Physics

DBE ESSENTIALS GRADE
10
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Content Acknowledgement
Many thanks to those involved in the production, translation and moderation of this book:
R Bartholomew, T Britz, S Chowles, W Cloete, L Couperwthwaite, S Dippenaar, I Govender, J Hayes,
R Lodge, J MacPhee, Q Meades, J Mitchell, G Moore, A Mouton, K Munnik, C Orchison, M Potgieter,
R Ramsugit, X Sithenjwa
www .scienceclinic.co.za facebook.com/scienceclinicsa c Science Clinic (Pty) Ltd 2018

Grade 10 Science Essentials
WHY YOU SHOULD STUDY SCIENCE SCIENCE CLINIC 2018 ©
Science is amazing! It is also one of the toughest subjects at school. Science-y careers are diverse and exciting, but require years of vigorous academic commitment.
If it’s so hard to get somewhere with Science, why should you study it? Here’s our top reasons for getting your nerd on:
1. Be a modern-day hero: The single greatest reason why we should study Science, is to ensure 4. Diversity and flexibility: From dentistry to plasma physics, Science-y careers offer vast opportu-
Humanity’s sustainable survival on Earth! Ecosystems are in crisis mode, the planetary weather nities for professional career development and diversification. Engineers are welcomed into the
system is changing rapidly, and humanity is failing to coexist in harmony with other species. financial sector, due to their problem-solving ability and analytical way of thinking. Many academic
physicists teach, perform ground-breaking research and consult private clients in the same work
World food production has to double in the next thirty years, in order to sustain the growing global week. Medical professionals diversify into the legal field to become patent attorneys or medical
population. We are running out of fossil fuels which are critical to the efficiency of our industry, lawyers. However on the flip side, it’s rare for a professional with a ‘non-Science-y’ background to
farming and supply chains. Fresh water is becoming increasingly scarce, with many of the World’s bridge into the Science-based career fields.
greatest rivers no longer running into the sea. Diseases are becoming increasingly resistant to anti-
biotics. The air in many Indian and Chinese cities are verging on unbreathable. The Great Pacific 5. Inventions: Science-y careers create an intellectual and business environment that is conducive
Garbage Patch has become an unfathomable mass of floating junk that is destroying our oceans. to problem solving and invention. Look at all the exciting inventions of the last twenty years, that
The use of fossil fuels is polluting our air and adding to the Greenhouse Effect. have completely transformed our lifestyles. The Internet, the everyday use of GPS, mobile phone
technology, PC’ and touch-screen displays are but a few. This technological progress was made
Before you despair, there is a silver lining: every one of these problems can be improved, and even possible due to Science.
solved, through Science! If you are passionately concerned about this Planet and about a healthy
future for Humanity, get stuck into your Science studies and aim for a Science-y career that will Visit online crowdfunding platforms such as Kickstarter and Indiegogo, and appraise the exciting
equip you to make a difference! Science-y inventions that are being funded. The tech scene is mushrooming with skunkworks and
hackathons that are creating radical innovations. It is an exciting time to be part of Science and
2. Be smart: The study of Science encourages problem-solving tenacity that helps you to under- technology, and if you want to be at the cusp of making cool things that make a big difference,
stand the world around you. I have always explained to my students that Science illuminates one’s study Science!
path, and that going through life without Science is similar to driving your car along dark roads -
your headlights might light your way forward, but they don’t illuminate the world around you. You 6. Be a modern-day hero (#2): South Africa has a growing deficit of expert Science teachers. If
travel onwards without ever understanding the context of your journey. you are passionate about Science, and passionate about making a difference, teaching is a mas-
Studying Science makes you comfortable with the unknown, and gives you the confidence to say: sively rewarding career path that is becoming increasingly lucrative. Remember, supply and de-
“I don’t know the answers, but I will find out!”. Science is gracious to naivety but does not con- mand dictate going rates - if there are fewer expert Science teachers around, the demand for ex-
done the apathy of indifference: it allows you to say “I don’t know, but I want to find out”, but pertise leads to increased fees. Become a Science teacher, a thought leader and a role model!
does not tolerate the attitude of “I don’t know and I don’t care”.
7. Wealth: More than a fifth of the planet’s wealthiest people on the Forbes 2015 list studied an engi-
Science is highly structured, but welcomes change - it constantly adjusts its views based on what neering degree, according to a recent survey by the Approved Index platform. A quarter of the
is observed. This approach teaches you to evolve your thinking by constantly testing and investigat- Forbes top-hundred have Science as a foundation for their work.
ing information, which makes you a well-rounded human being and empowers you with an ethical
approach to others: it enables you to discern the difference between your opinions and facts, and 8. Discovery: Science research is a field that allows you to discover the unknown. The deep oceans
to acknowledge the opinions and beliefs of others without immediately accepting or rejecting are unexplored, nanotechnology and photonic crystals have so many secrets, and we’re still not
them. sure whether there is any form of life outside near-Earth space. Imagine being the person that
publishes a peer-reviewed article to tell the world about a brand new discovery, or a new revela-
3. Be adventurous: Science gets you places! I can only speak from my experience - my engineering tion in our understanding, or a life-altering breakthrough in technology.
background, which is firmly rooted in Science, has opened a door to great adventure and explora-
tion. I have worked on four continents and have been exposed to a diversity of incredible experi- This is a call to action for young history-makers, and for a new wave of heroes to save this
ences that a ‘normal’ office job would never allow. Would you like to work in jungles? Study Natu- world and make a difference. I encourage you to become part of it!
ral Sciences. A life of studying volcanoes or auroras, perhaps? Study geosciences. Would you like
to ply you mind to solving massive problems and driving innovation? Study engineering! Would you
like to work with killer whales? Study zoology! James Hayes
Founder – Science Clinic
Science-y careers and research allow you visit places that would not be accessible through other
fields of study. Whether you want to go to Antarctica or to outer space, Science is the way to get
there.
1
For more information about Science Clinic’s seminars, classes and resources, visit www.scienceclinic.co.za
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Foreword 1
Physics
Physics data 4
Pulses and Waves 6
Sound & Electromagnetic radiation 10
Magnetism 14
Electrostatics 15
Electricity 16
Vectors and Scalars 19
Motion in 1D 20
Energy 27
Chemistry
Chemistry data 29
Classification of matter 31
Names and formulae 33
Kinetic molecular theory 35
The atom 36
The periodic table 40
Chemical bonding 42
Physical and chemical change 45
Reactions in aqueous solutions 47
Quantitative aspects of chemical change 50
Hydrosphere 54
Mathematics essentials 56
www
www
GENERAL INFORMATION
Quantities, symbols and units
The most common quantities, symbols and SI units used in introductory Physics are listed
below. A quantity should not be confused with the units in which it is measured.
Preferred Alternative Unit
Quantity Unit name
symbol symbol symbol
mass m kilogram kg
position x, y metre m
displacement Δ x, Δ y s metre m
-1
velocity v x, v y u, v metre per second m·s
-1
initial velocity vi u metre per second m·s
-1
final velocity vf v metre per second m·s
-2
acceleration a metre per second per second m·s
acceleration due to -2
g metre per second per second m·s
gravity
time (instant) t second s
time interval Δt second s
energy E joule J
kinetic energy K Ek joule J
potential energy U Ep joule J
work W joule J
force F newton N
weight w Fg newton N
wavelength λ metre m
frequency f ν hertz or per second Hz or s
-1
period T second s
-1
speed of light c metre per second m·s
charge Q, q coulomb C
potential difference Δ V, V volt V
emf E ε volt V
current I, i ampere A
resistance R ohm Ω
Conventions (e.g. signs, symbols, terminology and nomenclature)
The syllabus and question papers will conform to generally accepted international
practices.
NOTE:
1. For marking purposes, alternative symbols will also be accepted.
2. Separate compound units with a multiplication dot, not a full stop, for example
m·s-1.
For marking purposes, m.s-1 will also be accepted.
3. Use the equal sign only when it is mathematically correct, for example:
Incorrect: 1 cm = 1 m (on a scale drawing)
Correct: 1 cm = 10-2 m 1 cm represents 1 m (on a scale drawing)
Information sheets – Paper 1 (Physics)
TABLE 1: PHYSICAL CONSTANTS/TABEL 1: FISIESE KONSTANTES
NAME/NAAM SYMBOL/SIMBOOL VALUE/WAARDE
Acceleration due to gravity
g 9,8 m·s-2
Swaartekragversnelling
Speed of light in a vacuum
c 3,0 x 108 m·s-1
Spoed van lig in 'n vakuum
Planck's constant
h 6,63 x 10-34 J·s
Planck se konstante
Charge on electron
e -1,6 x 10-19 C
Lading op elektron
Electron mass
me 9,11 x 10-31 kg
Elektronmassa
TABLE 2: FORMULAE/TABEL 2: FORMULES
MOTION/BEWEGING
v f = v i + a Δt Δx = v i Δt + 21 aΔt 2
⎛ v + vi ⎞
2 2
v f = v i + 2aΔx Δx = ⎜ f ⎟ Δt
⎝ 2 ⎠
WORK, ENERGY AND POWER/ARBEID, ENERGIE EN DRYWING
1 1
U = mgh or/of EP = mgh K= mv 2 or/of E k = mv 2
2 2
WAVES, SOUND AND LIGHT/GOLWE, KLANK EN LIG
1
v=fλ T=
f
c
E = hf or/of E = h
λ
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS/ELEKTRIESE STROOMBANE
1 1 1
Q = I Δt = + + ...
R p R1 R 2
W
R s = R1 + R 2 + ... V=
Q
Transverse pulses SCIENCE CLINIC 2018 ©
Pulse: A single disturbance in a medium. INTERFERENCE OF PULSES

Transverse pulse: A pulse in which the particles of the medium move at Interference: The overlapping of two pulses when they coincide. They meet at the same point at the same time.
right angles to the direction of motion of the pulse. Superposition: The algebraic sum of the amplitudes of two pulses that occupy the same space at the same time.
Constructive interference: The phenomenon where the crest of one pulse overlaps with the crest of another to produce a pulse
of increased amplitude.
Destructive interference: The phenomenon where the crest of one pulse overlaps with the trough of another, resulting in a pulse
of reduced amplitude.
When two pulses meet:
CONSTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE
Before During After
2a
The particles in the rope move vertically up and down as the pulse moves to
a a a a
the right (particles are moving perpendicular to the direction of movement of
the pulse).
X Y X+Y Y X
Amplitude X Y X+Y Y X
(a)
a a a a
Rest posi)on
Pulse length 2a
Rest position: The position from which all particles start from and return to
after a pulse or wave has passed.
Amplitude: The maximum displacement of particles from the rest position.
Pulse length: The distance between the start and end of a pulse.
DESTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE
Before During After
A pulse moves through a medium at a certain speed (v):
distance (m)
speed of pulse (m ⋅ s−1) a
Y a
X-Y Y
D
v= X a a X
Δt time (s)
EXAMPLE:
A pulse travels a distance of 300m in 2 minutes. Determine the speed
of the pulse.
D
v=
a
Y X-Y Y a
Δt
300 X b-a X
v= b b
120
v = 2,5 m ⋅ s−1
6
Transverse waves SCIENCE CLINIC 2018 ©
FORMATION OF TRANSVERSE WAVES CALCULATIONS

Each disturbance in a medium creates a transverse pulse. Many disturbances of Frequency (f) Period (T) Wave speed (v)
transverse pulses repeated at regular intervals creates a transverse wave. Frequency: The number of waves per Period: The time taken for one com- Wave Speed: The distance travelled by
second. plete wave. a point on a wave per unit time.
Hand moves up → back to rest position, and then down → back to rest position. Unit: Hz (hertz) Unit: s (seconds) speed (m ⋅ s−1) distance (m)
D
v= time (s)
Δt
Example: Calculate the speed of a
Rest posi)on wave that travels 50m in 7s.
number of waves D
frequency = total time v=
total time period = Δt
number of waves
50
v= = 7,14 m ⋅ s−1
Example: Example: 7
5 waves pass a point in 4 s, 5 waves pass a point in 4 s,
Wave speed (v)
calculate the frequency of the calculate the period of the waves.
This motion continues at regular intervals to form a transverse wave. Wave Speed: The distance travelled by a
waves. number of waves total time
frequency = period = point on a wave per unit time.
total time number of waves
frequency (Hz)
Transverse wave: A wave in which the particles of the medium vibrate at right 5 4
T = = 1,25 Hz T = = 0,8 s
angles to the direction of motion of the wave. A transverse wave is a succession of 4 5 v = fλ wavelength (m)
transverse pulses.
speed (m ⋅ s−1)
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FREQUENCY AND PERIOD Example: Calculate the speed of a
wave with a frequency of 28 Hz and a
f- frequency (Hz) wavelength of 5 mm.
1 1
T= OR f= v = fλ
f T T- period (s)
v = (28)(5 × 10−3)
v = 0,14 m ⋅ s−1
ONE TRANSVERSE WAVE MULTIPLE TRANSVERSE WAVES

+ Crest +
IN phase:
Distance (m)
λ A–E
B–F
Amplitude A–I
(a) B F
Distance (m)
D–H
C λ G I
Rest posi9on Distance (m)
Wavelength (λ) or Time (s) A λ E Distance (m) TOTALLY OUT of
D H or Time (s) phase:
A–C
(a) λ B–D
- A-G
D–F
Trough Points in phase: Two points in phase are separated by a whole number (1; 2; 3; …) multiple PARTIALY OUT of
- of completed wavelengths. Points in phase follow the exact same path (have identical motion). phase:
Amplitude (a): the maximum displacement of particles from the rest position. Points totally out of phase: two points following exactly the opposite path. A–B
Wavelength (λ): the distance between two consecutive points in phase. Points partially out of phase: Points that are not separated by a whole number multiple of B–E
Crest: the highest point (peak) on a wave. completed wavelengths. Two points which follow different paths. A-F
Trough: the lowest point on a wave.
D–E
7
Longitudinal waves SCIENCE CLINIC 2018 ©
When a series of forwards and backwards

movements are made to a spring in consecutive
intervals it creates a longitudinal wave. IN phase:
When particles are pushed closer together a A–C
C–E
ion
ion
ion
compression is formed and when particles are
n
o
o
s
s
B–D
c3
c3
es
es
es
drawn apart a rarefaction is formed.
pr
pr
pr
fa
fa
A–E
re
re
m
m
Wavelength is represented by the distance
Co
Co
Co
Ra
Ra
between consecutive compressions or consecutive
rarefactions.
Longitudinal wave: a wave in which the TOTALLY OUT

particles of the medium vibrate parallel to the A B C D E of phase:
direction of motion of wave. λ A–B
Compression: A region of high pressure in a B–C
longitudinal wave. λ C–D
Rarefaction: A region of low pressure in a longi- A–D
tudinal wave. λ
Rarefaction: The maximum displacement of a
particle from its rest position.
CALCULATIONS
Frequency (Hz) Period (T) Wave speed (v)
Frequency: the number of waves that pass a point in one second. Period: the time taken for one wave to pass a point. Wave Speed: the distance a wave travels in one second.
Unit: Hz (hertz) Unit: s (seconds). speed (m ⋅ s−1) distance (m)
D
frequency =
number of waves
frequency =
number of waves v=
total time total time Δt time (s)
Example:
Calculate the speed of a wave that travels 60 km in 5 min.
Example: Example: D
8 waves pass a point in 3 s, calculate the frequency of the v =
8 waves pass a point in 3 s, calculate the period of the waves. Δt
waves. 6000
v =
total time 300
number of waves period =
frequency = number of waves v = 20m ⋅ s−1
total time 3
8 f =
f = 8
3
f = 0,38 s Wave equation
f = 2,67 Hz
frequency (Hz)
Relationship between frequency and period
v = fλ wavelength (m)
Example: Example: speed (m ⋅ s−1)
1 1 Determine the period of a wave Determine the frequency of a
T= OR f= that has a frequency of 75 Hz wave that has a period of 0,3 s
Example:
f T Determine the speed of a wave with a 20 mm wavelength and a
1 1 frequency of 600 Hz.
T = f =
f T v = fλ
f- Frequency (Hz) 1 1
f =
75
f =
0,3
v = (600)(20 × 10−3)
T- period (s) f = 0,013 Hz f = 3,33 Hz v = 12 m ⋅ s−1
8
Pulses and Waves- THE ESSENTIALS SCIENCE CLINIC 2018 ©
A pulse is a single disturbance that is propagated from a source through a medium.

