Science Revision

Table of Contents:
Important Terms.

The Nervous system.

Reflex Arc.

The Endocrine System.

Glands.

The Excretory System.

Osmoregulation maintaining water balance.

Negative feedback

Parts of the (Control centre).

Location of Kidney Parts.

Important Terms.
Homeostasis: Homeostasis refers to the body ability to maintain a stable internal
environment. Regulating stable hormones, body temp, and water balance to ensure survival.
Maintaining homeostasis requires that the body continuously monitors its internal conditions.

Negative Feedback: receptors in the body provide information to the brain. If the internal
environment of the body is detected to have changed, the brain causes a response, either
nervous or endocrine or both. This brings the body back to equilibrium.

Metabolism: the chemical reactions in the body’s cells that change food into energy.

The Different Systems:

The Nervous system.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS):
- Autonomic nervous system:
 o Definition: a component of the peripheral nervous system that regulates
involuntary physiologic processes including heart rate, blood pressure,
respiration, digestion, and sexual arousal.
- Somatic nervous system:
o Definition: The somatic system includes the nerves that transmit motor and
sensory information to and from the CNS.
Central nervous system:
o Definition: it consists of the brain and the spinal cord receiving, processing,
and responding to sensory information.

There are three types of neurons in the nervous system.

Sensory neurons: Which carry the impulse generated by the stimulus to the central
nervous system.

Interneurons: which carry the impulse through the central nervous system.
Motor neurons: which take the impulse to effectors such as muscles or glands.
What are the functions of the nervous system?
1. Detects change in the internal and external environment (receptors).
2. Sends messages to the central nervous system (sensory neurons).
3. Processes messages and determines how to respond to change (the central flow of
the nervous system).
4. Sends messages from the central nervous system to effectors (motor neurons).

What is in the nervous system?

The nervous system is made up of the brain, spinal cord, and a complex network of nerves.

Reflex Arc.
Steps in a reflex arc:

1. Receptors pick up a signal.

2. Signal travels up sensory neuron to spinal cord.
3. Interneurons in the spinal cord
direct the signal to the
motor nerve.
4. Motor nerve triggers
effector clenching muscle.
The 6 key steps:
Stimulus  Sensory  brain (interneurons)  motor neuron  effector  response

Example:
A person about to touch a hot candle with their index finger – the stimulus which is the hot
candle (heat) is detected by the sensory neurons as pain shoots on the finger, which is then
transmitted to the spinal cord through the interneurons which goes to the brain and the motor
nerve, when the motor nerve gets the signal it triggers the effector clenching the muscle
resulting in the pull back of the finger.

The Endocrine System.

The endocrine system works together with the nervous system to control and coordinate a
range of important body responses such as:
1. Growth and development
2. Metabolism
3. Reproduction (sexual hormones)
4. Response to stimuli (stress, trauma, or injury)
5. Homeostasis (maintaining internal balance in the body)
The endocrine system is made of many different glands, each gland releases different
hormones.

Hormones:
Definition: A regulatory substance produced in an organism and transported in tissue fluids
such as blood or sap to stimulate specific cells or tissues into action.
Examples: estrogen, adrenaline, testosterone, insulin, oxytocin, cortisol

Functions and locations:

Hormone Location Function
Insulin Pancreas Decreased blood sugar level by converting glucose into
glycogen
Anti-diuretic Pituitary Manage water and salt levels through osmoregulation
hormone gland
(ADH)
Glucagon Pancreas Increase blood sugar levels by converting glycogen in
glucose
Adrenaline and Adrenal Adrenalines prepare body for the fight or flight response by
 noradrenaline making you more alert, noradrenaline has the opposite effect
to adrenaline.
Thyroxine Thyroid Regulate metabolism rate.
Melatonin Pineal Regulate sleep by controlling the circadian cycle of sleep.
gland And heart rate.

The Hypothalamus sends hormones which are like chemical messages to the Pituitary
Gland which controls many other endocrine glands – telling them to release their hormones.
What are hormones?
- Hormones are the chemical messengers of the endocrine system.
- When hormones are released, they travel through the bloodstream until they reach the
target cells, which stimulates the target cells to carry out a specific response.
- Each hormone is unique and is designed to target specific cells or organs in the body.

The different glands and organs that make up the endocrine system
1. The brain, contains a sensitive centre called the hypothalamus, which control the
pituitary gland.
2. Thyroid gland, produces thyroxine which controls the rate of metabolism.
3. Adrenal glands, produce adrenaline which prepares the body for rapid activity by
increasing the heart rate and level of sugar in blood and diverting blood to muscles
and brain.
4. Pancreas, produces insulin which controls blood sugar level.
5. Testes, produce testosterone which causes the changes at puberty and stimulates
sperm production.
6. Ovaries, produces oestrogen which causes changes at puberty and helps control the
menstrual cycle.

