5.

1 Site Investigation Methods and Techniques

(MEMBER: JEANNINE, RAYZEL, CRISTINE)

o Site Investigation

(REPORTER: When we're planning to build something, like a building or a road, we need to
make sure the ground where we want to build is suitable. This process is called a site
investigation. We look at what's on and below the surface to understand if it's good for
construction. This helps us design things better and avoid problems later on.)

PPT: Site investigation, also known as site exploration or site assessment, is a systematic
process of examining the ground conditions at a specific location where construction or
development is planned. It involves gathering information about the geological, hydrological,
and environmental characteristics of the site to assess its suitability for the proposed purpose
(Hudson, J.A. (2001). Site Investigation. (WITH PICTURE PLS)

(REPORTER: In simpler terms, site investigation is like doing a thorough check-up of the land
before you start building anything on it.)

PPT:

o 3 STAGES OF SITE INVESTIGATION

1. desk study

2. preliminary reconnaissance

3. site exploration

1. DESK STUDY

● A desk study is undertaken as the first stage of a site investigation in order to make an
initial assessment of the ground conditions and to identify, if possible, any potential
geotechnical problems (Herbert et al., 1987).
● This study involves looking at records, maps, and other information about the area to get
a basic idea of what's there before going out to the site.

(REPORTER: It's like doing homework to understand what the ground is like and if there are any
potential problems. If the project is small and the ground seems simple, this desk study might
not take too long. But for bigger projects, it can save time and money by helping plan the field
investigation better.)

2. PRELIMINARY RECONNAISSANCE

● The preliminary reconnaissance is like taking a walk around the site before starting any
building work. (REPORTER: During this walk, we look at different things depending on
what the site is like and what we're planning to build.)
● This includes checking out the soil and rocks, the shape of the land, how water drains
away, any areas that might have landslides, and if there are any obstacles or things that
might get in the way. (REPORTER: The main goal of this walk is to see if the site is
suitable for what we want to build. If it looks good, then we can start planning more
detailed investigations. This walk also helps us double-check the information we found
during the desk study.)

2.1. REMOTE SENSING

● Remote sensing involves the identification and analysis of phenomena on Earth's

surface using devices on aircraft or spacecraft.
● Techniques rely on recording energy from the electromagnetic spectrum, ranging from
gamma rays to radio waves.

TYPES OF REMOTE SENSING SYSTEMS

1. Infrared Linescan (IRLS)

● Utilizes emitted electromagnetic radiation from objects, crucial for interpreting
thermal imagery.
● Differentiates between warm (light tones) and cool (dark tones) areas on
surfaces.
● Depicts relative temperatures, influenced by factors like thermal inertia and
moisture content.
2. Side-Looking Airborne Radar (SLAR)
● Transmits short energy pulses sideways to the ground, then records reflected
pulses as black-and-white photographs.
● Offers mosaics for identifying geological features and terrain units.
● Provides stereoscopic images for detailed terrain assessment, unaffected by
cloud cover.

APPLICATIONS OF REMOTE SENSING

1. Regional Physiographic Setting

● Satellite imagery covers large ground areas, aiding in identifying landforms and
geological features.
● Enables geomorphological studies and terrain classification for various
applications like route selection and groundwater studies.
 2. Engineering Soil Maps
● Important for planning and construction projects to assess ground conditions
and minimize costs.
● Helps in identifying soil types, erosion patterns, and drainage characteristics.
3. High-Resolution Surveys
● Advances in satellite imagery resolution support mapping for geological
exploration, geomorphology, and geohazard identification.
● Airborne surveys using sensors like LIDAR and radar provide detailed digital
terrain models for mapping ground elevation changes.
4. Permanent Scatterer Interferometry (PSInSAR)
● Uses radar data from satellites to detect millimeter-scale ground movements
over time.
● Utilizes natural reflectors for accurate displacement mapping, crucial for
monitoring geological shifts and infrastructure stability.

TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCEMENTS

1. Thematic Mapper (TM) and Multi-Spectral Scanner (MSS)

● Improved satellite imaging systems offering higher resolution and spectral
capabilities.
● TM bands processed for various applications, including geological mapping and
environmental monitoring.
2. Laser and Radar Sensors
● Airborne platforms equipped with LIDAR and radar sensors for high-resolution
terrain modeling.
● Enables precise mapping of ground elevation changes and geological features.

2.2 AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS

● Aerial photographs provide valuable information about terrain and geological features.
● They assist in dividing areas into topographical and geological units, aiding in fieldwork
planning and sampling site selection.

Digitization and Processing

● Aerial photographs are being digitized and distributed on CD-ROMs, compatible with
desktop computers and image processing software.
● Orthophotographs, which are digitally processed to remove radial distortion, offer
consistent scale and usability similar to maps.