A wave is a repetition of pulses at regular intervals.
TRANSVERSE LONGITUDINAL
Transverse pulse: a pulse in which the particles of the medium move perpendicular to the direction of Longitudinal pulse: a pulse in which the particles of the medium move parallel to the direction of
propagation of the pulse. movement of the pulse.
ion
s
es
pr
m
Co
Amplitude
(a)
Rest posi)on
Pulse length
A transverse wave is a succession of transverse pulses, eg water waves.
+ Crest
A longitudinal wave is a succession of longitudinal pulses. e.g. sound waves
Distance (m)
ion
ion
ion
n
n
Amplitude
o
s
s
c3
c3
es
es
es
(a)
pr
pr
pr
fa
fa
re
re
m
m
Co
Co
Co
Ra
Ra
Rest posi9on Distance (m)
Wavelength (λ) or Time (s)
A B C D E
(a) λ
λ
λ
Trough
-
Frequency(f): the number of waves per second.
1
f =
T Superposition: The algebraic sum of the amplitudes of two pulses that oc-
cupy the same space at the same time.
Period(T): the time taken for one complete wave. Unit: s (seconds). Constructive interference: The phenomenon where the crest of one pulse
overlaps with the crest of another to produce a pulse of increased amplitude.
1 Destructive interference: The phenomenon where the crest of one pulse
T =
f overlaps with the trough of another, resulting in a pulse of reduced amplitude
Wavelength(λ): the distance between two consecutive points in phase.
Wave speed (v): The speed of a wave through the medium. Amplitude: the maximum displacement of a particle from the rest position.
v = fλ
9
Sound SCIENCE CLINIC 2018 ©
SOUND WAVES WAVE PROPERTIES & SOUND

Sound is created by vibrations in a medium in the direction of
propagation (longitudinal wave). The vibrations cause regular varia- FREQUENCY- What the human ear perceives as pitch.
tion in pressure in the medium. Measured in hertz (Hz)
Pitch is directly proportional to frequency
Sound waves are 3D longitudinal waves that travel through solids, • A high pitch = high frequency.
liquids and gases but not through a vacuum → a medium is (i.e. brakes of a car squealing)
necessary for the propagation of sound. The denser the medium, • A low pitch = low frequency.
the greater the speed of sound through that medium. (i.e. a bass guitar)
A loudspeaker has a paper cone which is able to move back and AMPLITUDE- what the human ear perceives as volume (loudness).
forth, producing a series of compressions and rarefactions through Measured in decibels (dB).
the air. The small changes in pressure are detected by the ear and Loudness is directly proportional to amplitude
we perceive this as sound. The waves move away from the • A high volume = large amplitude.
speaker in 3 dimensions getting weaker the further they travel. • A low volume = small amplitude.
The amplitude diminishes and the loudness decreases.
ULTRASOUND ECHOES EXAMPLE:

The time taken for an echo to be heard by a listener on a ship is
• Humans can hear sounds between 20 Hz and 20 kHz. Sound waves are reflected by large hard flat surfaces such as build- measured and is found to be 0,8 s. The speed of sound in water is
• Ultrasound Refers to sound waves of a higher frequency than we ings walls and cliffs. 1480 m·s−1 . Determine the depth of the water at this point.
can hear. (20 kHz to 100 kHz)
The reflection of the sound wave is known as an echo. An echo D
v =
Δt
Uses can be used to calculate unknown distances. D
•Treatment of sports injuries: waves are fed through the skin to 1480 =
0,8
increase blood flow to the injured area. REMEMBER: D = (1480)(0,8)
When a wave reflects/echoes, the wave had to travel to the object
D = 1184 m
•Imaging in pregnancy: When and back. It has therefore travelled double the distance between
an ultrasound wave encounters a the source and the reflection surface. The sound has to travel to the bottom and then reflect back to the
boundary in a medium, part of ship at the surface.
the wave is reflected, part ab-
sorbed and part is transmitted SOURCE Source depth =
D
through the boundary. The re- sound 2
flected waves are detected in the 1184
depth =
2
same way as echoes and can be
depth = 592 m
used to form an image (sonar
imaging). http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultrasound#/media/File:CRL_Crown_
rump_lengh_12_weeks_ecografia_Dr._Wolfgang_Moroder.jpg EXAMPLE:
A man stands 250 m from a wall and hears the echo of his gunshot
Using sonar can produce a safe method of early diagnosis of fetal
after 1,5 s. Calculate the velocity of sound under the circumstances.
conditions and early treatment can be implemented. LISTENER Echo
distance traveled by sound = 2 × 250
•Bats: use ultrasound to locate insects and to navigate in the dark.
= 500 m
d
D
v =
Δt
500
Boats: use sonar to v =
1,5
locate fish and measure
the depth of the v = 333,33 m ⋅ s−1
Echo Sound
ocean.
∴ speed of sound = 333,33 m ⋅ s−1
10
Electromagnetic radiation SCIENCE CLINIC 2018 ©
Electromagnetic radiation behaves

like a
WAVE PARTICLE
when it travels when it interacts with other materials
WAVE NATURE OF ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION PARTICLE NATURE OF ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION
• Accelerating charges are the source of all Electromagnetic Radiation.
• The accelerating charges create a constantly changing electric field which travels away from the source • Electromagnetic radiation transfers energy to other matter in “packets” called photons.
in 3 dimensions. The continuously changing electric field then induces a changing magnetic field that is • Photons have a set amount of energy → called a quantum.
perpendicular to the electric field.The changing magnetic field in turn produces an electric field. • The amount of energy is directly proportional to the penetrating ability of the specific EM-radiation.
• A Photon is a quantum of EM radiation (which carries a set amount of energy)
Electromagnetic waves are created by oscillating magnetic and electric fields which move at right angles
to each other and to the direction of the propagation of the wave. Energy of a photon can be calculated using the formula:
produce a… Continuously which then Continuously Electromag- energy (J) frequency (Hz)
Accelerating
changing electric changing magnetic netic wave is
charges induces a…
field field at 90⁰ created
E = hf
Electric field Planck's constant (6,63 × 10−34 )
Direc/on of
Magne/c
propaga/on
field
Planck's constant (6,63 × 10−34 )
energy (J) hc speed of light (3 × 108 m ⋅ s−1)

E=
λ
wavelength (λ)
WAVE EQUATION (EM) EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE:

The wave is propagated at a speed of 3×108 m·s−1. Determine the wavelength of ultraviolet waves Calculate the energy of a microwave with a fre- Determine the energy of gamma ray with a wave-
This is called c (speed of light). with a frequency of 1,6 × 1016 Hz quency of 4,5 × 1010 Hz. length of 4 × 10−14 m.
All electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of hc
E = hf E =
c = fλ λ
light.
E = (6,63 × 10−34 )(4,5 × 10−10 ) (6,63 × 10−34 )(3 × 108 )
3 × 108 = (1,6 × 1016 )λ E =
wave speed (m ⋅ s−1) wavelength (m) E = 2,98 × 10−43 J (4,5 × 10−14 )
λ = 1,88 × 10−8 m
EXAMPLE: E = 4,42 × 10−12 J
Determine the frequency of a radio wave with a
c = fλ wavelength of 300 m PENETRATING ABILITY
The penetrating ability of a wave refers to its ability to penetrating ability α Energy
c = fλ
3 × 108 = f(300) move through matter.
frequency (Hz) penetrating ability α Frequency
f = 1 × 106 m The higher the energy, the greater the penetrating ability.
11
Electromagnetic radiation- Spectrum SCIENCE CLINIC 2018 ©
INCREASING FREQUENCY
INCREASING WAVE ENERGY
INCREASING WAVELENGTH
Visible light
Infrared Ultraviolet light
EM Radiation: Radio waves Microwaves
radiation (IR) (UV)
X-rays Gamma rays
R O Y G B I V
Frequency (Hz): 1 x 106 1 x 1010 1 x 1012 4 x 1014 to 7 x 1014 1 x 1016 1 x 1019 1 x 1022
Wavelength (m): 1 x 102 1 x 10-2 1 x 10-4 7 x 10-9 to 4 x 10-9 1 x 10-8 1 x 10-10 1 x 10-14
Radio and TV Telephone and cell Remote controls; Objects reflect, refract Light bulbs; steriliza4on x-rays; CT scans; Radia4on of cancer
broadcasts; radio phone connec4ons; op4cal fibers or transmit light that we security scans
telescopes communica4on are able to see;
Advantages: satellites; photosynthesis
microwave ovens;
radar systems
Damage to eyes and Damage to skin and Damage to 4ssue;
skin underlying 4ssue nuclear radia4on
Disadvantages:
12
Sound and EM Waves-THE ESSENTIALS SCIENCE CLINIC 2018 ©
Sound EM Radiation
•Sound waves are created by vibrations in a medium. • Accelerating charges are the source of all Electromagnetic Radiation.
• Propagates as electric and magnetic fields which are perpendicular to each other.
•The speed of sound in air = 340 m·s-1 • The wave is propagated at a speed of 3x108 m.s-1 in a vacuum. This is called c (speed of light)
• Does not need a medium to propagate through; can travel through a vacuum.
•Sound is a longitudinal wave that travels through solids, liquids and gases but not through a vacuum. • Electromagnetic radiation behaves like a transverse wave when it propagates.
• Electromagnetic radiation behaves like a particle when it interacts with other materials
Frequency: Amplitude:
What the human ear perceives as pitch. What the human ear perceives as volume.
Measured in decibels (dB). WAVE NATURE PARTICLE NATURE
•A high pitch = high frequency.
(I.e. brakes of a car squealing) •A high volume = large amplitude. wave speed (m ⋅ s−1) wavelength (m) • Electromagnetic radiation transfers energy in
•A low pitch = low frequency. •A low volume = small amplitude. “packets” called photons
(I.e. a bass guitar)
c = fλ Photon: quanta (energy packets) that transfer
energy to particles of matter
frequency (Hz) • Energy of a photon can be calculated using:

ECHOES
energy (J) frequency (Hz)
Sound waves are reflected by large hard flat surfaces such as buildings walls and cliffs. The reflection of As the frequency increases, the wavelength
the sound wave is known as an echo. An echo can be used to calculate unknown distances. decreases.
E = hf
In any given medium, the speed remains
SOURCE Source
constant.
Planck′s constant (6,63 × 10−34 )
sound
Electromagnetic Spectrum Planck′s constant (6,63 × 10−34 )
f Waves hc speed of light (3 × 108 m ⋅ s−1)

λ E=
Echo
Radiowaves λ wavelength (λ)
LISTENER
Microwaves
energy (J)
Infrared
d Visible light
In the picture:
Ultraviolet The greater the energy of a photon, the higher
distance to wall and back = v ×t its frequency and its penetrating ability (and the
X-Rays
2D = v ×t smaller/ shorter the wavelength)
Gamma Rays
where v is the speed of sound in air;
v = 340 m ⋅ s−1
13
Magnetism SCIENCE CLINIC 2018 ©
Magnetic field: region in space where another magnet or ferromagnetic material will experience a non-contact force Earth’s Magnetic Field
Non-contact force: A force exerted on an object without touching the object. The Earth behaves as if it has a giant bar magnet running through it, with its
Magnet: an object with a pair of opposite poles, called north and south magnetic field looping around the earth
Magnets can be made from ferromagnetic materials; materials which are strongly attracted by magnets and are easily mag- The arrow of the compass is the North pole of the compass, and points towards
netised. Common ferromagnetic materials include iron, cobalt, nickel and their alloys. magnetic North Pole of the Earth.
When two magnets are brought close to each other: In reality, the North pole of the Earth is actually the South pole of the imaginary mag-
~ Like poles → REPEL each other net through the Earth.
~ Unlike poles → ATTRACT each other The point in the Northern Hemisphere where the Earth’s axis meets the surface of
the Earth is the geographical or true North Pole. A compass will not point to this, but
Even if a magnet is cut into little pieces it will form smaller magnets, each with their own north and south poles rather to the magnetic North Pole – which is actually the South pole of the imaginary
magnet through Earth.
The angle between the true North Pole and the magnetic North Pole is called the an-
gle of declination.
N S NS N S N S Geographical north pole: Point in the northern hemisphere where the rotation
axis of the earth meets the surface.
Magnetic north pole: The Point where the magnetic field lines of the earth enters
• Magnetic field lines are imaginary lines around a magnet indicating the direction and the strength of the magnetic field the earth.It is the direction in which
surrounding the magnet (iron filings on paper can be used to indicate the field lines)
The field lines occur inside the magnet and 3 dimensionally outside it. They come out of the magnet near the north pole
and enter near the south pole again forming a loop. Magne)c
North Pole
Geographical
Bar magnet Magne&c North Pole
Geographical North Pole
Properties of magnetic field Other “fields” in physics North Pole Angle of
lines Magnetic field declina&on
• Imaginary lines Area in which a magnetic material S
• Continuous experiences a magnetic force S
• 3 dimensional Electric field
Area in which an electric charge
N S • Never cross or touch N
• Arrows indicate the direction experiences an electric force
Gravitational field Geographical N
of the field (N to S) South Pole
• Are more concentrated at the Area in which a mass experiences
poles where field is stronger a gravitational force
Magne)c
South Pole
Attraction between unlike poles Repulsion between like poles Magnetic Phenomena
The sun releases particles (mainly electrons and protons) which travel outwards
in all directions at speeds of up to 900 m.s⁻¹.
More particles are released during a solar storm called a coronal mass ejection.
When these particles come close to the Earth, the Magnetosphere protects the
Earth by deflecting most of the particles, however some penetrate the Magneto-
N S N S N S S N sphere and are pulled towards our North and South Poles. They enter the upper
atmosphere at high speed and collide with nitrogen and oxygen molecules
causing them to glow with different colours.
These are known as the Aurora Borealis (Northern lights) and Aurora Australis
(Southern lights).
14
Electrostatics SCIENCE CLINIC 2018 ©
• All materials contain positive charges Methods by which a neutral object can become charged
(protons) and negative charges (electrons) Friction Contact Induction
• A neutral object has an equal number of • Also known as tribo-electric charging When a charged conductor touches an identi- A method of charging whereby the objects do not touch
protons and electrons and has no net • Rub two objects together such as a glass rod and c a l n e u t ra l c o n d u c t o r, e l e c t r o n s a r e one another. Neutral electroscope is charged by induction.
charge. a woolen cloth. Electrons are transferred from one transferred to make the charge on the
• A positively charged object has lost object to the other (this depends on which materials conductors equal.
electrons (electron deficient) are used) Posi%ve rod Temporary charge
• A negatively charged object has gained • The one object loses electrons and the other gains Positive conductor touches a neutral + (polarised) +
+ +
electrons (excess of electrons) them conductor → negative charges are transferred Neutral + +
+ +
• A charged object can also be attracted to Glass rod and woolen cloth from neutral to positive charge + -+ -+ -+ - ---- - -
a neutral conductor because of the
movement of charges in the conductor
3e¯ 5e¯ 1e¯ 7e¯ - + +
3p⁺ 5p⁺ 3p⁺ 5p⁺ + +
- -+
Transfers nega5ve
• A charged object can also be attracted to charge + +
an insulator because of the movement of -1,4C
+ +
polarised molecules present in the insula-
Fric-on
e¯ 0C - - +
tor +2,8C neutral +1,4C +1,4C
A positive rod is e⁻ are attracted to the posi-
• Charged objects exert forces on each brought close to a tive rod. Positively charged
other when brought close together touch leaves repel each other
neutral electroscope
• Like charges exert REPULSIVE forces on neutral neutral Posi-vely Nega-vely
each other charged charged
Negative conductor touches a neutral Nega%ve
--
(e¯ deficient) (e¯ excess) Semi-permanent
• Opposite charges exert ATTRACTIVE
--
conductor → negative charges are transferred charge
rod
forces on each other PVC rod and woolen cloth: from negative to neutral charge Neutral - - -
4e¯
4p⁺
5e¯
5p⁺
7e¯
4p⁺
2e¯
5p⁺ + -+ -+ -+ - - + + + ++
QUANTISATION OF CHARGE
The charge on a single electron is Transfers nega5ve - + +
+ +
- -+
Fric-on charge
q e = − 1,6 × 10−19 C -2,3C + +
e¯
+ +
Principle of charge quantisation: all -4,6C
0C
neutral -2,3C -2,3C - - e¯ +
charges in the universe consist of an integer A negative rod is brought Electroscope is earthed allowing
multiple of the charge of an electron: Posi-vely touch close to a neutral electro- extra e-s to come towards the rod. A
neutral neutral Nega-vely
charge of e− ( − 1,6 × 10−19 ) charged charged scope. The e-s are repelled. semi-permanent charge is created.
(e¯ excess) (e¯ deficient)
charge (C)
Q = nqe PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF CHARGE
Principle of conservation of charge: the net charge of an isolated system remains constant during any physical process. Eg. When identical objects with differ-
ent charges touch, charges will be transferred between conductors. The two conductors will then have equal charge.
number of electrons EXAMPLE: Two identical charges on insulated stands, +5 mC and -9 mC respectively, touch and move apart again. Determine (a) the new charge on each, (b) the
Examples: amount of charge transferred and (c) the amount of electrons transferred.
Calculate the number of electrons gained or
a) New charge on each: Amount of charge transferred: c) Number of electrons transferred:
lost by (a) +4,5 nC and (b)-9 µC
Q1 + Q 2 Q = nq e
Q = nq e Q new =
ΔQ = Qf − Qi ΔQ = Q f − Q i
2
7 × 10−3 = n(−1,6 × 10−19 )
+4,5 × 10−9 = n(−1,6 × 10−19 ) (+5 × 10−3) + (−9 × 10−3)
Q new = ΔQ = (−2 × 10−3) − (+5 × 10−3) n = 4,38 × 1016
n = −2,81 × 1010 2
Q new = −2 × 10−3 C each ΔQ = − 7 × 10−3 C ∴n = 4,38 × 1016 e−
∴ = 2,81 × 1010 electrons lost
OR OR
Charge new original
Q = nq e charge ΔQ = Q f − Q i Q = nq e
transferred charge
−9 × 10−6 = n(−1,6 × 10−19 ) (C) on before ΔQ = (−2 × 10−3) − (−9 × 10−3) −7 × 10−3 = n(−1,6 × 10−19 )
each contact
n = 5,63 × 1013 electrons gained ΔQ = − 7 × 10−3 C n = 4,38 × 1016 e−
(you can use either of the original charges in this step)
15
Electricity SCIENCE CLINIC 2018 ©
Electricity is the process of giving energy to a charge and then using that energy A torch is an example of a simple circuit. The arrows indicate the flow of conven-
to do work. The most basic circuit is made of a POWER SOURCE, a LOAD and the The POWER SOURCE gives tional current.
conducting wires carrying the charge around the circuit. electrical energy to the charge.
Some examples are generators, Conductor takes energized
batteries, photovoltaic cells. charge to load
The POWER SOURCE The LOAD is a de- Cell

gives electrical energy vice that uses the (Chemical Energy into
to the charge. energy of a charge. Light Bulb
Electrical Energy)
The LOAD is a device which (Electrical Energy
dissipates/uses the energy. into Light Energy)
Some examples are resistors, light
A battery goes “flat” when all of the stored chemical energy in the battery has bulbs, motors, speakers, chargers.
been converted to electrical energy.
Conductor returns charge to power
The electrical energy is converted into other forms: heat, light, kinetic, chemical
source to get more energy
CURRENT is the rate of flow of charge. POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE (p.d.) across the ends of a conductor is RESISTANCE & OHM’S LAW: Opposition to the flow of electric current.
the energy transferred per unit electric charge that flows The greater the potential difference across
Q through it. the ends of a particular conductor, the
I= greater the current in it. In a metal
t W conductor, the charge carriers are electrons.
I is the current strength, Q is the charge in coulombs and t is V=
the time in seconds. The SI unit of current is the ampere (A). Q The valence electrons of the metal atoms
Typical values for electric current: swarm around randomly in between the posi-
V is Potential difference in V (volts), W is Work done or energy tive metal ions. When a voltage is applied
transferred in J (joules) and Q is Charge in C (coulombs). across two points of the metal, the electrons
Situation Current migrate towards the positive point and col-
Note that 1V = means 1 joule per coulomb of charge. lide with the particles of the metal. The
Lightning 10 000 A kinetic energy of the electrons is transferred
to the positive metal ions causing them to
Starter motor in car 200 A
vibrate faster and get hot.
Fan heater 10 A
Chemical energy → Electrical energy → Heat energy
Toaster 3A In cell charge carriers metal particles
Light bulb 0,4 A Note: DEFINITION: Ohm's Law states that the current in a conductor is
1. Emf is the voltage measured across the terminals of a battery when no directly proportional to the potential difference across it provided its V = IR
Pocket calculator 0,005 A current is flowing through the battery (the switch is open). The emf is temperature remains constant.
the work done per unit charge by the source
Nerve fibre in the body 0,000 001 A R is referred to as the electrical resistance of the conducting material, resisting the
2. V term or potential difference (pd) is the voltage measured across the flow of charge through it.
DEFINITION: The coulomb(C) is that quantity of charge terminals of a battery when current is flowing through the battery. This
which passes a fixed point in a conductor in one second when Resistance (R) is the ratio of the potential difference (V) across a resistor and
is also known as the operating voltage.
the conductor carries a current of one ampere. the current (I) in it. The unit of resistance is called the ohm (Ω).
EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE:

An electric current of 7.5 A flows through an electric A battery transfers 60 kJ of energy to 5 kC of electric charge.
circuit for 3 minutes. Calculate the amount of charge Calculate the voltage of the battery. A battery has a voltage of 12 V. The current that flows through the resistor in the circuit is
flowing through the circuit. 6 A. Calculate the resistance of the resistor.
V
V =
W R = I
Q = It Q
12
Q = (7,5)(3 × 60) V =
60000 R = 6
5000
Q = 1350 C V = 12 V R = 2Ω
16
Electricity- Series and Parallel SCIENCE CLINIC 2018 ©
Series Circuits: A 1,5 V cell is connected to 3 identical bulbs in series. This creates 3 times more Parallel circuits: A 1,5 V cell is connected to 3 identical bulbs in parallel. The cell has to supply 1,5 V to
resistance than one bulb, so the current is 3 times less each bulb at the same time, so the current is 3 times more
1. There is only one path for the current to follow.