Glands.
Hypothalamus Master gland, it acts as your body's smart control coordinating centre. Its
main function is to keep your body in a stable state called homeostasis. It
does its job by directly influencing your autonomic nervous system or by
managing hormones.
Pituitary It regulates growth, metabolism, and reproduction through the hormones
that it produces. The production of these hormones is either stimulated or
inhibited by chemical messages sent from the hypothalamus to the
pituitary. The posterior lobe produces two hormones, vasopressin, and
oxytocin.
 Thyroid The thyroid gland is a vital endocrine (hormone-producing) gland. It
plays a major role in chemical reactions in the body (our metabolism), as
well as our growth and development. When the body temperature is too
low, the hypothalamus stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroxine
which increases the metabolism (heats up the body), and when the body
temperature is too high, the hypothalamus inhibits the thyroid gland to
produce thyroxine which increases the metabolism (cools down the
body).
Parathyroids The parathyroid hormone regulates the amount of different minerals in
the body – calcium, magnesium, and phosphorus.
Adrenals Adrenal glands, also known as suprarenal glands, are small, triangular-
shaped glands located on top of both kidneys. Adrenal glands produce
hormones that help regulate your metabolism, immune system, blood
pressure, response to stress and other essential functions.
Pineal body pineal gland's main job is to help control the circadian cycle of sleep and
wakefulness by secreting melatonin.
Ovaries Produce eggs for fertilization and they make the hormones estrogen and
progesterone
Testes The testes are responsible for making sperm and are also involved in
producing a hormone called testosterone.

The Excretory System.

What is Excretion? The excretory system has two main functions:
1. Removal of toxic materials, the waste products of metabolism and excess materials.
2. Regulation of the volume and composition of body fluids also referred to as
osmoregulation.

What materials are Excreted?

- Excess proteins or amino acids are broken down to produce nitrogen waste called
urea.
- Carbon dioxide, heat and water from respiration.
Kidney is the main organ that plays a large role in water balance. They act like filters,
removing urea. The urea becomes dilated with water and is called urine.
What is excreted? From where…
- Your lungs excrete carbon dioxide and water as you breath out.
- Your skin sheds excess salt through sweat.
- Your gastrointestinal tract excretes water, bacteria, cellulose, fats and more in the
form of “poo”.
The endocrine and excretory system work together to balance water and salt levels in the
body – this is referred to as osmoregulation.
Osmoregulation: is the process by which internal water and solute concentration are
maintained.
The role of kidneys is removal of nitrogenous wastes, regulation of water concentration in
blood. Maintaining ion levels in the blood, such as sodium chloride.
Key words, metabolism, urea, kidneys, renal arteries, bladder, urethra, ureter, renal
vein, excreted.
Excretory products: Soluble vitamins, nitrogen waste, mineral salts, bile salts and pigments,
carbon dioxide and water, excess water.
Parts of a kidney
- Renal artery: brings blood to the kidneys, contains waste products.
- Renal vein: takes blood away from the kidneys, purified blood.
- Convoluted tubules: reabsorption of useful substances happens here, including
glucose, most water, and some salts.
- Bowman’s capsule: This is where filtration takes place, the filtrate contains useable &
waste products.
- Collecting duct: It collects urine from nephrons and transports it to the pelvis.

Osmoregulation maintaining water balance.

- The feedback mechanism for the maintenance of water balance is determined by the
osmotic pressure of the blood.
- When the receptors are stimulated, the hypothalamus sends a message to the pituitary
gland which releases an antidiuretic hormone (ADH) (Made in the hypothalamus) into
the bloodstream.
- ADH is carried to the kidney, where it increases the permeability of cells lining the
collecting ducts.

Negative feedback
Thermoregulation:
- Control of the body temperature is called thermoregulation.
- The hypothalamus contains thermoreceptors that detect the temperature of the blood
as it flows through the bloodstream.
 - If the body temperature increases or decreases beyond a certain range, messages from
thermoreceptors in the skin or hypothalamus trigger the hypothalamus to send
messages to the appropriate effectors to decrease or increase the temperature of the
body.

Process of negative feedback loop:

A negative feedback loop is when the body continually tries to maintain a
certain set point of a narrow range value for the best function of our cell, when a
stimulus changes this value, the nervous system will detect an imbalance, then it
will send a message to the endocrine system to restore homeostasis. our body
will take measures to move it back to the set range usually through the
endocrine system.
Stimulus  Sensor  Control  Effector.

Example:
1.
Stimulus – Low blood glucose level.
Receptor – Chemoreceptors.
Control – Brain - Hypothalamus.
Effector – Pancreas.
Response – Release of glucagon.
2.
Stimulus – Cold environment.
Receptor – Thermoreceptors under the skin.
Control – Hypothalamus.
Effector – Thyroid.
Response – Release of thyroxine which increases in metabolism rate.

Parts of the (Control centre).

1. Cerebrum
initiates and coordinates movement and regulates
temperature. Other areas of the cerebrum enable
speech, judgment, thinking and reasoning, problem-
solving, emotions and learning. Other functions
 relate to vision, hearing, touch and other senses.
2. Cerebellum
muscle control, including balance and movement. It
also plays a role in other cognitive functions such as
language processing and memory.
3. Thalamus
sensation, movement, motivated behaviours, and
consciousness. It has a role in relaying motor and
sensory information from various locations to the
cerebral cortex.
4. Hypothalamus
acts as your body's smart control coordinating
centre. Its main function is to keep your body in a
stable state called homeostasis. It does its job by
directly influencing your autonomic nervous system
or by managing hormones.
5. Brain stem
Breathing, consciousness, blood pressure, heart rate,
and sleep.

Location of Kidney Parts.

Cortex – outer shell of kidney.
Nephron – multiple small veins in the outer layer.
Calyx – white pipe in the middle of the kidney.
Renal pelvis – below the calyx on the white pipe.
Renal vein – blue vein going into the kidney.
Renal artery – red vein going into kidney.
Ureter – pipe going out of kidney to the bladder.
Medulla – middle layer of the kidney
Renal pyramids – triangular shapes in the medulla (middle) layer.