Stereoscopic Analysis and Topographic Mapping

● Stereoscopic examination of consecutive pairs of aerial photographs allows for 3D

visualization of the ground surface.
● Enables determination of heights and drawing of contours, leading to the production of
topographic maps.
 ● Relief exaggeration in stereoscopic images aids in detecting minor slope and elevation
changes, although it may pose challenges in mountainous regions.

Digital Photogrammetry and DEMs

● Digital photogrammetric methods utilize digital images and computers to derive Digital
Elevation Models (DEMs).
● Automation in the measurement process offers advantages in efficiency and accuracy.

TYPES OF AERIAL FILM

● Four main types of film used in aerial photography: black and white, infrared
monochrome, true color, and false color. Each type serves specific purposes, with;
1. BLACK AND WHITE FILM
● commonly used for topographic surveying.
2. INFRARED MONOCHROME FILM
● is effective for mapping water bodies, shorelines, and detecting water beneath
vegetation.
3. TRUE COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY
● provides refined imagery, advantageous for photo geological interpretation.
4. FALSE COLOR PHOTOGRAPHY
● often using infrared, enhances the identification of geological features, water
content variations, and vegetation changes.

● like using aerial photographs or satellite images, is really helpful during this stage too.
(REPORTER: They give us a bird's-eye view of the site and help us gather more data
without having to physically explore every inch.)

1.1. Site Exploration – Direct Methods

1.2. In Situ Testing

1.3. Field Instrumentation

5.2 Geophysical Investigations
(MEMBER: ROLAND, RAYZEL, BRYAN)

o Introduction

- ROLAND B. LAGO
o Classification of Geophysical Method
● Surface Method
1. Ground-Penetrating Radar (GPR) Method
2. Electrical Methods
● Electromagnetic Method
● Resistivity Methods
3. Seismic Methods
● Seismic Refraction
● Seismic Reflection
4. Gravity Method

5. Magnetic Method
 ● Subsurface Method

1. Nuclear Logs

● Natural Gamma Log

● Gamma–Gamma (Density) Log
● Neutron–Neutron (Porosity) Log

2. Non-Nuclear Logs

● Induction Log
● Resistivity Log
● Resistance Log
● Spontaneous-Potential Log
● Temperature Log
● Active Method
● Passive Method

o Identification of a Fold in Field and Importance

5.3 Geological Conditions for Construction
(MEMBER: JEANNINE, ROLAND, CRISTINE, BRYAN)

1. Open Excavation

❖ This simply refers to digging a hole or trench in the ground for construction
purposes.

(REPORTER: It's like when you dig a hole in the sand at the beach, but on a larger scale
and for building things like houses, roads, or bridges. When we excavate, we're taking
out materials like soil, rocks, or other substances from the ground.)

❖ There are limits to how much dig in a certain area, and these limits need to be
followed to ensure safety and compliance with regulations.

(REPORTER: Before digging, it's crucial to understand what's beneath the surface.)

❖ This involves studying the type of rocks and soil in the area and how they're
arranged.

( REPORTER: This helps us figure out the best way to dig without causing problems like
collapse or landslides.)

❖ Digging holes and trenches build strong foundations, lay pipes, and create
underground spaces, making construction projects possible and safe.

1.1 Slope Stability

 ➢ In simple terms, slope stability means how likely a hill or slope is to stay in place
without collapsing or sliding.

(REPORTER: In open excavation, like digging for roads or canals, it's super important
because digging can weaken nearby slopes, making them likely to collapse.)

➢ Engineers study slope stability to figure out if a slope will stay safe.

(REPORTER: They look at things like soil strength, cracks in the ground, and water
pressure. When digging in rocky areas, they need to understand how the rocks are
cracked and how strong they are to design stable slopes.)

1.2 Excavations in Rocks and Soils

(REPORTER: In simple words, when we're digging in certain types of rocks like granite or
gabbro, we can leave the sides of the hole nearly straight up and down because these
rocks are strong. But in rocks like basalt or andesite, which have layers and cracks, we
need to make the slopes less steep because they're more likely to collapse.)

➢ Different types of soil or rock need different slope angles to stay stable when we
dig into them. For example, sand can have steeper slopes, while clay needs
flatter ones.

(REPORTER: We have to be careful when digging in clay because it can swell or soften,
making the sides of the hole unstable.)