2. The current is the same everywhere. 1. The current splits into three equal parts for each of the branches.
3. If the circuit is broken at any point, the current will stop flowing. 2. If one branch breaks, the other two will still conduct current.
4. The 1,5V supplied by the cell is divided up into 3 equal parts (0,5 V) across each bulb. 3. Each bulb receives the full 1,5 V provided by the cell across it
RESISTORS IN SERIES RESISTORS IN PARALLEL
• Current is the same through each resistor • Current is split up through resistors.
• Voltage is split up across resistors. • The current is inversely proportional to the
R1 •The voltage is directly proportional to the resistance in resistance. The smaller resistance, the more
1 1 1
RTOTAL = R1 + R2 . . . the series combination. Most voltage will be across the current going through it.
• Voltage is the same across each resistor in the
R1 R2 = +
R2
largest resistance.
•“Voltage divider” parallel combination. RTOTAL R1 R2 . . .
•Dimmer switches, Christmas lights • “Current divider”
• Cars, houses
COMBINATION CIRCUITS.
TO SOVLE: Identify the separate series and parallel combinations in the circuit.
Apply Ohms Law to each resistor, or each combination of resistors or the whole circuit consistently.
EXAMPLE:
Calculate the current through each resistor and the voltage across each resistor in the combination circuit.
STEP 1: STEP 2: STEP 3: STEP 4:
Find the total resistance Find the total current Apply known variables Apply Ohm’s law to unknown resistors
to circuit components
1 1 1 V
= + I =
RP R2 R3 R R1 and R2 are in series VR1 = IR VR 4 = IR
1 1 1 60
= + I = ∴ ITOT = IR = IR = 4 A
RP 8 8 15 1 4 VR1 = (4)(5) VR 4 = (4)(6)
1 2 I = 4A
= VR1 = 20 V VR 4 = 24 V
RP 8
IR + IR = 4A
2 3
∴ RP = 4Ω
and IR = IR
2 3 VR = VR = IR
RTOT = RP + R1 + R 4 ∴ IR = IR = 2 A 2 3
2 3 VR = VR = (2)(8)
RTOT = 5+4+6 2 3
RTOT = 15 Ω VR = VR = 16 V
2 3
17
Electricity - THE ESSENTIALS SCIENCE CLINIC 2018 ©
Quantity Current (I) Potential Difference (V) Resistance (R)

Definition The rate of flow of charge. The energy transferred per unit electric charge. The ratio of potential difference across a resistor
to the current through it.
Unit A (amperes) V (volts) Ω (ohms)
Equation I = Q /t V=W/Q R = V /I
Meaning How much charge passes every second How much energy each coulomb of charge How many volts are required to sustain
transfers between 2 points a current of 1 ampere.
The coulomb (C) is that quantity of charge Emf is the voltage measured across the Ohm's Law states that the current in a
which passes a fixed point in a conductor terminals of a battery when no current is flowing conductor is directly proportional to the
in one second when the conductor carries through the battery potential difference across it provided its
a current of one ampere V term or potential difference (pd) is the temperature remains constant.
voltage measured across the terminals of a Resistance of a material is dependent on the
battery when current is flowing through the type of material, as well as the length, thickness
battery. and temperature of the conductor
RESISTORS IN SERIES RESISTORS IN PARALLEL COMBINATION CIRCUITS.
R1
RTOTAL = R1 + R2 . . . R1 R2 1 1 1
R2 = +
RTOTAL R1 R2 . . .
•Current is the same through each resistor •Current is split up through resistors. The current • Identify the separate series and parallel
•Voltage is split up across resistors. The voltage is inversely proportional to the resistance. The combinations in the circuit.
is directly proportional to the resistance in the smaller resistance, the more current going • Apply Ohms Law consistently to:
series combination. through it. o each resistor,
•‘Voltage divider’ •Voltage is the same across each resistor in the o or each combination of resistors
•Eg. Dimmer switches parallel combination. o or the whole circuit.
•‘Current divider’
Current is measured with an ammeter, • Eg Cars, houses.
which is connected in series.
Potential difference is measured in parallel using
a voltmeter.
18
Vectors and Scalars SCIENCE CLINIC 2018 ©
Scalar Vector NET OR RESULTANT VECTOR

• Net or resultant vector: the single vector that has the same effect as two or more vectors together.
A physical quantity with A physical quantity with both • Net vector is greatest when vectors are in the same direction.
magnitude only magnitude and direction • Net vector is smallest when vectors are in the opposite direction.
E.g. E.g. Vectors in same direction Vectors in opposite directions Multiple vectors in different
mass (kg); distance (m); Force (N); weight (N); directions
speed (m.s⁻¹); time (s); displacement (m); velocity Determine the net force when a 5 N force Determine the net force when a 12 N force
energy (J); temperature (K) (m.s⁻¹); acceleration (m.s⁻²) acts to the right and a 10 N force also acts acts to the right and a 7 N force acts to Determine the net force when a 8 N force
to the right. the left. acts to the right, a 10 N force acts to the
Graphical representation of a vector right, a 25 N force acts to the left and a 12
Vector is represented by an arrow. N acts to the left.
Length of arrow = magnitude of vector.
Direction of arrow = direction of vector.
e Head =
ud
nit Direc3on
ag
M
Let to the right be positive: Let to the right be positive: Let to the right be positive:
θ
Tail = Origin Fnet = F1 + F2 Fnet = F1 + F2 Fnet = F1 + F2 + F3 + F4
+ and – is used to indicate direction of a vector. = 5 + 10 = 12 + (−7) = 8 + 10 + (−25) + (−12)
= 15 N right = 5 N right = −19 N
e.g. right is + +5 N
= 19 N left
left is – –3N
3 METHODS TO DESCRIBE THE DIRECTION OF A VECTOR

(the same vectors are used and described in each example)
On a graph Bearing Compass (Cardinal Points or directions)

Use North as 0⁰ and always measure clockwise
NOTE:
South-West,
North-West,
FA: 10 N at 30⁰ above the positive x-axis FA: 10 N on a bearing of 60⁰ FA: 10 N at 30⁰ North of East North-East and
South east can
FB: 8 N at 12⁰ left of the negative y-axis FB: 8 N on a bearing of 192⁰ FB: 8 N at 12⁰ West of South only be used if
the angle is 45°
FC: 5 N at 65⁰ above the negative x-axis FC: 5 N on a bearing of 335⁰ FC: 5 N at 65⁰ North of West
19
Motion in 1 dimension SCIENCE CLINIC 2018 ©
FRAME OF REFERENCE AND POSITION DISTANCE AND DISPLACEMENT
• Position (x): the place where an object is relative to a specific reference point. Distance Displacement
Position is a vector. Unit is meter(m) Difference in position in space. Displacement
• Reference point: a point from which the position of the object is measured (zero point). Total path length travelled
is measured from start to final position
• One dimensional motion: motion that occurs either vertically or horizontally along a straight line.
Scalar Vector
EXAMPLE:
Symbol: D Symbol: ∆x (or ∆y)
Let to the right be positive:
Unit: meter (m) Unit: meter (m)
EXAMPLE:
A boy runs from position A to E in a clockwise motion as shown in the diagram. Describe his distance
and displacement at position B,C and E using A as the starting (reference) point.
(a) Describe the position of objects A and C by using object B as a reference point as in the diagram.
Object A is -3 m from B (3m to the left) B: distance is 100 m, displacement is 80 m at 25⁰ East of South
Object C is +5 m from B (5m to the right) C: distance is 200 m, displacement is 120 m South
E: distance is 400 m, displacement is 0 m
(b) Describe the position of objects B and C by using object A as a reference point as in the diagram.
Object B is 3 m right of A
Object C is 8 m right of A
SPEED VELOCITY ACCELERATION

• Speed ( v ): rate of change of distance with time. • Velocity ( v ⃗ ): rate of change of position. • Acceleration ( a ⃗ ): rate of change of velocity.
Scalar, unit is m.s⁻¹ Vector, unit is m.s⁻¹ Vector, unit is m.s⁻2
In other words → how much distance is travelled every second. In other words → how much the position changes every second. In other words → how much the velocity changes every second.
• Constant acceleration: a constant increase or decrease in velocity
• Constant speed: covers equals distances in equal time intervals. • Constant velocity: covers equals displacement in equal time in equal time intervals.
intervals. change in velocity (m ⋅ s−1)
• Average speed: total distance covered over the total time taken. acceleration (m ⋅ s−2 )
• Average velocity: total displacement covered over the total time
taken. Δv vf − vi
speed (m ⋅ s−1) distance (m) −1
velocity (m ⋅ s ) displacement (m)
a ⃗ = =
Δt Δt time (s)
D Δx
v= v⃗=
Remember + and – refers to direction of the vectors
t Δt Let us say right is + and left is – in this case:
1. Positive acceleration:
Increasing velocity in + direction (speeding up right) OR decreasing
velocity in the – direction (slowing down left)
time (s) time (s) 2. Negative acceleration:
Decreasing velocity in + direction (slowing down right) OR increasing
• Instantaneous velocity: the velocity of an object at a specific velocity in the – direction (speeding up left)
• Instantaneous speed: the speed of an object at a specific moment in time [if change in velocity and acceleration is in the same direction it is
moment in time. e.g. 1. Let the specific time be 2 seconds – then the instantaneous speeding up and if in opposite directions it is slowing down]
e.g. 1. Let the specific time be 2 seconds – then the instantaneous velocity will be annotated by V2. 3. Deceleration:
speed will be annotated by V2. e.g.2. the initial instantaneous velocity will be Vi. Non-scientific term that means an object is slowing down. In science
e.g.2. the initial instantaneous speed will be Vi. we rather refer to acceleration → direction and context describe
whether it is speeding up or slowing down.
20
Motion in 1D- Equations of motion SCIENCE CLINIC 2018 ©
VARIABLES CALCULATIONS:
A racing car starting from rest on the grid, travels straight along the track and reaches the 400 m mark
after 8,6 s.
u vi Initial velocity a) What was its average acceleration?
v vf Final velocity
a a acceleration Let forward be positive.
s ∆x Displacement
u 0
t ∆t Time taken Δx = viΔt + at 2
v /
1
400 = 2
a8,62
Equations for constant acceleration in one dimension: a ?
−2
s 400 m
a = 10,82 m ⋅ s forward
Old symbols New symbols Leaves out
t 8,6 s
v = u + at vf = vi + aΔt s or Δx
b) What was its velocity at the 400 m mark?
s = 12 (u + v)t Δx = 12 (vi + vf )Δt a
vf = vi + aΔt
s = ut + 12 at 2 Δx = 12 aΔt 2 v or vf
vf = 0 + (10,82)(8,6)
v 2 = u 2 + 2as vf2 = vi2 + 2aΔx t or Δt vf = 93,05 m ⋅ s−1 forward
Steps to using the equations: c) At the 400 m mark, the brakes are applied and the car slowed down at 2 m.s-2 to come to rest.
a) Identify each stage of the motion, where the acceleration has changed. Calculate the time it took for the car to stop.
b) Choose a positive direction and stick to your convention.
c) Record the information given and value required by writing next to each variable. Check the unit and NB! New stage of motion. Find the new value of each variable.
direction.
d) Select correct equation and solve for unknown. Let forward be positive.
e) Include units and direction in your answer.
vf = vi + aΔt
Remember: u 93.05 m.s-1
0 = 93,05 − 2t
v 0
‘starting from rest’ means: u or vi = 0 t = 46,53 s
‘comes to a stop’ means: v or vf = 0 a -2 m.s-2
‘Slowing down’ means: acceleration is negative (a < 0), while still moving in a positive
direction. s /
Constant velocity means: a =0, u = v or vi = vf
t ?
Use a new set a variables for each stage of the motion.
Conversion of units: 1 m.s-1 = 3,6 km.h-1.
21
Motion in 1D- Graphs of Motion SCIENCE CLINIC 2018 ©
Tips on reading graphs:

1. Check which variable is on the vertical axis
2. Check which direction is positive.
3. The velocity at any specific time, can be calculated from gradient of the x-t graph at that time.
4. The acceleration at any specific time, can be calculated from gradient of the v-t graph at that time.
5. The displacement up to a specific time can be calculated from the area under the v-t graph up to that time.
6. The change in velocity up to a specific time can be calculated from the area under the a-t graph up to that time.
1
Δy area of triangle = l ×b
gr a d i e n t = Δx 2
y2 − y1
= x 2 − x1 area of rectangle = l × b
Identify the separate stages of the motion (Forward direction positive):

1. Positive acceleration (accelerating forward) from rest.
2. Constant positive velocity (forward).
3. Negative acceleration (decelerating forward) to rest.
4. At rest
5. Negative acceleration (accelerating backwards) from rest.
6. Constant negative velocity (backwards).
7. Positive acceleration (decelerating backwards) to rest. ( i.e. Accelerating forwards)
EXAMPLE:
The graph shows two cars A and B are traveling at 40 m.s⁻¹ when the brakes are applied and they decelerate to rest.
a) What is the initial speed of the cars in kmh-1?
40 × 3,6
= 144 km ⋅ h−1
b) Which car had the greatest deceleration?
Car A, because the gradient is more steep.
c) How far did car B travel after the brakes were applied?
1
Area under triangle B = b×h
2
1
= (6)(40)
2
= 120 m
22
Examples of graphs of motion SCIENCE CLINIC 2018 ©
Consider the racing car we used to illustrate the equations of motion:
A racing car starting from rest on the grid, travels straight along the track and reaches the 400m mark
after 8,6 s. At the 400 m mark, the brakes are applied and the car slowed down at 2 m.s-2 to come to
rest.
The two stages of the motion can be

represented by x –t, v – t and a – t
graphs:
x-t: a. Describe the motion of the object from 0 to 8 seconds.

