitive form of
animal life and the ciliates are the most highly organized form of protozoa

VI. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

Habitat
 • Free-living protozoa. Those that live in stagnant or residual
waters, in rivers or in other natural spaces and are generally
harmless to humans, except in very specific conditions.
• Pathogenic protozoa. Those that must infect or penetrate the
bodies of more complex beings to fulfill their life cycle, and that
make their habitat in.

Size and Shape

• They are small, usually microscopic, not visualize without
a microscope.
• The body is unicellular (without tissue and organs).
• Body shape variables may be spherical, oval, elongated or
flattened
• The size and shape of Protozoa vary greatly, from microbial (1µm)
to large enough and can be seen by the naked eye. The shell of
unicellular foraminifera can have a diameter of 20 cm.
• They lack a rigid cell wall, so they are flexible and found in various
shapes. Cells are enclosed in a thin plasma membrane. Some of
the species have a hard shell on the outer surface. In some of the
protozoans especially in ciliates, the cell is supported
by Pellicle, which may be flexible or rigid and give organisms the
definite shape and help in locomotion.

Cellular Structure
• They mostly have one membrane-bound nucleus in the cell
• The nucleus has diffused appearance due to scattered chromatin, the
vesicular nucleus contains a central body called endosome or nucleoli.
Nucleoli of apicomplexans have DNA, whereas amoeboids lack DNA in
their endosome
• Ciliates have micronucleus and macronucleus
 • The plasma membrane encloses the cytoplasm and other locomotory
projections like flagella, pseudopodia and cilia
• Some of the genera have a membranous envelope called pellicle, which
gives a definite shape to the cell. In some of the protozoans, epibiotic
bacteria attach to the pellicle by their fimbriae
• The cytoplasm is differentiated into outer ectoplasm and inner endoplasm,
ectoplasm is transparent and endoplasm contains cell organelles
• Some of the protozoa have cytostome for ingesting food. Food vacuoles
are present, where ingested food comes. Ciliates have a gullet, a body
cavity which opens outside
• The central vacuole is present for osmoregulation, that removes excess
water
• Membrane-bound cell organelles, like mitochondria, Golgi bodies,
lysosomes and other specialised structures are present

Nutrition
• In case of protozoa nutrition are of three types: holophytic,
holozoic (phagotrophic ) and saprozoic.
• Holophytic Protozoa are those synthesize carbohydrate with the
help of chlorophyll carried in chromatophores and in the presence
of light. They are free living protozoa (phyto flaqellates)
• Holozoic protozoa utilized preformed food material either by
pseudopodia or through a permanent opening called cytostome.
Pseudopodia encircle solid particles and enclose them in the
cytoplasm inside food vacuoles into which digestive enzyme
secreted .
• Saprozoic protozoa absorb organic food material dissolved in
solution through the general surface of the body by diffusion.
LOCOMOTION
– Locomotor structures are specializations allowing cells to travel through their
environment as a means of dispersing, locating food sources or escaping potential
predators.
• Cilia – cilia (singular = cilium) are short, hair-like structures found on the
surfaces of protozoa called ciliates (phylum Ciliophora).
• Cilia can be distributed more or less uniformly all over the cell surface, can
occur in rows or patches, or be grouped together in tufts.
• Most cilia are used for swimming and allow ciliates to move smoothly
through their watery habitats, some provide a jumping motility, and cilia
arranged in tufts called cirri allow cells to walk or jump along solid surfaces
• Flagella – flagella (singular = flagellum) are long, whip-like structures found
on the surfaces of many eukaryotic cells. Some cells such as those in the
genus Trypanosoma have a single flagellum enclosed in a double layer of
membrane running the length of the organism in a fin-like manner.
• Flagella are usually ness numerous than cilia and are often used to pull
cells through their environments.
• Pseudopodia – Pseudopodia or false feet (singular = pseudopodium) are
extensions of the protoplasm associated with amoeba-like organisms.
• Pseudopodia typically form in a flowing fashion, and allow amoeba-like
organisms to creep slowly along solid surfaces. Some extend through holes
in glass skeletons like a multitude of spokes radiating from spherical
wheels.