1.3 Methods of Excavation

● Drilling and Blasting

● Ripping
● Digging

1.4 Groundwater and Excavation

1.5 Methods of Slope Control and Stabilization

2. Tunnels and Tunnelling

2.1 Geological Conditions and Tunnelling

2.2 Tunneling in Soft Ground

 2.2.1 Types of soft ground:

2.3 Water in Tunnels

2.4 Gasses in Tunnels

2.5 Temperatures in Tunnels

2.6 Excavation of Tunnels

2.7 Analysis of Tunnel Support

3. Underground Caverns

4. Shafts and Raises

5. Reservoirs

5.1 Investigation of Reservoir Sites

5.2 Leakage from Reservoirs

5.3 Stability of the Sides of Reservoirs

5.4 Sedimentation in Reservoirs

6. Dams and Dam Sites

6.1 Geology and Dam Sites

6.2 Construction Materials for Earth Dams

6.3 River Diversion

6.4 Ground Improvement

7. Highways

7.1 Soil Stabilization and Road Construction

7.2 The Use of Geotextiles in Road Construction

7.3 Embankments

7.4 Reinforced Earth

8. Railroads

9. Bridges

10. Foundations for Buildings

10.1 Types of Foundation Structure

Foundation Design Essentials

● Foundation design involves calculating loads transmitted to the supporting soil

or rock, assessing soil engineering properties, and designing appropriate
foundation structures.

Footings

● Footings distribute loads over a sufficient area to suit soil properties.

● Spread or pad footings support single columns, while strip or continuous
footings support walls.
● Settlement of footings depends on base dimensions, soil compressibility, and
permeability.
● Economical but require adequate bearing capacity and factor of safety against
shear failure.

Raft Foundations

● Rafts spread building loads over a large area, minimizing bearing pressure.
 ● Provide rigidity to reduce differential movements in the superstructure.
● Settlement depends on the difference between building weight and soil removed
prior to construction.

Pile Foundations

● Used when soil beneath a structure is weak or compressible.

● Transfers loads to deeper, more suitable material.
● Divided into displacement, small-displacement, and non-displacement piles
based on installation effects.
● End bearing and friction contribute to carrying capacity, with friction predominant
in clays and silts.

Installation Considerations

● Driving displacement piles may cause soil heave or compaction, affecting nearby
structures.
● Small-displacement piles suitable for soft alluvial ground but not stiff clays or
gravels.
● Non-displacement piles formed by boring, with or without casing left in place.

Ultimate Bearing Capacity

● Ultimate bearing capacity defined as load causing 10% settlement of pile

diameter.
● Settlement of pile foundation influenced by number of piles and compressibility
of soil between pile tips and bedrock surface.

10.2 Bearing Capacity

Foundation Design

● Foundation design ensures structural movements remain within acceptable

limits.
● Requires understanding local geological, groundwater conditions, and potential
ground movements.

Ultimate Bearing Capacity and Factor of Safety

 ● Foundation pressures must have an adequate factor of safety against shear
failure.
● Ultimate bearing capacity is the maximum loading intensity causing shear failure.
● Factor of safety applied to ultimate bearing capacity yields maximum safe
bearing capacity.
● Allowable bearing capacity considers all ground movement possibilities and is
less than safe bearing capacity.

Factors Influencing Ultimate Bearing Capacity

● Foundation dimensions, shape, and depth influence bearing capacity.

● Bearing capacity affected by soil properties; wider foundations increase capacity
in sands.
● Uniform soil conditions increase bearing capacity with depth due to confining
effects and decreased overburden pressure.

Stages of Foundation Failure

● Three stages of foundation failure:

❖ wedge formation
❖ radial shear zone
❖ local shear zones.
● Failure mode depends on soil compressibility and rigidity.

Passive Zone and Bearing Capacity

● Passive zone's resistance is crucial for bearing capacity against uplift.

● Size of passive zone, soil properties, and sliding resistance affect bearing
capacity.

Pressure Distribution and Contact Pressure

● Contact pressure varies across the foundation; no uniform distribution.

● Clay yields under load, reducing stress at edges; dry sand imposes parabolic
pressure distribution.
● Flexible footings distribute uniform load over any foundation material.

Bearing Capacity in Different Soil Types

● Ultimate bearing capacity varies with foundation type and soil properties.
● Groundwater levels influence bearing capacity, with high levels reducing effective
stress.
 ● Plate load tests or penetration tests used for estimating bearing capacity in soils.
● Settlement likely in loosely packed sands.

Bearing Capacity in Clay Soils

● Clay bearing capacity is influenced by shear strength and foundation shapes.

● Saturated clays behave cohesively under load, with excess pore water pressures.

Factors of Safety and Settlement

● Adequate factors of safety essential against bearing capacity failure.

● Settlement estimation crucial for proper foundation design.
● Excessive settlement may necessitate layout or foundation type changes.

Considerations for Foundations on Rock

● Rock mass defects affect allowable contact pressure.

● Weathering and jointing influences rock strength and behavior.
● Depth to bedrock and degree of weathering crucial for design decisions.
● Piles provide support in weathered rock masses.

10.3 Settlement

10.4 Subsidence

10.5 Methods of ground treatment