The displacement is always increasing, the 0-3 s: Negative acceleration from 12 to 3 m.s-1 in forward direction
car always moves forward. 3-8 s: Constant velocity of 3 m.s-1 forward.
Gradient of s-t at point = velocity at that b. What does the gradient of the line AB represent?
point. The acceleration from A to B.
The car starts from rest and ends at rest c. Calculate this value.
where gradient = 0. a = gradient
vf − vi
a =
The max gradient is at 8,6 s. t
3 − 12
a =
3
a = −3 m ⋅ s−2
v-t:
The velocity is always positive, the car ∴ a = 3 m ⋅ s−2 in the opposite direction to motion
always moves forward.
d.What is the acceleration between B and C?
The gradient from 0 to 8,6 s is positive, a(BC) = 0 m.s-2 because gradient = 0
the car is accelerating forward.
e. Calculate the total displacement of the object in 8 seconds.
1
The gradient from 8,6 to 55,1 s is Δx = area = bh + lb + lb
2
negative, the car is decelerating while trav- =
1
(3)(9) + (3)(3) + (5)(3)
eling forward. 2
= 13,5 + 9 + 15
= 37,5 m
f. Draw the corresponding a – t graph for the motion:
a-t:
Constant positive acceleration of +10,82
m.s-2 from 0 to 8,6 s.
Constant negative acceleration of -2 m.s-2

from 8,6 s to 55,1 s.
23
Ticker timers SCIENCE CLINIC 2018 ©
Measuring Instantaneous Velocity Measuring Acceleration
A ticker timer produces a series of dots on a tape which can be analyzed to determine the If we know the instantaneous velocity at two times, we can calculate the acceleration between
displacement between two points and the time taken between the two points. the points using
Δx vf − vi
vaverage = a=
t Δt
∆x is measured in meters with a ruler. Here is a section of tape from a ticker timer which vibrates at 50 Hz.
1
t can be calculated from the period of the timer. T = and is measured in seconds.
f
When t is small we are calculating the instantaneous velocity over the time taken. When t is large
we are calculating the average velocity over the time taken.
1
To calculate the instantaneous velocity at a certain point (Z) on a tape: The time interval between the dots is = 0,02 s
1. Mark off one or more spaces before the point Z. 50
2. Mark off the same number of spaces after the point Z.
3. Z will occur at half the time of the interval. Divide the tape into two intervals, C to E and A to C, to find vf and vi respectively.
4. Measure the length of the interval in meters. This is the displacement s. 0,042 0,018
5. Count the spaces in the time interval to calculate t. NOTE: t = number of spaces x T. vCE = 0,04
vAC = 0,04
Δx
6. Velocity at Z is called VZ. VZ =
t = 1,05 m ⋅ s−1 = 0,45 m ⋅ s−1
REMEMBER:
The footnotes used are simply a descriptor of the At which dot was the instantaneous velocity = 1,05 m.s-1 ? D
time point to which the velocity refers to. At which dot was the instantaneous velocity = 0,45 m.s-1? B
vD − vB
vi means velocity at the initial time point a = t B to D
v4 means velocity at the 4th time point (4th second)
1,05 − 0,45
vb means velocity at time point B a = 0,04
a = 15 m ⋅ s−2
Use the pattern of the dots to describe the motion of each object: REMEMBER:
The average velocity across the a time section (from A to C) is equal to the instantaneous
velocity in the middle of that time interval (at B)
a) acceleration from rest
The instantaneous velocity at B = average velocity from A to C
The instantaneous velocity at C = average velocity from B to D OR from A to E
The instantaneous velocity at D = average velocity from C to E
b) constant speed, and then
suddenly accelerates This only applies to constant acceleration or zero acceleration. Because acceleration is rarely
constant in real life, this could lead to inaccuracy.
In real life, the variability in acceleration is overcome by making the time across which the
c) accelerating, then moving average velocity is calculated shorter.
at constant velocity and
then decelerating Shorter average velocity time = more accurate instantaneous velocity
d) slowly decelerating
24
Motion in 1D - THE ESSENTIALS SCIENCE CLINIC 2018 ©
Quan&ty Defini&on Vector/scalar Unit

Posi&on (x) The place where an object is rela4ve to a Vector m
specific reference point.
Distance(D) Length of path taken by a moving object Scalar m
Displacement (∆x) Change in posi4on with respect to a start Vector m
point
Speed (v) Rate of change of distance. Scalar m.s⁻¹
Velocity (v) Rate of change of posi4on. Vector m.s⁻¹
Accelera&on (a) Rate of change of velocity. Vector m.s⁻2
Average speed !
!!"#$!%# =
∆!
Average velocity ∆!
!!"#$!%# =
∆!
Instantaneous the velocity of an object at a specific moment in 4me.
velocity
Eg. Vi is ini4al velocity. Vf is final velocity.
Accelera&on !! − !!
!=
∆!
Nega&ve Decreasing velocity in + direc4on OR increasing velocity in the – direc4on
accelera&on
Posi&ve
accelera&on Increasing velocity in + direc4on OR decreasing velocity in the – direc4on
FORMULAE
Old symbols New symbols Leaves out

v = u + at vf = vi + aΔt s or Δx
s = 12 (u + v)t Δx = 12 (vi + vf )Δt a
s = ut + 12 at 2 Δx = 12 aΔt 2 v or vf
v 2 = u 2 + 2as vf2 = vi2 + 2aΔx t or Δt
25
Graphs of motion- THE ESSENTIALS SCIENCE CLINIC 2018 ©
Displacement-Time
• 1 is positive acceleration
GRADIENT:
• 2 is constant velocity Velocity
• 3 is negative acceleration
AREA:
• 4 is at rest
n/a
Velocity-Time
GRADIENT:
• 2 is constant velocity Acceleration
AREA:
• 4 is at rest
Displacement
Acceleration-Time
GRADIENT:
• 2 is constant velocity (a = 0)
n/a
• 4 is at rest, but negative AREA:

acceleration still applies Velocity
26
Energy SCIENCE CLINIC 2018 ©
ENERGY PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF MECHANICAL ENERGY

The ability to do work Principle of conservation of mechanical energy: The total
Unit: joules (J) EMECHA = EMECHB
mechanical energy in an isolated system remains constant. The law
Scalar quantity of conservation of mechanical energy applies when there is no friction or air (EP + EK )A = (EP + EK )B
resistance acting on the object. In the absence of air resistance, or other 1 1
Gravitational Potential Energy (EP) Kinetic Energy (EK)
forces, the mechanical energy of an object moving in the earth’s gravita-
(m gh + 2 m v 2 )A = (m gh + 2 m v 2 )B
The energy an object possesses The energy an object pos-
due to its position in the gravita- sesses as a result of its mo- tional field in free fall, is conserved.
tional field relative to a reference tion
Law of conservation of energy: The total energy of an isolated system remains constant.
point.
In the following instances the gravitational potential energy of an object is converted to kinetic energy (and vice versa), while the
Amount of energy transferred when an Amount of energy transferred
mechanical energy remains constant
object changes position relative to the to an object as it changes
earth’s surface. speed. EXAMPLE 1: Object moving vertically
1 2 A 2 kg ball is dropped from rest at A, determine the maximum velocity of the ball at B just before impact.
EP = mgh EK = mv (EP + EK )A = (EP + EK )B

2 1
(m gh + m v )A
2
2
= (m gh + 12 m v 2 )B
g = 9,8m.s ,-2
m is mass in kg,
(2)(9,8)(4) + 12 (2)(0 2 ) = (2)(9,8)(0) + 12 (2)v 2
m is mass in kg, v is velocity in m.s-1
h is height in m 78,4 + 0 = 0 + 1v 2
Example: Example: v = 78,4

Determine the gravitational potential Determine the kinetic energy v = 8,85 m ⋅ s−1 downwards
energy of a 500 g ball when it is placed of a 500 g ball when it travels
on a table with a height of 3 m. with a velocity of 3 m.s -1.
EXAMPLE 2: Object moving on an inclined plane
EP = mgh EK = 1
mv 2 A 2 kg ball rolls at 3 m·s−1 on the ground at A, determine the maximum height the ball will reach at B.
2
= (0,5)(9,8)(3)
=
1
(0,5)(32 ) (EP + EK )A = (EP + EK )B
= 14,7 J 2
1 2 1
= 2,25 J (m gh + m v )A
2
= (m gh + 2 m v 2 )B
(2)(9,8)(0) + 12 (2)(32 ) = (2)(9,8)(h) + 12 (2)(0 2 )
Mechanical Energy (EM) 0+9 = 19,6h + 0
The sum of gravitational potential and kinetic energy at a point
9
= h
EM = EP + EK
19,6
h = 0,46 m
EM = mgh + 12 mv 2 EXAMPLE 3: Rollercoaster

The 2 kg ball rolls on a toy rollercoaster from A, at 20 m above the ground, to B where its height is 8 m and velocity is 14 m·s−1.
EXAMPLE: Calculate its starting velocity at A.
A ball, mass 500 g, is thrown horizontally through the air. The ball travels
at a velocity of 1,8 m·s−1 and is 2,5 m from the ground. Determine the (EP + EK )A = (EP + EK )B
mechanical energy of the ball. 1 2 1
(m gh + m v )A2
= (m gh + 2 m v 2 )B
EM = EP + E K 1 1
(2)(9,8)(20) + 2 (2)(v 2 ) = (2)(9,8)(16) + 2 (2)(142 )
1 2
EM = mgh + mv2 392 + v 2 = 313,6 + 196
1
EM = (0,5)(9,8)(2,5) + 2
(0,5)(1,82 ) v = 313,6 + 196 − 392
EM = 13,06 J v = 10,84 m ⋅ s−1 to the right
27
www
Information sheets – Paper 2 (Chemistry)
TABLE 1: PHYSICAL CONSTANTS/TABEL 1: FISIESE KONSTANTES
NAME/NAAM SYMBOL/SIMBOOL VALUE/WAARDE
Standard pressure
pθ 1,013 x 105 Pa
Standaarddruk
Molar gas volume at STP
Vm 22,4 dm3·mol-1
Molêre gasvolume by STD
Standard temperature
Tθ 273 K
Standaardtemperatuur
Charge on electron
e -1,6 x 10-19 C
Lading op elektron
Avogadro's constant
NA 6,02 x 1023 mol-1
Avogadro-konstante
TABLE 2: FORMULAE/TABEL 2: FORMULES
m n=
N
n=
M NA
n m V
c= OR c = n=
V MV Vm
TABLE 3: THE PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS/TABEL 3: DIE PERIODIEKE TABEL VAN ELEMENTE
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
(I) (II) (III) (IV) (V) (VI) (VII) (VIII)
1 Atomic number 2
KEY/SLEUTEL Atoomgetal
H He
2,1
1 4
3 4 29 5 6 7 8 9 10
Electronegativity Symbol
Li Be Cu B C N O F Ne
1,0
1,5
2,0
2,5
3,0
3,5
4,0
1,9
Elektronegatiwiteit Simbool
7 9 63,5 11 12 14 16 19 20
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Na Mg Approximate relative atomic mass Aℓ Si P S Cℓ Ar
0,9
1,2
1,5
1,8
2,1
2,5
3,0
23 24 Benaderde relatiewe atoommassa 27 28 31 32 35,5 40
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
0,8
1,0
1,3
1,5
1,6
1,6
1,5
1,8
1,8
1,8
1,9
1,6
1,6
1,8
2,0
2,4
2,8
39 40 45 48 51 52 55 56 59 59 63,5 65 70 73 75 79 80 84
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
0,8
1,0
1,2
1,4
1,8
1,9
2,2
2,2
2,2
1,9
1,7
1,7
1,8
1,9
2,1
2,5
86 88 89 91 92 96 101 103 106 108 112 115 119 122 128 127 131
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tℓ Pb Bi Po At Rn
0,7
0,9
1,6
1,8
1,8
1,9
2,0
2,5
133 137 139 179 181 184 186 190 192 195 197 201 204 207 209
87 88 89
Fr Ra Ac
0,7
0,9
58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
226
Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
140 141 144 150 152 157 159 163 165 167 169 173 175
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
232 238
Classification of Matter SCIENCE CLINIC 2018 ©
All matter is made up of particles whose properties determine the observable CLASSIFICATION
characteristics and reactivity.
Elements of the periodic table can be classified into 3 different categories:
Ions Atoms Molecules Non-metals, Metals and Metalloids
Par:cles Non-metals Metals Metalloids

Eg. Sulphur Eg. Copper Eg. Silicon
Poor electrical conductors Poor electrical conductors but conductivity
All ma9er Good electrical conductors
(except graphite) increases with an increase in temperature
Pure Poor thermal conductors

Mixtures Good thermal conductors Varied thermal conductivity
substances (Except diamond)
Dull appearance Lustre (shiny) Lustre (shiny)
Brittle Malleable and ductile Brittle
Elements Compounds
Low melting and boiling points High melting and boiling points Melting and boiling points differ vastly
Can be solids, liquids or gases at All solids except mercury (Hg) at
Solids at room temperature
Non- room temperature room temperature
Metals Metalloids
metals
MIXTURES AND PURE SUBSTANCES ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS

Pure substances Insulator Electrical conductor Semi-conductor
Mixture
Compound Element A material that prevents the flow A material that allows the flow of A substance that can conduct electricity under
of charge charge certain conditions
Consists of different Non-metals Metals Metalloids
Consists of two or more Consists of only
particles, not
elements chemically bonded one type of atom Eg. Diodes and LEDs (light emitting diodes) and
chemically joined. Eg. Plastic and rubber Eg. Electrical cables
integrated circuits.
Components can be Cannot be

Components can only be MAGNETIC PROPERTIES
separated into separated into
separated into simpler sub-
simpler substances simpler
stances by chemical means Ferromagnetic materials
by physical means substances Non-magnetic materials
Materials can be influenced by a magnet
Materials which are not influenced by a magnet
Smallest sample Soft magnetic materials Hard magnetic materials
Smallest particles are Smallest particles
will reflect the Are easily magnetised but lose Not easily magnetised but retain
molecules or ions or formula are atoms or Cannot become magnetised
composition of magnetism easily magnetism for a long time
units molecules
mixture
Eg. Iron (Fe) Eg. Cobalt (Co), Nickel (Ni),
Uses: Temporary magnets such as Steel Eg. Other elements including metals such as
No fixed ratio
Fixed ratio between the electromagnets in metal scrap Uses: Permanent magnets and aluminium (Al), zinc (Zn),Copper(Cu)
between the
smallest particles yards and loud speakers compasses
different particles.
Eg. Sand in water Eg. H2O, MgSO4 Eg. Cu, H2
31
Classification of Matter-THE ESSENTIALS SCIENCE CLINIC 2018 ©
Physical Properties of materials

Ions Atoms Molecules
Strength: the ability of a material to resist stress and strain
Thermal conductivity: the ability of material to conduct heat
Electrical conductivity: the ability of a material to conduct electricity Par:cles

Brittle: hard but likely to break
Malleable: Ability to be hammered or pressed into shape without

breaking or cracking
All ma9er
Ductile: the ability to be stretched into a wire
Pure
Magnetic: a material which can be attracted or repelled by a magnet Mixtures
(its domains are aligned) substances
Non-magnetic: a material which is not attracted or repelled by a mag-

net (its domains are misaligned)
Elements Compounds
Density: the mass per unit volume of a substance
Melting point: The temperature at which a solid becomes a liquid.
Boiling point: the temperature of a liquid at which its vapour pressure Non-
equals the external (atmospheric) pressure Metals Metalloids
metals
A substance that cannot be separated into simpler

Pure Substance Pure copper, O2
components by physical methods
Pure substance consisting of only one type of Argon, mercury, silicon,
Element
atom gold
Pure substance consisting of two or more elements Water, carbon dioxide,
Compound
chemically bonded in a fixed ratio sodium chloride
Consists of different particles mixed together, but
Mixture Milk, air, salt water
not chemically joined.
Homogenous A mixture of uniform composition and in
Eg: air, brine, steel
mixture which all components are in the same phase
Heterogeneous A mixture of non-uniform composition and of Sand and rock mixture,
mixture which the components can be easily identified Pizza toppings
32
Names and formulae SCIENCE CLINIC 2018 ©
BASIC CONCEPTS
• Atoms combine in very specific ratios to TABLE OF COMMON ELEMENTS
form certain compounds.
H Hydrogen Ne Neon K Potassium Zn Zinc
E.g. carbon dioxide consists of 1 carbon
and 2 oxygen atoms. CARBON He Helium Na Sodium Ca Calcium Br Bromine
Li Lithium Mg Magnesium V Vanadium Sn Tin
•These ratios remain fixed for that
compound. The ratio is given by the OXYGEN OXYGEN
Be Beryllium Al Aluminium Cr Chromium Pt Platinum
formula. e.g. CO2
B Boron Si Silicon Mn Manganese Ag Silver
C Carbon P Phosphorus Fe Iron Au Gold
•Simple ions are single atoms which carry a charge. They are also called mona-
N Nitrogen S Sulphur Co Cobalt Hg Mercury
tomic ions.
O Oxygen Cl Chlorine Ni Nickel Pb Lead
Polyatomic ions are groups of atoms bonded together which collectively carry a
F Fluorine Ar Argon Cu Copper Xe Xenon
charge.
TABLE OF COMMON COMPOUNDS TABLE OF COMMON CATIONS AND ANIONS

Formula Chemical name Common name SINGLE CHARGE DOUBLE CHARGE TRIPLE CHARGE
H2O Hydrogen oxide Water ANIONS (NEGATIVE IONS)
CO2 Carbon dioxide Carbon dioxide All Group 7 All Group 6 All Group 5
NH3 Hydrogen nitride Ammonia OH¯ Hydroxide ion SO4²¯ Sulphate ion PO4³¯ Phosphate ion
HCℓ Hydrogen chloride Hydrochloric acid NO3¯ Nitrate ion SO3²¯ Sulfite ion
H2SO4 Hydrogen sulphate Sulphuric acid NO2¯ Nitrite ion CO3²¯ Carbonate ion
HNO3 Hydrogen nitrate Nitric acid MnO4¯ Permanganate ion CrO4²¯ Chromate ion
H2CO3 Hydrogen carbonate Carbonic acid CℓO3¯ Chlorate ion Cr2O4²¯ Dichromate ion
H3PO4 Hydrogen phosphate Phosphoric acid CℓO¯ Hypochlorite ion O2²¯ Peroxide ion
CH3COOH Ethanoic acid Vinegar HCO3¯ Hydrogen carbonate ion
NaCℓ Sodium chloride Table salt HSO3¯ Hydrogen sulphate ion
NaOH Sodium hydroxide Caustic soda HSO4¯ Hydrogen sulfite ion
NaHCO3 Sodium hydrogen carbonate Baking soda (bicarbonate of soda) H2PO4¯ Dihydrogen phosphate ion
Na2CO3 Sodium carbonate Washing soda CH3COO¯ Acetate ion
NaNO3 Sodium nitrate Chile saltpetre CATIONS (POSITIVE IONS)
KOH Potassium hydroxide Caustic potash All Group 1 All Group 2 All Group 3
KNO3 Potassium nitrate Saltpetre NH4+ Ammonium ion
CaCO3 Calcium carbonate Marble/ chalk/ lime stone H3O +
Hydronium ion
CaSO4 Calcium sulphate Gypsum
MgSO4 Magnesium sulphate Epsom salts
CuSO4 Copper sulphate Blue vitriol
CH4 Methane Natural gas
33
Names and formulae SCIENCE CLINIC 2018 ©
WRITING CHEMICAL FORMULAE BALANCING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
Follow these basic steps to write chemical formulae for ionic substances: A chemical equation represents the chemical changes that occur when a reaction takes place.
1. Write symbol for the positive ion first, then for the negative ion. The Law of conservation of matter means that matter cannot be created or destroyed, merely transferred from one
The ions could be monatomic ions or polyatomic ions. substance to another.
•A chemical equation must be balanced in order to conform to the above law.
2. Write ionic charges at top right of symbols •Compounds have fixed ratios, thus only the number of compounds on either side of the arrow can be changed .
• Monatomic ion → the ion of one single element only, so you can use periodic table to •Numbers are placed in front of compounds on either side of the arrow to balance the equation.
determine the charge. •The total number of each atom should be the same on either side of the equation.
• Polyatomic ion → you must memorise the charges. Steps for balancing reaction equations:
1.Identify all reactants and products of the reaction.
3. “Cross multiply” the numbers so that the total charge of the 2.Start from the word equation where possible.
compound is 0. 3.Write the correct formula for the compounds of the reactant and products and separate them with an arrow.
4.Indicate the phases of each compound.
4. Write final compound: 5.Count the number of atoms of each element on either side of the arrow, and add numbers in front of
• ends in –ide → monatomic ion compounds in order to get it to balance.
Eg. Hydrogen Sulphide = H2S 6.Check the total number of atoms of a certain element in reactants must equal the total number atoms of the
same element in the product.
• the name ends in –ate or –ite if it includes oxygen
• Roman numerals (II) → ionic charge of the metal EXAMPLE:

Eg. Copper(II)sulphate → Cu2 SO4 In the Synthesis of water, Hydrogen reacts with oxygen to form
water.
EXAMPLE:
Step 1. Hydrogen + oxygen → water.
Aluminium oxide
Step 2. H2 + O2→ H2 O
Aℓ3+ O2- (“cross-multiply” numbers )
Step 3. H2 (g) + O2(g) → H2 O(g)
Step 4a. Add a 2 in front of H2O to balance the oxygen atoms.