LIFE CYCLE
• Life cycle stages – Protozoa often live in habitats subject to change due
to climate and seasons, while some live parts of their lives inside different
types of hosts. To survive variations in living conditions, protozoa can switch
between two different stages.
 • Trophozoites – Trophozoites (troph = activity), are active protozoa
sometimes called vegetative cells. While in their trophozoite form, protozoa
are engaged in feeding, reproducing and moving about actively. Vernal
pools, i.e., those filled with water during the spring, contain many
trophozoites. As the weather warms up and pools dry out in the summer
sun, the protozoa go into a resting state.
• Cysts – Cysts are dormant structures produced by many types of protozoa
under certain circumstances. They are metabolically inactive and much
more resistant to heat, drying, radiation and chemicals than are
trophozoites (active vegetative cells).
• Cysts allow protozoa to survive when their watery habitats dry out during
summer months or freeze solid during the winter. They also allow
gastrointestinal parasites to survive passage through the stomach without
being damaged by stomach acids
REPRODUCTION

• Protozoan Reproduction – Protozoa like fungi and algae can reproduce

themselves both asexually and sexually. There are many variations on
these basic themes, but some of the most commonly encountered forms
of reproduction are introduced below.

A. Asexual reproduction – Asexual reproductive processes allow individuals

to reproduce without interacting with other cells. In eukaryotic organisms,
asexual reproduction requires mitosis (the separation of the chromosome)
and cytokinesis (the separation of the cytoplasm forming new daughter
cells).

• Binary fission – Binary fission is a process involving the separation of

the cytoplasm across the long axis of the cell. Most protozoa reproduce
by binary fission.
 • Schizogony – Schizogony or multiple-fission is a process involving the
splitting of one cell into many daughter cells. Sporozoans in the genus
Plasmodium reproduce by means of schizogony while inside human
RBCs.

• Budding – Budding involves an unequal division of the protoplasm and

results in the formation of a bud at the margin of a cell. If conditions are
favorable, the bud will grow and eventually separate from the cell, but if
conditions are poor, the bud may die with little consequence to the cell.

• Sexual reproduction – In order to reproduce sexually, protozoa must

interact with other, genetically different cells. Sometimes this involves
plasmogamy, karyogamy and meiosis, but not always, and these terms
are rarely used in zoology texts. Two examples of sexual reproduction
include:

• Syngamy – Syngamy involves the fusion of two haploid cells to form a

diploid zygote. Protozoa in the genus Plasmodium undergo syngamy
while inside mosquitoes.

• Conjugation – Conjugation requires that two cells with different genetic

content meet and position themselves side-by-side. Portions of the cell
membranes fuse allowing the formation of a cytoplasmic bridge, and
then segments of genetic material (DNA) are exchanged between the
two cells. Following conjugation, the cells separate again, but each one
is now carrying a new combination of genetic material
RESPIRATION
• Two types - aerobic or anaerobic according to the availability of oxygen.
Aerobic respiration occurs in case of malaria parasite, Leishmania
organisms Eimerian oocysts & some trypanosomes.

EXCREATION
 • The metabolic waste products are eliminated by diffusion through the body
surface membrane or by contractile vacuole.

Protective Structures
– Protozoa live in potentially dangerous environments, and have evolved a variety of
protective structures that help them survive.
Pellicle – The pellicle is a tough, flexible layer found outside the cell membrane on all
types of ciliated protozoa. It helps provide the cell with a characteristic shape and
protects it against physical damage.
Skeletons – The skeletons of protozoa are usually made of glass (silica dioxide) or
calcium carbonate. Radiolaria have glass skeletons perforated with numerous holes
allowing pseudopodia to extend out through them. Foraminifera have skeletons of
calcium carbonate that resemble the shells of mollusks (e.g., the chambered nautilus).
Skeletons provide protection against predation and also support the protoplasm.
Trichocysts – Trichocysts are dart-like structures that can be shot out from certain
cells. They are made of protein, are often barbed and attached to the cell surface by
microscopic threads. Trichocysts are released in response to chemical and/or physical
stimuli and may be used for defense or attachment