Aℓ 2 O 3 (the total charge must be zero) H2 (g) + O2(g) → 2H2 O(g)
Step 4b. Add a 2 in front of H2 to balance the hydrogen atoms.

2H2 (g) + O2(g) → 2H2 O(g)
Step 5. Reactants have 4 H atoms and 2 oxygen atoms.

Products have 4 H atoms and 2 oxygen atoms.
Equation is balanced.
PHASES OF A COMPOUND
NOTE: These steps are a systematic approach to balancing
Phases are represented as subscripts after the formulae as follow: chemical equations. You don’t have to show all the steps in your
working out. Usually only the final balanced equation is required.
(s) solid state
(ℓ) liquid state
(aq) aqueous solution
(g) gaseous state
34
Kinetic Theory of Matter SCIENCE CLINIC 2018 ©
STATES OF MATTER CHANGES OF STATE HEATING AND COOLING CURVES FOR WATER
•All matter has mass and takes up space (volume). Sublima/on condensing
Temperature (oC)
Temperature (oC)
boiling
•Matter occurs in one of three states, solid, liquid or gas, Mel/ng Boiling/
depending on the temperature.
evapora/on
•The state of matter depends on its melting point (MP)
and boiling point (BP). If the temperature is below the Solid Liquid Gas freezing
MP, it is a solid. If the temperature is above the MP, but mel+ng
below the BP, it is a liquid. If the temperature is above
the BP, it is a gas.
Freezing Condensa/on
Time (min) Time (min)
Deposi/on Hea+ng Curve Cooling Curve
EVIDENCE FOR THE KINETIC THEORY OF MATTER The Kinetic Theory of Matter states that:
Diffusion is the movement of atoms or molecules Brownian motion is the random
from an area of high concentration to an area of movement of microscopic particles •All matter is made of tiny particles with spaces in between them.
lower concentration. The higher the temperature, suspended in a gas or liquid. When •The tiny particles are constantly moving, but the particles lose no kinetic
the faster diffusion takes place. we use a microscope to study smoke energy when they collide with other particles or with the walls of their con-
particles in air or pollen particles in tainer.
dye
water, these particles jiggle about in a •The kinetic energy of the particles depends on how fast they are moving.
molecules water
completely random way. The tiny At any given time, some particles are moving slowly while others are moving
molecules
equilibrium particles of air or water, which are too fast. The temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the
small to be seen with the microscope, particles.
are in constant motion. They collide •The potential energy of the particles depends on how far they are apart
with the bigger particles of smoke and and depends on their state (solid, liquid or gas).
pollen, causing the bigger particles to •There are attractive forces between the particles which become stronger as
change direction and speed. the particle move closer.
Properties of
Spaces between Forces between Arrangement of Movement of
states of Particle diagram Volume Shape
particles particles particles particles
matter
Close together. Fixed Vibrate about fixed

Solid Fixed volume Fixed shape Touching each other Strong
positions in a set pattern. positions
Definite Takes the shape Slide past each other

Liquid Touching each other Medium Random – no fixed pattern
volume of the container switching places.
No definite shape or volume. On their own

Gas Far apart Very weak Fast and free
Expands to fill container
35
The atom- Atomic models SCIENCE CLINIC 2018 ©
J.J Thomson (1897)

1.Thomson used a cathode- James Chadwick (1932)
ray tube to show that there Electrons Niels Bohr (1913) 1. Discovered the neutron which is a
are small negative •Electrons travel around the nu- particle in the nucleus.
particles inside atoms. He cleus in circular, definite paths 2. Neutrons have no charge, and their
called them “electrons”. - called orbits- like planets orbit mass is almost the same as a proton.
2. Electrons are found in all around the sun.
-
atoms. They have the same - •Each orbit has a ‘certain energy.’
charge and mass regardless Electrons in the same orbit have Schrödinger (1926)
of which substance they -
- the same energy. 1. It is not possible to find the exact position of an
come from. •The further the orbit is from the electron, but only the most probable regions where
-
3. He used the current bun nucleus, the higher the energy. the electrons move.
(A.K.A Plum pudding) model - 2. The regions inside an atom where electrons are
•Electrons can jump from one or-
to explain that the negative likely to be found are called orbitals.
Uniform, posi1vely bit to another.
electrons are found inside a
charged sphere •When an electron moves to higher
solid positive mass.
energy level it gains energy.
TIMELINE OF THE HISTORY OF THE ATOM

Democritus John Dalton Ernest Rutherford (1909)
( +/- 440 BC) (1803) Rutherford conducted an experiment in which he shot a beam of alpha particles towards a sheet of very thin gold foil .
1. All elements are Most of the particles continued in a straight line, but some were deflected He deduced that:
1. Democritus made up of small, i.The positive charge is not evenly distributed as suggested by Thomson but is in the centre of the atom, in the nucleus.
proposed that if you indestructible, ii.Mass is concentrated in the nucleus. The nucleus has a large enough mass to deflect the alpha particles.
kept cutting a solid spheres iii.The nucleus is small compared to the atom because most of the particles passed undisturbed through the gold foil.
substance in half called atoms. iv.Electrons are extremely small and far from the nucleus and make up practically the whole volume of the atom.
repeatedly, you would 2. A t o m s o f t h e v.The volume of the atom is 10 000 greater than the volume of the nucleus. The atom is mostly empty space.
eventually end up same element
with an “uncuttable” are identical:
metal foil
particle. same size, shape flourescent
2. He called these and mass. screen
undeflected
particles atoms. 3. An atom is the α-par&cle source α-par&cles solid
smallest particle of an element which can take nucleus
part in a chemical reaction.
4. Compounds are formed when the atoms of two or
more elements combine with one another in
fixed whole number ratios.
Shortcomings:
1. Atoms are not solid spheres.
2. All atoms of an element are not identical. There deflected
are different isotopes of elements. α-par&cles gold
3. Atoms consist of sub-particles. atom
36
The atom SCIENCE CLINIC 2018 ©
WHAT IS AN ATOM? Atomic Number (Z) and Atomic Mass (A) Consider the atom shown here:
•Atoms are the very small particles of which all An atom is identified by the contents of its nucleus.
It has 6 protons. This means it is a 6 Protons
elements are made- they are the basic building An atom is represented by the notation:
Carbon atom. 6 Neutrons
block of all matter – including your own body,
your hair, your organs, the earth, the sun are all E Symbol of the element
E
-
A
made of different combinations of atoms. It has 6 neutrons. This means it has 12 - -
A Atomic Mass (A) is the number of nucleons nucleons and a mass of 12 amu.
•E.g. Your body is made of 65% Oxygen, 19%
Carbon and 10% Hydrogen by mass.
Z Z Atomic Number (Z) is the number of protons It has 6 electrons so it has a total
+
+
+
•All known elements are arranged on the charge of 6 + (-6) = 0. It is neutral.
periodic table in order of increasing atomic
-
number. The diameter of an atom varies for -
•Elements in the periodic table are arranged in order of in- each type of atom. The diameter is
-
•Periodic refers to ‘repeating patterns.’ Elements creasing atomic number (Z). about 1 x 10 -10 m.
are arranged into groups (vertical columns) and •The number of protons (Z) gives each element its unique Carbon Atom
periods (horizontal rows). properties.
•Z also indicates how many electrons are present in the atom 7
•Elements in within a group have similar physical
EXAMPLE 1: Lithium 3 Li
as the atom is electrically neutral.
and chemical properties. •A indicates the mass of the atom how many nucleons are
(Z) Atomic number is 3: 3 protons, therefore 3 electrons
present in the atom. (A) Atomic Mass is 7: 3 protons and (7 - 3) = 4 neutrons
•Atomic theory is the basis for understanding the •Number of neutrons = Atomic mass number - Number of
interactions and changes in matter. protons (N = A - Z) 32
ATOMS AND SUB-ATOMIC PARTICLES
EXAMPLE 2: Sulphur 16 S
•There are three subatomic particles that are
(Z) Atomic number is 16: 16 protons, therefore 16 electrons
found inside the atoms, i.e. protons, neutrons Table showing the mass and charge of subatomic particles (A) Atomic Mass is 32 : 16 protons and (32 - 16) = 16 neutrons
and electrons.
•The nucleus is in the centre of the atom and 13
contributes most of the mass. The nucleus is proton p+ neutron n0 electron e-
EXAMPLE 3: Carbon-13 6 C
made of the protons and neutrons which are
called nucleons. (Z) Atomic number is 6: 6 protons, therefore 6 electrons
•Because subatomic particles have extremely Mass 1,677 × 10−27 1,677 × 10−27 9,11 × 10−31 (A) Atomic Mass is 13 : 6 protons and (13 - 6) = 7 neutrons
small masses, the atomic mass unit amu is used. (kg) (1 amu) ( 1 amu)
1 amu = 1,677 × 10−27 kg. Relative Atomic Mass (RAM)
•The mass of an atom is measured relative to RAM indicates how many times the average mass of an atom of a certain
Units of element is heavier than 1/12 the mass of a carbon atom.
the mass of carbon-12 atom. Carbon-12 is +1 0 -1
charge Isotopes in an element are responsible for the RAM of elements NOT being
exactly 12 amu, therefore 1 amu is one-twelfth
the mass of carbon-12 atom. whole numbers.
Isotopes of elements EXAMPLE

Consider these three atoms of hydrogen. They each have Hydrogen exists as isotopes.
one proton, but they have different numbers of neutrons. 99,65% of H atoms are 1 1 H
They are called isotopes. 0,30% of H atoms are 1 2 H
n 0,05% of H atoms are 1 3 H
+ + n + n
Isotopes have the same:
number of protons 99,65 × 1 0,30 × 2 0,05 × 3
number of electrons RAM(H) = 100
+ 100
+ 100
chemical properties. - - -
Isotopes have different: = 1,004
1 2 3
number of neutrons 1 H 1 H 1 H
different masses Hydrogen Deuterium Tri2um
37
The atom SCIENCE CLINIC 2018 ©
ELECTRON ARRANGEMENT IN THE ATOM IONS

1. In neutral atoms, the number of electrons in the cloud around the nucleus equals CATIONS ANIONS
the number of protons in the nucleus. Cations are positive ions which are formed when the Anions are negative ions which are formed when electrons
2. The electrons closer to the nucleus have less energy than the electrons further electrons from the outermost energy level are separated attach to an atom to fill the outermost energy level of the
away from the nucleus. from the atom. atom.
3. The electrons occur in energy levels (n).
4. Different energy levels are able to accommodate different numbers of electrons The atoms become charged atoms known as ions. These The atoms become charged atoms known as ions. These
(Total electrons = n2). charges need to be considered when completing Aufbau charges need to be considered when completing Aufbau
5. The electrons are found in certain regions within an energy level, referred to as diagrams or electron configurations. diagrams or electron configurations.
orbitals. Each orbital can accommodate 2 electrons.
EXAMPLE: 13Al
+3
EXAMPLE: 9F-
Electrons are always found in positions of lowest possible energy (as close to the A neutral atom of aluminium contains 13 protons and 13 A neutral atom of fluorine contains 9 protons and 9
nucleus as possible) electrons. electrons.
This aluminium ion has a charge of +3, indicating it has 3 This fluorine ion has a charge of -1, indicating it has 1
• energy level 1: 1 s orbital protons more than electrons. electron more than protons.
• energy level 2: 1 s and 3 p orbitals The number of protons does not change for a given ele- The number of protons does not change for a given ele-
• energy level 3: 1 s, 3 p and 5 d orbitals ment, thus it has lost 3 electrons and has 10 electrons. ment, thus it has gained electron and has 10 electrons.
Shapes of the orbitals Orbital box (Aufbau) diagrams Spectroscopic Electron Lewis dot diagrams
Configuration (spd) notation:
Aufbau diagrams is most detailed description of the way the This is a concise way to indicate the electron Lewis dot diagrams are used to show the
1s orbital orbitals are filled with electrons. The orbitals are filled from arrangement in an atom. This is similar to the position of the valence electrons around an
Energy level 1 the lowest energy at the bottom in the following way: Aufbau diagram, but represents it in a simpler element. The valence electrons are related to
Spherical in shape way. the group of the element.
EXAMPLE: In all of the examples below, X represents any
Valence electrons are
9F = 1s 2s 2p
4s 2 2 5
in the outer most element in the group.
13Al = 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p
2 2 6 2 1
energy level and take
20Ca = 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s
2 s orbital part in bonding. 2 2 6 2 6 2
Group 1 Group 2
Energy level 1 3p
Spherical in shape We can also concisely represent the Electron
Electrons spend more 3s Configuration of ions in this way:
X X
Energy
time further from nu-

cleus Negative ions have gained electrons
Positive ions have lost electrons Group 3 Group 4
2p
EXAMPLE:
2px, 2py , 2pz orbitals
2s Core electrons are in
full energy levels and
are not involved
-
13Al
+3
2
9F = 1s 2s 2p
2 6
= 1s2 2s2 2p6

X X
Energy level 2
in bonding.
20Ca
+2
Dumbbell shapes along = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 Group 5 Group 6
x,y and z axes 1s
We can also write the electron configuration
Flourine
according to noble gas notation.
Noble gas notation makes use of the first pre-
ceding noble gas, which has a completely filled
X X
As the energy level(n) increases Pauli’s exclusion principle: Maximum of two electrons per outer energy level.
•the size of their s and p orbitals also orbital provided that they spin in opposite directions. (arrows Group 7 Group 8
increases. in opposite directions) EXAMPLE:
9F = [He] 2p
5
•The number of orbitals increases.
•We encounter d and f orbitals which are more
complicated shapes.
Hund’s rule: No pairing in p orbitals before at least one
electron in each of them. 20Ca = [Ar]4s
2
13Al = [Ne]3s 3p
2
1
X X
38
The atom-THE ESSENTIALS SCIENCE CLINIC 2018 ©
Atomic models Mass and charge of subatomic particles Isotopes have the same number of protons (Z) but differ-
ent number of neutrons (A)
1. All elements are made up of
proton p+ neutron n0 electron e- Relative Atomic Mass (RAM)
John Dalton small, indestructible, solid spheres
RAM indicates how many times the average mass of an
(1803) called atoms like billiard balls.
atom of a certain element is heavier than 1/12 the mass
2. Atoms of the same element are Mass 1,677 × 10−27 1,677 × 10−27 9,11 × 10−31 of a carbon atom.
identical. (kg) (1 amu) ( 1 amu)
J.J Thomson Electrons are negative particles, Electron arrangement (neutral atom)
(1897) found inside a solid positive mass, 1. Number of electrons = Z
Units of
like raisins in a current bun. +1 0 -1 2. The electrons occur in energy levels (n).
charge
3. The closer to the nucleus, the less the energy.
1. The positive charge is in the
4. Total electrons in a level = n2
centre of the atom, in the nucleus.
Representing atoms 5. The electrons are found in orbitals. Each orbital
2. Mass is concentrated in the
can accommodate 2 electrons.
Ernest nucleus.
E Symbol of the element
A
E
Rutherford 3. The nucleus is small compared
Orbitals
(1909) to the atom. A Atomic Mass (A) is the number of nucleons
• level 1: 1 s orbital
4. Electrons are extremely small
and travel far from the nucleus. • level 2: 1 s and 3 p orbitals
5. Most of the atom is empty Z Atomic Number (Z) is the number of protons • level 3: 1 s, 3 p and 5 d orbitals
space.
Electrons travel around the nucleus
Z Valence electrons are found in the outer energy level.
Niels Bohr in circular, definite paths called Notations for Electron Configuration
(1913) orbits. Each orbit has a ‘certain Aufbau: orbitals are shown as boxes. Electrons are shown
energy’. In a neutral atom: as arrows in the boxes.
Number of protons = Z
James spd: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2
The neutron is a particle in the Number of electrons = Z
Chadwick Number of neutrons = A - Z
nucleus with no charge, and almost
(1932)
the same mass as a proton.
Valence electrons are
4s in the outer most
energy level and take
part in bonding.
3p
3s
Energy
IONS
CATIONS ANIONS
2p
Cations are positive ions which are formed when the Anions are negative ions which are formed when
electrons from the outermost energy level are separated electrons attach to an atom to fill the outermost energy
from the atom. level of an atom. 2s Core electrons are in
full energy levels and
are not involved
The atoms become charged atoms known as ions. These The atoms become charged atoms known as ions. These in bonding.
charges need to be considered when completing Aufbau charges need to be considered when completing Aufbau
diagrams or electron configurations. diagrams or electron configurations. 1s
Flourine
39
The periodic table SCIENCE CLINIC 2018 ©
GROUPS (COLUMNS) s-block PERIOD (ROWS)

•Groups are the vertical columns in the periodic table.
1s p-block 1s •Periods are the horizontal rows in the periodic table.
•Elements in a group have similar outer electron •There is a gradual change in the physical and
configurations. 2s 2p chemical properties as we move across a period.
•This means they have similar chemical properties.
3s d-block 3p •The Period number tells us the energy level where
•The group number corresponds to the number of the outermost electrons are found.
valence electrons. 4s 3d 4p
•Eg All of Group 2 elements have two valence •Eg Period 3: outermost electrons in the 3rd energy
electrons.
5s 4d 5p
level.
6s 5d 6p
IMPORTANT GROUPS TO REMEMBER: EXAMPLE: Locating an element.
1: Alkali metals
7s 6d
2: Alkali Earth metals 1. Silicon is in group 4 and period 3.
Group 1: Group 18:
17: Halogens Group 2: Group 17: Noble gases 2. Calcium is in group 2 and period 4.
18: Noble gases Alkali Alkali Earth Halogens
metals metals
TRENDS OF THE PERIODIC TABLE
IONISATION ENERGY (IE) ATOMIC RADIUS ELECTRON AFFINITY (EA)
Energy needed per mole to remove an electron from an atom The distance from the nucleus to the border of the outer orbital. The energy released when an electron is is attached to an
in the gaseous phase. atom or molecule to form a negative ion.
•Atomic radii decrease across a period because as electrons are being
First ionization energy is the energy required to remove the added to the same energy level, protons are being added to the nucleus,
first electron (outermost electron in the highest energy sub- which pulls the electrons with a stronger force.
level)
•Atomic radii increase down a group because
a)electrons enter a whole new energy level in the next period
b)the core electrons shield the outer electron from the pull of the nucleus. F Gains F−
outer
electron
Na Loses Na+ Atomic radii (pm)

outer
Fluorine atom Fluorine ion
electron 1A 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A 8A
The electron affinity is also a description of how likely an atom
is to accept an electron
Sodium atom Sodium ion 37 31
The smaller the atom, the more the force of attraction by the Li Be B C N O F Ne The smaller the atom, the greater the ability of an atom to
nucleus on the outer electron, hence the higher the ionization receive an electron due to proximity to the nucleus.
energy. 152 112 85 77 75 73 72 71 • EA increase across a period
•IE increases across a period • EA decreases down a group
•IE decreases down a group
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
ELECTRONEGATIVITY (EN)
The tendency of an atom in a molecule to attract bonding Interesting trend:
electrons. Electronegativity range from 0,7 (Cs) to 4,0 (F). 186 160 143 118 110 103 100 98
Melting point, Boiling point and Density increase from
• EN increases across a period group 1 to 4, then drop in Group 5 and start increasing again
• EN decreases down a group from Group 5 to 8.
40
Periodic table-THE ESSENTIALS SCIENCE CLINIC 2018 ©
TABLE 3: THE PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS

GROUPS (COLUMNS)
•Elements in a group have similar outer 1 2 13 14 15 16 17 18
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
(I) (II) (III) (IV) (V) (VI) (VII) (VIII)
electron configurations and similar chemical
properties. 1 Atomic number 2
•The group number corresponds to the KEY/SLEUTEL
H He
2,1
Atoomgetal
number of valence electrons. 1 4
3 4 29 5 6 7 8 9 10
Symbol
Li Be Electronegativity Cu B C N O F Ne
1,9
1,0
1,5
2,0
2,5
3,0
3,5
4,0
PERIOD (ROWS) Elektronegatiwiteit Simbool
7 9 63,5 11 12 14 16 19 20
•There is a gradual change in the physical
and chemical properties as we move across a 11
Na Mg
12 13
Aℓ
14
Si
15
P NON-
S Cℓ
16 17 18
Ar
0,9
1,2
1,5
1,8
2,1
2,5
3,0
period. Approximate relative atomic mass
33 METALS
•The Period number tells us the energy level 23 24 Benaderde relatiewe atoommassa 27 28 31 32 35,5 40
where the outermost electrons are found. 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
0,8
1,0
1,3
1,5
1,6
1,6
1,5
1,8
1,8
1,8
1,9
1,6
1,6
1,8
2,0
2,4
2,8
39 40 45 48 51 52 55 56 59 59 63,5 65 70 73 75 79 80 84
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
0,8 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb METALS
Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
1,0
1,2
1,4
1,8
1,9
2,2
2,2
2,2
1,9
1,7
1,7
1,8
1,9
2,1
2,5
86 88 89 91 92 96 101 103 106 108 112 115 119 122 128 127 131
IMPORTANT GROUPS TO REMEMBER: 55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tℓ Pb Bi Po At Rn
0,7
0,9
1,6
1,8
1,8
1,9
2,0
2,5
1: Alkali metals
2: Alkali Earth metals 133 137 139 179 181 184 186 190 192 195 197 201 204 207 209
17: Halogens 87 88 89
Fr Ra Ac
0,7
0,9
18: Noble gases 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71

226
Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
140 141 144 150 152 157 159 163 165 167 169 173 175
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
232 238
EN INCREASES IE INCREASES AR DECREASES IE INCREASES
Electronegativity (EN) Electron affinity (EA) Atomic radius (AR) Ionization Energy (IE)
EN DECREASES
AR INCREASES
IE DECREASES
IE DECREASES
The tendency of an atom The energy released The distance between The energy required to
to attract a bonding pair when an electron is the nucleus and the remove an electron from
of electrons. Electronega- added to a neutral atom outermost orbital. an atom in the gaseous
tivity range from 0,7 (Cs) to form a negative ion. phase.
to 4,0 (F).
41
Chemical bonding SCIENCE CLINIC 2018 ©
CHEMICAL BONDS are INTRAMOLECULAR BONDS which occur between • If two non-metal atoms approach, they tend to share their
atoms within molecules. valence electrons and form a covalent bond.
Atoms tend to gain, lose, or share electrons until they are surrounded by a • If a metal and a non-metal atom approach, the metal transfers
full electron shell. A full shell makes the atom more stable like a noble gas. its valence electrons to the non-metal. They form an ionic bond.
This is known as The Octet Rule: Each atom requires 8 electrons in the • If two metal atoms approach, they release their valence
outer shell, except for H and He. electrons to surround them and form a metallic bond.
A) Covalent Bonding B) Ionic Bonding C) Metallic Bonding

1. Sharing of at least one pair of electrons by two non-metal atoms. 1. Occurs between a metal and a metal atom.
2. Results in simple molecules with only a few atoms connected to 1. Involves a complete transfer of electron(s). 2. The metal atoms release their valence electrons to surround
each other. 2. Metal atom gives e- to non-metal. them. There is a strong but flexible bond between the positive
3. Metal forms a positive cation. metal kernels and a sea of delocalised electrons.
Eg. H2, H2O, CO2, Cl2 , CH4. 4. Non-metal forms a negative anion.
Single Covalent 5. Electrostatic attraction of ions leads to formation of giant crystal Metal atoms are very closely packed, so that the outermost energy
lattice. levels overlap.
E.g. H−H
The valence electrons are able to move from their respective atoms.
Each H atom needs one more electron to fill Ionic Bonding takes place in two steps.
They are called delocalised electrons or free electrons.
the outer shell with 2 electrons. 1. Donation of e-(s) to form ions
As the hydrogen atoms come closer so their 2. Electrostatic attraction
The bond is between the positive metal kernels and the sea of
orbitals overlap. The sharing of electrons re-
electrons.
sults in a lower energy for both electrons. A
single bond is formed.
Double Covalent
E.g. O=O
Each O atom needs two more electrons to

fill the outer shell with 8 electrons.
The diagram shows two oxygen atoms com- Na+ Cl-
ing closer so their orbitals overlap. They
each share 2 outer electrons. A double
bond is formed.
Triple Covalent
E.g. N≡N
Each N atom needs three more electrons

to fill the outer shell with 8 electrons.
The diagram shows two nitrogen atoms
coming closer so their orbitals overlap.
Diagrams show the crystal lattice
They each share 3 outer electrons. A
IONIC BONDING made of alternate ions.
triple bond is formed.
maintains the la2ce
structure between ions Delocalised
electrons
42
Chemical bonding- Properties of substances SCIENCE CLINIC 2018 ©
Properties of simple covalent (molecular) substances Giant Covalent Network Structures:

These occur when a non-metal atom forms covalent bonds with more than
• Low Melting and Boiling Points because molecules are not bonded to one other non-metal atom. This allows a giant covalent lattices to form.
each other, but only loosely held together. They are easily separated. E.g.
nitrogen has a BP of -1830C. EXAMPLE 1: Diamond.
• Highly volatile. (High tendency of a substance to vaporize.) Each C is bonded to four other carbon atoms.
Allotropes are different forms of the same element but has different physical
• Insulators – there are no free charge carriers.
Properties:
and chemical properties due to the difference in particle arrangement.

1. Hard: Many strong covalent bonds holding the structure
together-making it a very strong crystal.
Properties of ionic substances 2. Very high melting point: Many strong covalent bonds hold
• Hard, crystalline solids because the Ions held together by strong ionic the structure together. It requires massive amounts of energy to
bonds. pull it apart- about 35000C
• flat sides and regular shapes because the ions are arranged in 3. Insulator: All of the valence electrons are used in bonding.
straight rows in a pattern. None of the electrons are free to move.
Diamonds and Graphite are both allotropes of carbon.

• Melting points & Boiling points are very high because there are
strong ionic bonds between cations and anions. A large amount of
energy is required to separate the ions e.g. NaCl melts at 808ºC and
boils at 1465ºC.
• Low volatility because there are strong ionic bonds between the
ions.
• Solid ionic compounds don’t conduct electricity, because the ions
cannot move, there are no free charge carriers. EXAMPLE 2: Graphite.
• Molten or dissolved ionic compounds conduct electricity because Each C is bonded to three other atoms to form a layer.
in these situations the ions can move and carry charge, which allows
current to flow. Properties:
1. The bonds between the layers are weak and thus the layers
can slide over each other- making graphite slippery and can be
used as a lubricant.
Properties of metallic substances 2. Because only three electrons out four valence electrons are
The sea of delocalised electrons and tightly packed metal kernels are re- used for bonding, the fourth electron is free to move around.
sponsible for the properties of metals: This is why graphite, unlike other non-metals, can conduct elec-
• High density tricity.
• Good conductors of electricity
• The delocalised electrons are free to move randomly throughout the
metal, but if a cell is connected across the terminals, the electrons will
drift towards the positive end.
• Good conductors of heat
• Delocalised electrons can also transfer heat energy from a region of high
temperature to a region of low temperature, because they move so freely.
• Metals have high melting and boiling points because of the strength
of the metallic bond. EXAMPLE 3: Silicon Dioxide.
• Metals are malleable and ductile- they can be easily flattened, shaped Silicon dioxide (SiO2), also called silica. Many precious gems
or drawn into threads without breaking. This is because the metals kernels contain silica.
are not attracted to one specific electron. This makes them different from There are no discrete SiO2 units. Every Si is bonded to two O
an ionic compound which is brittle. atoms.
• Metallic lustre: The sea of electrons would reflect all frequencies of
light to give a shiny surface.
43
Chemical bonding-THE ESSENTIALS SCIENCE CLINIC 2018 ©
Inter-atomic bonding/
Intramolecular bonding
COVALENT IONIC METALLIC

BONDING BONDING BONDING
Between 2 or more non-metals Between 2 or more metal and Between 2 or more metal atoms
non-metal atoms
Molecules of an element Covalent network structures

Ionic network structures Metallic network structures
Example: Example:
Crystals made from a Positive kernels and a sea of
Diatomic gases diamond
network of cations and electrons
P4 graphite
anions.
S8 SiO2
C60 (buckyballs)
Example:
NaCl
KMnO4
Molecules of compounds
Example:
water (H2O)
Ammonia (NH3)
44
Physical and Chemical change SCIENCE CLINIC 2018 ©
PHYSICAL CHANGE CHEMICAL CHANGE

1. Usually easy to reverse. 1. Usually hard to reverse.
2. No new substances formed. 2. New substances formed.
3. Small energy changes involved. 3. Large energy changes involved.
4. Eg. Melting, evaporation, separation of mixtures. 4. Eg. Decomposition, synthesis, burning, rotting, rusting.
The particles stay the same, but their arrangement changes. The particles change, because the bonding between their atoms changes.
Example of Physical change: Water EXAMPLE: Decomposition of Hydrogen peroxide
Consider liquid water evaporating to form water

vapour. Each water molecule consists of one O Reactants Products
oxygen atom bonded to two hydrogen atoms.
H H Word Equation Hydrogen peroxide forms water and oxygen
Balanced chemical
2 H2 O2 → 2 H2 O + O2
equation
Particle diagram
Evapora'on 2H2O2 2H2O + O2

Hydrogen Peroxide Water Oxygen
Water water vapor
EXAMPLE: Synthesis of water

Spaces between
Touching each other Far apart
water molecules
Reactants Products
Word Equation Hydrogen + oxygen forms Water
No forces, except when
Forces between Balanced chemical
Medium forces they come close to each 2 H2 + O2 → 2 H2 O
water molecules equation
other there are weak forces
Movement of Slide past each other Particle diagram

Flying freely at high speeds
water molecules switching places slowly. Chemical
Reac+on
During evaporation, the actual water molecules do not change. The mass of water and the number
of molecules does not change. Energy is absorbed to overcome the forces between the molecules.
This changes their arrangement and movement. This change could be represented as follows:
Reactants Products
Word Equation water forms water vapor These two reactions are chemical changes because new substances are formed. Huge energy
changes are involved. The bonds between the atoms of the reactants are broken and new bonds are
formed to create the molecules of the products. Every atom in the reactants becomes an atom in
Balanced chemical equation H2O (l) → H2O (g)
the products. The mass is conserved, but the atoms have been rearranged.
45
Chemical change- Chemical reactions SCIENCE CLINIC 2018 ©
Law of constant composition Law of conservation of matter

In any particular chemical compound, all samples of that In a chemical reaction, the sum of the mass of the reactants equals the sum of the mass of the
compound will be made up of the same elements in the products.
same proportion or ratio as per its chemical formula.
This is also know as the Law of conservation of matter, which indicates that matter particles can
not be created or destroyed, but can be rearranged in chemical reactions.
For example, any water molecule is always made up of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom in a ratio according to the formula H2O.
+ OR +
2 Parts Hydrogen 1 Part Oxygen 1 Part Water
4 Parts Hydrogen 2 Parts Oxygen 2 Parts Water
Consider the following reaction to form ammonia: any ammonia molecule is always made up of three hydrogen atoms and one nitrogen atom in a ratio according to the formula NH3.
The different parts of the reaction are summarised in the table below:
Reactants before Products after

React to
Word equation Hydrogen + nitrogen ammonia
form
Chemical equation 3 H2 + N2 → 2 NH3
6H 6H
Atoms →
2N 2N
Total mass of all 2 x (14 + 1+1+1) =
3 x ( 1+1) + 1 x (14+14)= 34 →
atoms 34
Energy used to break:
Energy released when forming 6 x
Energy 3 x H-H bonds →
N-H bonds
And 1 N-N bond
46
Reactions in aqueous solutions SCIENCE CLINIC 2018 ©
Ionic network structure Ions in aqueous solution Reactions in aqueous solutions

Because cations and anions are oppositely Ions are atoms or groups of atoms which carry charge. Cations are positively charged, Reactions in aqueous solutions are reactions of chemicals that have
charged, they attract each other. In solid and anions are negatively charged. The table below has examples of common ions: been dissolved.
form, giant ionic crystals are created, such as
sodium chloride and magnesium nitrate. A solution is formed when a solute dissolves in a solvent. Many
Ion Formula Charge reactions in chemistry and in living systems are carried out in aqueous
Nitrate NO3 -1 -1 solution. This means that water is the solvent.
Chloride Cl -1
-1 In order for a reaction to occur the particles of the reactant need to col-
lide with each other.
Ammonium NH4+1 +1
Sodium Na+1 +1 For the collision to be successful, there needs to be a transfer of either :
A. ions – these are known as ion exchange reactions
Magnesium Mg+2 +2 B. electrons – these are known as redox reactions.
Aluminium Al +3
+3
Polar nature of water Hydration of ions

The ions of the solute become totally surrounded by water molecules. This is called hydration.
Water is the solvent in all aqueous solutions. The When the water molecules surround the ions, they keep the ions apart.
charge in a water molecule is not evenly distrib-
uted. The oxygen atom is slightly negative (δ-),
and the hydrogen atoms are slightly positive δ+).
We say that water is polar.
The negative dipole of one water molecule is at-

tracted to the positive dipole of another water
molecule.
Dissolving of ionic substances

Water molecules are attracted to each other, but also to ionic compounds with the oxygen (δ-) closest to
the cation(+) and the hydrogen (δ+) closest to the anions(-). If the ions are pulled free from the crystal,
the crystal dissolves. Electrolytes Ba0ery
Dissolving is a physical process because no new Electrolytes are aqueous solutions which contain
substances are formed. When all the ions are separated, ions, such as NaCl (aq) or KNO3 (aq). Because the
ions are free to move, electrolytes conduct electric- Crocodile
the ionic crystal has dissolved.
ity. A simple circuit can be used to test the conduc-
Ammeter A clip
tivity of the electrolyte, by measuring the current
through the solution with an ammeter. The more
ions in solution the better the electrolyte conducts
EXAMPLE: the current.
NaCl (s) → Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq) Certain substances, like sugar, are also soluble in
water, but do not form ions in solution, and do not
affect conductivity. Test substance
Circuit diagram for testing the
conductivity of a solution.
47
Reactions in aqueous solutions- Reaction types SCIENCE CLINIC 2018 ©
A. Ion exchange reactions

An ion exchange reaction is where the cations exchange their respective anions.
There are 3 types of ion-exchange reaction, classified according to the reactants and products involved.
1. Precipitation reactions 2. Acid-base reactions 3. Gas forming reactions