Food gathering structures

– Structures involved in food gathering activities are often those used for locomotion,
including cilia, flagella and pseudopodia. In addition to these are structures involved in
ingestion and digestion of foods. Many protozoa are holozoic, i.e., organisms that take
in whole organisms for food. They have no means of biting off small portions of their
prey as would large, multicellular animals.
a) Cytostome – The cytostome or cell mouth (cyto = cell, stoma = mouth) is a region
on the surface of a cell where endocytosis can occur. Ciliated protozoa such as
Paramecium can take in food only through their cytostome because the rest of the cell
is covered by a tough pellicle.
b) Lysosomes – Lysosomes contain the digestive enzymes needed to break down
food materials taken in through endocytosis.
 c) Cilia and flagella can sweep food along the cell surface toward the cytostome and
sometimes line a region of the cell called an oral funnel or oral groove. d) Pseudopodia
– Amoeba-like protozoa use their pseudopodia to capture food by extending them out
and around the food and fusing them to form food vacuoles
VII. TYPES OF PROTOZOA
AMOEBOIDS
• Amoeba locomotion occurs through pseudopods. Basically, amoebas extend
their cytoplasm outward and use pseudopods to grip and pull themselves in a
specific direction. Every time it wants to move, it changes shape!
• Amoebas also use their pseudopods to eat. They do this by surrounding a
substance using its pseudopods and then dragging it into the food vacuole for
digestion. This feeding mechanism is called Phagocytosis.
FLAGELLATES
• Another type of protozoa is flagellate protozoa. These protozoa use flagella as
a means of locomotion. Some flagellates may have more than one flagellum.
• phytoflagellates. Zooflagellates are heterotrophic and use Phagocytosis (like
amoebas) to obtain nutrients. Phytoflagellates are autotrophic, and they can
obtain nutrients via Photosynthesis.

Flagellates also contain the following structures:

• An elastic layer outside the cell membrane called a pellicle.

• Chloroplast organelles containing chlorophyll (only present in zooflagellates).
• Nucleus
• An eye-sensitive pigmented spot called eye spot

Ciliates

• Ciliates have two nuclei present: a macronucleus and a micronucleus.

The macronucleus is responsible for handling mostly all cell functions,
except for functions related to Reproduction. The micronucleus, on the
 other hand, contains the Genes that will be passed on to the offspring
during reproduction.

• Ciliated protozoa are able to ingest solid pieces of food through a small
mouth structure called a cytostome.

VII. CLASSIFICATION & MEDICALLY IMPORTANT

a. Subphylum Sarcomastigophora
• we have protozoans that contain pseudopodia or flagella as their locomotor
organelle. They do not form spores and have a single nucleus. Inside this
phylum.There are three superclasses: Mastigophora, Opalinata,
and Sarcodina.
Mastigosphora
• Flagellates are commonly found in the superclass Mastigosphora. They are
mostly free-living, but some can be parasitic. They can be autotrophs
and/or Heterotrophs.

Two Classes Mastigophora:

• Protozoa of the class phytomastigophorea contain chlorophyll-bearing

chromatophores, a vesicular nucleus, and usually one or two flagella.

• The class zoomastigophorea, no chlorophyll or chromatophores are

present. They are mostly parasitic

Opalinata
• we have protozoans with cilia-like organelles and two or more
monomorphic nuclei present. They are all parasitic and tend to infect
frogs and toads.

Sarcodina
 • These protozoans contain pseudopodia, meaning that the amoeboid
form is predominant. In this superclass, there are three
classes: rhizopodea, actinopodea, and piroplasmea.
b. Protozoa subphylum Sporozoa
• Protozoa in the class telosporea lack pseudopodia, but are able to move by
gliding or body flexion. They contain spores and are able to reproduce both
sexually and asexually. Now, protozoa in the class toxoplasmea contain no
spores, flagella, or pseudopodia. Also, they can only reproduce asexually. In
the class haplosporea, we have protozoa that contain spores, and
pseudopodia may also be present.
c. Protozoa subphylum Cnidospora
• Protozoa in the subphylum cnidospora, we have protozoa that contain spores
and are all parasitic. In the class myxosporidea, the spores are large, and
they usually infect fish (fish parasites). On the other hand, those in the
class microsporidea have small spores and are intracellular parasites of
arthropods and vertebrates.
d. Protozoa subphylum Ciliophora
• Lastly, we have the subphylum ciliophora. In this subphylum, protozoa have
simple ciliary organelles for locomotion, two nuclei (macronucleus and
micronucleus), and heterotrophic nutrition.

X. ASSESSMENT
• Matching Type test
• Identification

References:
I.B.Sc- ZoologyEM-18UZO1-Dr.T.PRABU.pdf (hhrc.ac.in)
Protozoa- Definition, Characteristics, Classification, Examples (microbenotes.com)

Lecture-1.pdf (ndvsu.org)

Lecture 2 (kau.edu.sa)

Protozoa | What is microbiology? | Microbiology Society

Protozoa: Structure, Classification, Growth, and Development - Medical Microbiology - NCBI Bookshelf
(nih.gov)

What is Protozoa? - Classification, Characteristics, Examples and Diseases Caused by Protozoa (byjus.com)

Types of Protozoa: Structure & Examples | StudySmarter