In precipitation reactions, anions and cations bond with new partners to form Acid-base reactions take place between acids and bases. In gas forming reactions, anions and cations have bonded
insoluble salts. Certain cations and anions attract each other so well that they will Through the exchange of ions, the products formed will be with new partners and through the exchange of ions a gas is
not be pulled from the ionic crystal. These salts are insoluble and form a precipitate. water and an ionic salt. formed.
EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE:
There are 4 types of acid-base reactions:
NaI (aq) is added to AgNO3 (aq). There are Na+, l-, Ag+ and NO3- ions present in Acid+ Metal carbonate → salt + water + carbon dioxide
1. Acid + metal → salt + hydrogen
solution. When the I- and Ag+ ions attract, they from an insoluble salt AgI(s)
2. Acid + metal oxide → salt + water Na2CO3 (s) + 2HCl(aq)→ 2NaCl(aq) + H2O(ℓ) + CO2 (g)
which a yellow cloudy precipitate.
3. Acid + metal hydroxide → salt + water
4. Acid + metal carbonate → salt + water + carbon dioxide
NaI (aq) + Ag NO3 (aq) → AgI(s) + NaNO3 (aq)
EXAMPLE:
EXAMPLE: acid + metal → salt + hydrogen
Precipitation reactions can be used to test for the presence of certain anions. An H2SO4+Mg → MgSO4 + H2
Metal hydroxide + acid → salt + water
environmental scientist analyses water for pollutants. The following table shows
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq)→NaCl(aq) + H2O(ℓ)
how to test for some of these anions.
Anion Test Positive result Precipitate The sodium ions from the sodium hydroxide swap Gas Test Result
places with the hydrogen in the hydrogen chloride Plunge a lighted
White precipitate forms
1. Add a few drops of AgNO3 forming sodium chloride. At the same time the wooden splint into a makes a popping
Chloride after step 1, and AgCl(s) Hydrogen (H2)
2. Acidify with Dilute HNO3 hydroxide and the hydrogen combine to form water. test tube of sound
remains after step 2.
hydrogen.
Bromide Add a few drops of AgNO3 Cream precipitate AgBr(s)
EXAMPLE: Plunge a glowing
Iodide Add a few drops of AgNO3 Yellow precipitate AgI(s) Metal oxide + acid → salt + water Oxygen (O2) wooden splint into a splint relights
CuO(aq) + 2HCl(aq) → CuCl2(aq) + H2O(l) test tube of oxygen.
White precipitate forms
1. Add a few drops of BaNO3
Sulphate after step 1, and BaSO4 Bubble the test gas
2. Acidify in Dilute HNO3 The copper ions from the copper oxide swap places Carbon dioxide
remains after step 2. Carbon dioxide through limewater -
with the hydrogen in the hydrogen chloride forming turns the limewater
(CO2) calcium hydroxide
White precipitate forms copper(II) chloride. At the same time the oxide ion(-) cloudy white
1. Add a few drops of BaNO3 solution.
Carbonate after step 1, and BaCO3 and the hydrogen combine to form water.
2. Acidify in Dilute HNO3
dissolves after step 2.
B. Redox reactions
Redox reactions occur when one reactant gains electron(s) called reduction, and another reactant loses
electron(s) called oxidation.
The atom or group of atoms which loses electron(s) becomes more positive, while the atom or group of
atoms which gains electron(s) becomes more negative.
EXAMPLE:
Hydrochloric acid reacts with zinc to form zinc
OIL RIG EXAMPLE:
O oxidation Copper Sulphate reacts with zinc to form zinc
chloride and hydrogen gas. sulphate and Copper.
2HCl(aq) + Zn(s) → ZnCl2 + H2 I is a
CuSO4(aq) + Zn(s) → ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
L loss of electrons
We show the transfer of electrons as follow: R reduction We show the transfer of electrons as follows:
Zn(s) → Zn 2+ + 2e- (Oxidation) I is a Zn(s) → Zn 2+ + 2e- (Oxidation)
2 H+ + 2 e- → H2 (g) ( Reduction)
G gain of electrons Cu2+ + 2 e- → Cu(s) ( Reduction)
48
Reactions in aqueous solutions-THE ESSENTIALS SCIENCE CLINIC 2018 ©
AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS REACTIONS
Water A. Ion exchange reactions

Water is the solvent in all aqueous solutions.
Water is polar. Polar molecules are molecules that have 1.Precipitation reactions
oppositely charged poles and are known as dipoles. In precipitation reactions, anions and cations bond with new partners to form insoluble salts.
NaI (aq) + Ag NO3 (aq) → AgI(s) + NaNO3 (aq)
Water dissolves ionic substances which are made up of
Cations (positively charged), and anions (negatively Precipitation reactions can be used to test for the presence of certain anions
charged)
2. Acid-base reactions
There are 4 types of acid-base reactions:

Water molecules pull the ions free from the ionic crystal. This is called dissolution. 1. Acid + metal → salt + hydrogen
2. Acid + metal oxide → salt + water
3. Acid + metal hydroxide → salt + water
4. Acid + metal carbonate → salt + water + carbon dioxide
3. Gas forming reactions

In gas forming reactions, anions and cations have bonded with new partners and through the ex-
change of ions a gas is formed
Gas Test Result
Plunge a lighted wooden splint

Hydrogen (H2) makes a popping sound
The ions become totally surrounded by water molecules. This is called hydration. into a test tube of hydrogen.
Plunge a glowing wooden splint

Electrolytes Oxygen (O2) splint relights
into a test tube of oxygen.
Electrolytes are aqueous solutions which contain ions, such as NaCl (aq) or KNO3 (aq). Because the
ions are free to move electrolytes conduct electricity. The more ions in solution the better the electro-
lyte conducts the current. This can be tested with the use of a simple circuit as shown below. Bubble the test gas through Carbon dioxide turns
Carbon dioxide (CO2) limewater - calcium hydroxide the limewater cloudy
Ba0ery solution. white
Crocodile B. Redox reactions

Ammeter A clip
One reactant gains electron(s) → reduction; another reactant loses electron(s) → oxidation.
Iron + copper(II)sulphate → Copper + iron (II) sulphate
Eg. Fe(s) + CuSO4 (aq) → Cu (s) + FeSO4 (aq)
Cu 2+ ions gained 2 electrons → Cu atoms

Fe atoms lost 2 electrons → Fe 2+ ions
Test substance
49
Quantitative aspects of chemical change SCIENCE CLINIC 2018 ©
The Mole Percentage Composition

Atoms, molecules and ions are too small to count, and there are so many particles in even the smallest sample of a Percentage composition is the mass of each atom present in the compound expressed as a
substance. percentage of the total mass of the compound.
There are more particles of water in a teaspoon then there are teaspoons of water in all the oceans.
molar mass of element
Percentage composition of element = × 100
Rather than dealing with the particles individually, we deal with a special number of particles. MR of compound
The mole is a name for a special number. Many numbers have names, such as:
2 = pair Consider these iron ores: haematite and magnetite – which contains more iron by
3 = hat-trick mass?
12 = dozen
Ore Haematite Magnetite
A mole of particles is an amount of 6,02 x 1023 particles. 6,02 x 1023 is known as Avogadro’s number, NA.
Avogadro’s number (NA) is too big to imagine. Formula Fe2O3 Fe3O4
Relative (2 x 56) + (3 x 16) (3 x 56) + (4 x 16)
602 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 . molecular mass =160 =232
This many grains of sand, piled on the surface of the earth would almost reach the moon. [(2 x 56) /160] x 100 [(3 x 56) / 232] x 100
% iron by mass
The mole is defined as the amount of substance having the same of particles or atoms in 12,0 g of Carbon -12. = 70% = 72%
Molar Mass ∴ magnetite contains more iron

Particles are too small to weigh individually.
Molar mass (M) is defined as the mass of one mole of particles (atoms, molecules or formula units) and is Different types of Chemical Formulae
measured in the unit g.mol-1. Consider the substance ethane.
mass of substance (g)
m
number of mole (mol) n=
M molar mass (g·mol−1) Ball and stick
model of ethane
Relative atomic mass (Ar) is the average mass of an atom compared to the mass of a Carbon 12 atom. It is
measured in atomic mass units (amu).
Molar mass (M) of an element is equal to the magnitude of relative atomic mass (Ar) in amu. This is found
on the periodic table. See the table below for other substances: It also can be represented using a formula. There are three types of formulas we use:
Type of Molar mass Actual number of each Eg. C2H6

Particles Example Formula Molecular formula
substance (g.mol-1) atom.
Element Atoms Neon Ne 20 Simplest whole number ratio Eg.C1H3 → CH3
Empirical formula
Covalent Usually Carbon 12+32 of the atoms.
CO2
compound Molecules dioxide = 44 Shows how the atoms are
Ionic Ions (formula 23+35,5 joined.
Salt NaCl Structural formula
compound units) = 58,5
Positive kernels
Metallic
and delocalized Gold Au 197
compound
electrons
EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE:

What is the relative formula mass of Calcium sulphate (CaSO4)? What is the molar mass of What is the relative molecular mass of sucrose (C12H22O11)? What is the molar mass of
MR (CaSO4) = AR (Ca) + AR (S)+ (4 x AR (O)) Calcium sulphate (CaSO4)? MR (C12H22O11) = 12 x AR (C) + 22 x AR (H)+ 11 x AR (O) sucrose(C12H22O11) ?
= 40 + 32 + (4 x 16) 136 g.mol-1 = (12x 12) + (22x1) + (11 x 16) 342 g.mol-1
= 136 (no unit) = 342 (no unit)
50
Concentrations of solutions Molar Volumes of Gases

Solutions are homogeneous (uniform) mixtures of two or more substances. A solution If different gases have the same volume under the same conditions of temperature and pressure, they will have the
is formed when a solute dissolves in a solvent. same number of molecules.
The solvent and solute can be a gas, liquid or solid. The most common solvent is This is known as Avogadro’s Law: One mole of any gas occupies the same volume at the same
liquid water. This is called an aqueous solution. temperature and pressure.
Solution Solute Solvent
salt water Salt water
Soda water Carbon dioxide water
Concentration
The concentration of a solution is the number of mole of solute per unit
volume of solution.
number of moles (mol)
n
concentration (mol ⋅ dm-3) c= volume (dm3)
V The molar volume of a gas, VM, is the volume occupied by one mole of the gas.
can also be calculated with VM for all gases at STP is 22.4 dm3·mol−1.
m
c=
MV Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP) is 273 K (0°C) and 1,01x105 Pa.
i.e. The number moles of solute per 1 dm3 of Note: This also means that for reactions at constant temperature and pressure, gas volumes will react in the same ratio as
solution i.e. mol. dm-3. If a solution of potassium 1000 cm3 = 1 dm3 (= 1 litre) the molar ratio.
permanganate KMnO4 has a concentration of 2
mol.dm-3 it means that for every 1 dm3 of solution,
1 cm3 = 0,001 dm3
1 cm3 = 1 ml N2 + 2O2 → 2NO2
there are 2 moles of KMnO4 dissolved in the solvent.
1 mol + 2 mol → 2 mol
EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE:
A solution contains 10 g of sodium Calculate the mass of solute in 600 cm3

1 dm3 + 2 dm3 → 2 dm3
hydroxide, NaOH, in 200 cm 3 of
solution. Calculate the concentration of
of 1,5 mol·dm -3 sodium chloride
solution. V volume of gaseous substance (dm3)
the solution.
V = 600 cm3 = 0,6 dm3 number of moles (mol) n=
VM
m
n(NaOH) = M
10
= 23 + 16 + 1 M(NaCl) = 23 + 35,5 molar gas volume at STP (22,4 dm3·mol−1)
= 0,25 mol = 58,5 g ⋅ mol−1
V = 200 cm3 = 0,2 dm3 n = cV

EXAMPLE:
A gas jar with a volume of 224 cm3 is full of chlorine gas, at STP. How
= 1,5 × 0,6 many moles of chlorine gas are there in the gas jar?
n
c(NaOH) = V
= 0,9 mol
V
0,25 n = VM
= 0,2
m = nM =
0,224
= 1,25 mol ⋅ dm−3 = 0,9 × 58,5 22,4
= 52,65 g = 0,01 m ol
51
Water of crystallization EXAMPLE: Calculating the Empirical Formula of a Compound from Mass
Some ionic crystals trap a certain number of water 13,2 g of a sample of zinc sulphate, ZnSO4.xH2O, was
molecules between the ions as they are forming. heated in a crucible. Calculate the number of moles of Empirical formula is the chemical formula of a compound that shows
These water molecules are known as “Water of water of crystallisation if 7.4 g of solid remained. the smallest whole number ratio of the atoms.
crystallization”.
1 . m(H2 O) = 13,2 g − 7,4 g
Eg. Hydrated copper sulphate:
CuSO4 · 5 H2O has 5 water molecules per formula = 5,8 g To calculate the empirical formula of a compound from mass:
unit. When the hydrated salt crystals are heated, the
water molecules evaporate off, leaving the m 1.Determine the mass of the elements.
2 . n(H2 O) = M
anhydrous salt behind. 2.Determine mol of each substance.
5,8 3.Simplify the atomic ratio.
= 18
CuSO4 · 5 H2O(s) → CuSO4 (s) + 5 H2O(g)
= 0,32 mol EXAMPLE:
To calculate the number of moles of water of m In a combustion reaction 0,48 g of magnesium ribbon is burnt. The amount of
crystallization: 3 . n(ZnSO4 ) = M magnesium oxide produced is 0,80 g.
7,4 Calculate the empirical formula for magnesium oxide.
1. Calculate the mass of water that evaporated off. = 161
2. Calculate the moles of water.
3. Calculate the moles of anhydrous salt. = 0,046 mol Steps Magnesium Oxygen
4. Determine the ratio of water to anhydrous salt. Step 1:
mol water 0.48 g 0.80 – 0.48 = 0.32 g
5. Write the formula for the hydrated salt. 4 . ratio = mol anhydrous salt
Mass of element
0,32 n=m/M n=m/M
= Step 2:
Note: 0,046 = 0.48 / 24 = 0.32 / 16
Mol (divide by mass of 1 mol)
The dot in the formula ( · ) between the = 0,02 mol = 0,02 mol
= 1:7
salt and the water means that a light bond Step 3:
is formed. It is NOT a multiplication dot. 5 . ∴ formula = Z n SO4 ⋅ 7H2O Atom ratio 1 1
(divide by smallest no in ratio)
Calculating the Empirical Formula from Percentage Composition Empirical formula: MgO
The empirical formula of a compound can also be found from its percentage composition. We assume that 100 g of the
compound is analysed, then each percentage gives the mass of the element in grams in 100 g of the compound.
EXAMPLE:
An oxide of sulphur contains 40% sulphur and 60% oxygen by mass. Determine the empirical A sample of an oxide of copper contains 8 g of copper combined with 1 g of
formula of this oxide of sulphur. oxygen.
Find the empirical formula of the compound.
Steps Sulphur Oxygen
Step 1: 40 60 Steps Copper Oxygen
% of element Step 1:
8g 1g
Step 2: 40 60 Mass of element
Mass of element (g) Step 2: n=m/M n=m/M
Step 3: n=m/M n=m/M Mol = 8 / 63,5 = 1 / 16
Mol = 40 / 32 = 60 / 16 (divide by mass of 1 mol) = 0,126 mol = 0,0625 mol
= 1,25 mol = 3,75 mol Step 3:
0,125/0,0625 0,0625/0,0625
Step 4: 1,25 / 1,25 3,75 /1,25 Atom ratio
≈2 =1
Smallest mol ratio =1 =3 (divide by smallest no in ratio)
Empirical formula: Cu2O

Empirical formula: SO3
52
-THE ESSENTIALS
Calculating the Empirical Formula of a Compound from
To calculate the number of moles of water of crystallization:
Empirical formula is the chemical formula of a compound that shows the
smallest whole number ratio of the atoms. 1. Calculate the mass of water that evaporated off
2. Calculate the moles of water
3. Calculate the moles of anhydrous salt
Mass 4. Determine the ratio of water to anhydrous salt.
5. Write the formula for the hydrated salt.
To calculate the empirical formula of a compound from mass:
1.Determine the mass of the elements

2.Determine mol of each substance
3.Simplify the atomic ratio
Number of
Mass of pure par,cles
Molar mass (M) is defined as the mass substance (in grams)
of one mole of particles
#
!=
! 6,02×10!"
!=
!
Solu,on
Number of The mole is the same
The concentration of a solution number of particles or
is the amount of solute per unit
volume of solution.
! = !"
moles atoms in 12,0 g of Carbon
!
!=
22,4
The molar volume of a gas, Mv, is
the volume occupied by one mole of
Volume of gas
the gas. at STP (in dm3)
M v for all gases at STP is 22.4
dm3.mol-1.
Standard Temperature and Pressure

(STP) is 0°C and 101.3 kPa
53
Hydrosphere SCIENCE CLINIC 2018 ©
Water SYSTEMS OF THE EARTH

Water exists in 3 forms:
•Solid: snow caps at the poles, icebergs and permafrost
•Liquid: surface water (oceans, lakes, dams, rivers) and ground water Systems influenced
•Vapour: water vapour in the atmosphere by the ATMOSPHERE LITHOSPHERE BIOSPHERE
HYDROSPHERE
Water is important for:
•All living organisms depend on water → cells consist mainly of water, substances in cells are suspended or
dissolved in water, substances are transported to and from cells in water
Hard crust of the earth,
•Drinking water, habitat, photosynthesis. All gaseous
Components of semi-solid rocks, hot All living organisms on
•Cooking, cleaning, manufacturing processes, agriculture etc. components of the
system liquid rocks and molten earth
earth
iron core
HYDROSPHERE
•The water cycle (also known as hydrosphere) describes the continuous movement of water through the ground
(lithosphere), living organisms (biosphere) and the atmosphere. Processes Evaporation,
Surface run-off and Photosynthesis,
•Importance of water cycle influenced by condensation and
percolation metabolism etc.
-Water is recycled water precipitation
-Water is purified
CLOUDS Energy from the sun Precipitation filters

Water is essential for all
causes water to through the soil. A
living organisms. Plants
Condensa8on evaporate and form certain portion flows
Precipita8on water vapour which across the surface as
require water for
Water droplets Water vapour collects and Description condenses to form run-off and the other
photosynthesis, animals
and humans require
become too heavy droplets form which s.ck clouds and becomes portion seeps deeper
water for metabolism
together and form clouds too heavy and falls to into underwater rivers.
and fall to the earth the earth as Water collects in lakes,
and various other
intracellular processes.
precipitation. dams and oceans.
Water vapour
Precipita.on:
Rain, hail, snow Transpira8on Evapora8on INFLUENCE OF DAMS
Water is released Liquid water is
Environmental Influence
from plants and converted to a vapour
•Flooding in surrounding areas → affects the plant and animal life
evaporates •A dam has a large surface area resulting in increased evaporation which may affect the local
OCEANS, LAKES, climate in the area
DAMS, RIVERS, •Erosion and deepening of rivers due to initial emptying of rivers and periodical release of
PLANTS STREAMS water from the dam
•Silting up of dams
Surface run-off •Altering of temperature of water in dam due to large surface area
Water runs over the surface of •Fish migration is prevented
the ground •Dams provide water for agricultural use
SOIL Surface and ground water
•Dams produce water used in households and various industrial processes
•Production of hydroelectricity
Percola8on
Water filters through the Economical Influence
ground and collects in •Cost of buying private land to build the dam on
underground streams and dams •Cost of building the dam
•Cost of buying electricity (energy) to run the dam
54
www
1
Scientific Notation
Very large numbers such as 352 000 000 or very small numbers such as 0,00000000000000085 are difficult to read and write. Scientific
notation is used to write these very large or very small numbers. In scientific notation, a number is written with only 1 digit to the left of
the comma. The number is expressed as the product of 2 numbers as follows:
n is the integer
N is a number
between 1 and 9,99
N × 10n power of 10.
Positive Exponents
Examples:
1) 10 = 1 × 101 2) 100 = 1 × 102 3) 1000 = 1 × 103 4) 10 000 = 1 × 104
17 = 1,7 × 101 125 = 1,25 × 102 2500 = 2,5 × 103 54 500 = 5,45 × 104
85 = 8,5 × 101 389 = 3,89 × 102 8971 = 8,971 × 103 31572 = 3,1572 × 104
5) 100 000 = 1 × 105 6) 1 000 000 = 1 × 106 [106 = a million] 7) 1 000 000 000 = 1 × 109 [109 = a billion]
715 723 = 7,15723 × 105 8 157 236 = 8,157236 × 106 7 856 157 236 = 7,856157236 × 109
= 8,157236 million = 7,856157236 billion
Real Life Example: The speed of light is written in scientific notation as 3 × 108 m.s-1 300 000 000 m.s-1
Negative Exponents
Numbers less than 1 (fractional numbers) have negative exponents.
Examples:
1) 1 = 0,1 = 10-1 2) 1 = 0,01 = 10-2 3) 1 = 0,001 = 10-3 4) 0,00018 = 1,8 × 10-4
10 100 1000
0,000018 = 1,8 × 10-5
0,12 = 1,2 × 10-1 0,051 = 5,1 × 10-2 0,0027 = 2,7 × 10-3
0,0000018 = 1,8 × 10-6
0,85 = 8,5 × 10-1 0,037 = 3,7 × 10-2 0,0091 = 9,1 × 10-3
0,00000018 = 1,8 × 10-7
Real Life Example: The mass of an electron is written in scientific notation is 9,1 × 10-31 kg.
0,000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 009 1 kg
Calculator Skills:
x
How to use the “ Exp ” or “ ×10 ” button on a calculator:
Example 1: When typing 6,02 × 1023 Example 2: When typing 9,1 × 10-31
1. Type 6 . 0 2 1. Type 9 . 1
x
2. Press the Exp / ×10
x
button 2. Press the Exp / ×10
3. Type 2 3 3. Type +/– 3 1
Do not type: 6 . 0 2 × 1 0 Exp 2 3 Do not type: 9 . 1 × 1 0 Exp +/– 3 1
Grade 10 Maths Essentials This material may be copied and distributed freely according to the copyright notice. SYSTEMMATHS | ©
Not for commercial use. Accreditation required.
For Mathematics textbooks, please visit www.systemmaths.co.za.
2
The Metric System
The System International d’Unites, abbreviated as SI units is the system of units used by scientists. There are seven base units and all other
units are derived from these.
SI Base Units
Length – metre (m) Time – second (s) Mass – kilogram (kg)
Electric Current – Ampere (A) Temperature – Kelvin (K) Light intensity – candela (cd)
Amount of matter – mole (mol)
The metric system is a decimal system of units. Units increase or decrease in size by factors of 10. These factors are indicated by prefixes
e.g. kilogram is 1000 grams.
× 10-3 × 10-3 × 10-3 × 10-3 × 10-3
Metrix Prefixes
Prefix pico nano micro milli centi deci unit kilo
abbreviation p n μ m c d k
10-3 or 1 10-2 or 1 10-1 or 1
value 10-12 10-9 10-6 1000 100 10
103 or 1000
× 103 × 103 × 103 × 103 × 103
Conversions to SI units
To convert to the SI unit, replace the prefix by its numerical value. All final answers below are written in Scientific Notation.
Examples:
1) 25 km = 25 × 1000 m or 25 × 103 m 2) 45 ms = 45 ÷ 1000 s or 45 × 10-3 s
= 25 000 m = 2,5 × 104 m = 0,045 s = 4,5 × 10-2 s
3) 43 μC = 43 ÷ 1 000 000 C or 43 × 10-6 C 4) 875 nJ = 875 ÷ 1 000 000 000 J or 875 × 10-9 J
= 0,000043 C = 4,3 × 10-5 C = 0,000000875 J = 8,75 × 10-7 J
Multiplying powers
p × p = p2 p × p × p = p3 p × p2 = p3
Rule: “When bases are the same, add the exponents.”
1) p3 × p2 = p5 (not p6) 2) p3 × p-2 = p1 3) p3 × p-5 = p-2
because p3 × p2 = p × p × p × p × p = p5 because p p p p because p p p
p-2
p p p p p p p
Conversions between any unit [All final answers below are written in Scientific Notation.]
To convert between any units, count the number of “jumps” left or right on the Metrix prefixes table above.
One jump right means × 10-3. Two jumps right means 10-3 × 10-3 = 10-6. Four jumps right means 10-3 × 10-3 × 10-3 × 10-3 = 10-12 etc.
(Note: this is not applicable for centi- and deci-)
Examples:
1) milli kilo 2 jumps right × 10-6 2) pico micro 2 jumps right × 10-6 3) pico milli 3 jumps right × 10-9
785 mm = 785 × 10-6 km 2071 pA = 2071 × 10-6 μA 0,17 pJ = 0,17 × 10-9 mJ
= 7,85 × 10-4 km = 2,071 × 10-3 μA = 1,7 × 10-10 mJ
4) milli kilo 2 jumps right × 10-6 5) nano kilo 4 jumps right × 10-12 6) pico micro 2 jumps right × 10-6
7,8 × 104 mm = 7,8 × 104 × 10-6 km 2,7 × 1015 nm = 2,7 × 1015 × 10-12 km 1,5 × 10-5 pC = 1,5 × 10-5 × 10-6 μC
= 7,8 × 10-2 km = 2,7 × 103 km = 1,5 × 10-11 μC
3
One jump left means × 103. Therefore two jumps left means 103 × 103 = 106. Three jumps left means 103 × 103 × 103 = 109 etc.
(Note: this is not applicable for centi- and deci-)
Examples:
1) kilo milli 2 jumps left × 106 2) micro nano 1 jump left × 103 3) micro pico 2 jumps left ×
37 km = 37 × 106 mm 12,7 μC = 12,7 × 103 nC 106
= 3,7 × 107 mm = 1,27 × 104 nC 0,85 μC = 0,85 × 106 pC
= 8,5 × 105 nC
4) kilo milli 2 jumps left 106 5) milli pico 3 jumps left × 109 6) micro nano 1 jump left × 103
4,5 × 104 km = 4,5 × 104 × 106 mm 8,3 × 10-7 ms = 8,3 × 10-7 × 109 ps 1,8 × 10-3 μC = 1,8 × 10-3 × 103 nC
= 4,5 × 1010 mm = 8,3 × 102 ps = 1,8 nC
Raising a power to a power
(p2) 2 = p2 × p2 = p4 (p3) 2 = p3 × p3 = p6
Rule: “When raising a power to a power, multiply the exponents.”
Examples: (p2) 3 = p6 (p-2) 3 = p-6 (p3) 3 = p9 (p-3) 3 = p-9
Conversions of square units
If the unit is squared, as for area, the conversion factors must also be squared.
Reasoning:
1 cm = 10 mm 1 m = 100 cm 1 km = 1000 m
1 cm2 = 1 cm × 1 cm 1 m2 = 1 m × 1 m 1 km2 = 1 km × 1 km
= 10 mm × 10 mm = 100 cm × 100 cm = 1000 m × 1000 m
= 102 mm2 = 1002 cm2 = 10002 m2
or = 100 mm2 or = 10 000 cm2 or = 1 000 000 m2
Examples:
1) 5 km2 = 5 × 10002 m2 or 5 km2 = 5 × (103)2 m2 2) 13 dm2 = 13 × (10-1)2 m2 3) 25 cm2 = 25 × (10-2)2 m2
= 5 000 000 m2 = 5 × 106 m2 = 13 × 10-2 m2 = 25 × 10-4 m2
= 1,3 × 10-1 m2 = 2,5 × 10-3 m2
Conversions of cubic units
If the unit is cubed, as for volume, the conversion factors must also be cubed.
Reasoning:
1 cm = 10 mm 1 m = 100 cm 1 km = 1000 m
1 cm3 = 1 cm × 1 cm × 1 cm 1 m3 = 1 m × 1 m × 1 m 1 km3 = 1 km × 1 km × 1 km
= 10 mm × 10 mm × 10 mm = 100 cm × 100 cm × 100 cm = 1000 m × 1000 m × 1000 m
= 103 mm3 = 1003 cm3 = 10003 m3
or = 1000 mm3 or = 1 000 000 cm3 or = 1 000 000 000 m3
Study:
× 10-3 × 10-3
Note:
◦ An object with a volume of 1 cm3 will displace exactly 1 ml of water.
cm3 ( ml ) dm3 ( l ) m3 ( kl ) ◦ An object with a volume of 1 dm3 will displace exactly 1 l of water.
◦ An object with a volume of 1 m3 will displace exactly 1 kl of water.
× 103 × 103
Examples:
1) 7 km3 = 7 × (103)3 m3 2) 13 dm3 = 13 × (10-1)3 m3 3) 25 cm3 = 25 × (10-2)3 m3
= 7 × 109 m3 = 13 × 10-3 m3 = 25 × 10-6 m3
= 1,3 × 10-2 m3 = 2,5 × 10-5 m3
4
Solving an equation for an unknown variable
An equation is like a pair of scales balancing on the equals sign. To maintain the balance means that whatever you do to the left–hand side
you must also do to the right–hand side. If the same operation is carried out on both sides of the equal sign, the equality is maintained.
1 2 3
= = =
x y x+3 y+3 x-3 y-3
If x=y 1
then x+3=y+3 2
and x–3=y–3 3
and 3x = 3y 4 4 5
x y = =
and 5 3x 3y
3 3
Examples
In all examples below the unknown variable is “p”. Each equation is solved for p by making it the subject of the formula (writing “p” on its
own on one side of the equal sign.)
Remember: Only if the same operation is carried out on both sides of the equal sign will equality be maintained.
Please note: All the steps are written out in the examples, however the numbered steps 1 , 2 and 3 in grey are only shown for
completeness. These steps can and should be done mentally or on a calculator.
1) Basic examples:
Example 1 Example 2 Example 3 Example 4
p + 8 = 15 p-2=8 3p = 15 p
=4
p + 8 - 8 = 15 - 8 1 p-2+2=8+2 1 3p 15 3
1 p 3
3 3
p=7 p = 10 4 3 1
p=5 3
p = 12
1 Subtract 8 from both sides. 1 Add 2 to both sides. 1 Divide both sides by 3. 1 Multiply both sides by 3.
Example 5 Example 6 Example 7 Note: Example 6 and 7
5 When the coefficient of the
3 2
4 p = 12 p = 16 variable is a fraction, multiply
p 3 7
both sides of the equation by
3 p 3 2 3 7 5 7 the fraction’s reciprocal.
=4 p 1 p = 12 1 p = 16 1
p 2 3 2 5 7 5
p 18 p 22, 4 3 is the reciprocal of 2
3 = 4p
2 3
3 4p 2 3
= 2 because 1
4 4 3 2
3
p= or 0,75
4 5 is the reciprocal of 7
7 5
1 Multiply both sides by p. (p 0) 3 7 5 7
1 Multiply both sides by because 1
1 Multiply both sides by 7 5
2 Divide both sides by 4. 2 5
5
p 7 2 5 5 9 3 5
= = LCD is 9p = LCD is 8p = LCD is 10p
2 9 p 9 8 p 10 2p
p 2 7 2 2×9×p 5×9×p 5×8×p 9×8×p 3 × 10 × p 5 × 10 × p
1 = 1 = 1 = 1
2 9 p 9 8 p 10 2p
14
p= or 1,56 18 5p 5p 72 3p 25
9
18 5p 5p 72 3p 25
= 2 = 2 = 2
5 5 5 5 3 3
18 p 14, 4 p 8, 3
p or 3,6
5
1 Multiply both sides by 9p 1 Multiply both sides by 8p 1 Multiply both sides by 10p
1 Multiply both sides by 2.
2 Divide both sides by 5. 2 Divide both sides by 5. 2 Divide both sides by 3.
Example 9, 10 and 11: When the variable is in the denominator, always multiply both sides of the equation by the Lowest Common
Denominator (LCD).
2p + 7 = 15 2p - 1 = 15 p 3
+1=4 +1=8
3 p
2p + 7 - 7 = 15 - 7 1 2p - 1 + 1 = 15 + 1 1
p 3
2p = 8 2p = 16 +1-1 =4-1 1 +1-1 =8-1 1
3 p
2p 8 2p 16 p 3
= 2 = 2 3 7
2 2 2 2 3 p
p=4 p=8 p 3 3 p
3 3 2 7 p 2
3 p
p=9
3 = 7p
3 7p
= 3
7 7
3
p= or 0,43 (2 dec. places)
7
1 Subtract 1 from both sides.
1 Subtract 7 from both sides. 1 Add 1 to both sides. 1 Subtract 1 from both sides.
2 Multiply both sides by p.
2 Divide by 2 on both sides. 2 Divide both sides by 2. 2 Multiply both sides by 3.
3 Divide both sides by 7.
p
Examples 12 - 15: Always get the variable (e.g. 2p or ) alone on one side first.
3
6
2) Examples including negative numbers and decimal fractions:
2p + 15 = 8 -2p + 12 = 4 p 3
+4=1 +9=3
3 p
2p + 15 - 15 = 8 - 15 1 -2p + 12 - 12 = 4 - 12 1
p 3
2p = -7 -2p = -8 +4-4 =1-4 1 +9-9 =3-9 1
3 p
2p -7 -2p -8 p 3
= 2 = 2 -3 -6
2 2 -2 -2 3 p
p = -3,5 p=4 p 3 3 p
-3 3 2 -6 p 2
3 p
p = -9
3 = -6p
3 -6p
= 3
-6 -6
1
p = - or -0,5
2
1 Subtract 15 from both sides. 1 Subtract 12 from both sides. 1 Subtract 4 from both sides.
2 Multiply both sides by p.
2 Divide both sides by 2. 2 Divide both sides by -2. 2 Multiply both sides by 3.
3 Divide both sides by -6.
2,5p + 0,7 = 5,25 -0,2p - 1,8 = 1,5 p 5
+ 1,7 = -45 - 2,3 = 4,5
0,3 p
2,5p + 0,7 - 0,7 = 5,25 - 0,7 1 -0,2p - 1,8 + 1,8 = 1,5 + 1,8 1
p 5
2,5p = 4,55 -0,2p 3,3 + 1,7 - 1,7 = -45 - 1,7 1 - 2,3 + 2,3 = 45 + 2,3 1
= 2 0,3 p
-0,2 -0,2
2,5p 4,55 p 5
= 2 p = -16,5 -46,7 47,3
2,5 2,5 0,3 p
p = 1,82 p 0,3 5 p
-46,7 0,3 2 47,3 p 2
0,3 p
p = -14, 01 5 47,3p
5 47,3p
= 3
47,3 47 ,3
p = 0,11 (2 dec. places)
1 Add 2,3 to both sides.
1 Subtract 0,7 from both sides. 1 Add 1,8 to both sides. 1 Subtract 1,7 from both sides. 2 Multiply both sides by p.
2 Divide both sides by 2,5. 2 Divide both sides by -0,2. 2 Multiply both sides by 0,3. 3 Divide both sides by 47,3.
7
3) Examples including squares and square roots:
2 2 1 2 2
p =4 p + 4 = 20 18 = 5 + p 9 = 3 + 0,7p
2
2 2 1 2 2
p = 4 1 p + 4 - 4 = 20 - 4 1 9 - 3 = 3 - 3 + 0,7p 1
18 - 5 = 5 - 5 + p 1
2
2 2
p= 2 p = 16 1 2 6 = 0,7p
13 = p
2
2 2
and p = 16 2 6 0,7p
1 2 = 2
13 2 = 2 p 2 0,7 0,7
p= 4 2
p =3 6
2 2
26 = p =p
2 2 0,7
p =3 2
2
26 = p 3 6 2
p=9 = p 3
0 ,7
p= 5,1 (1 dec. place)
p= 2, 93 (2 dec. place)
1 Subtract 5 from both sides. 1 Subtract 3 from both sides.
1 Find the square root of both 1 Subtract 4 from both sides.
2 Multiply both sides by 2. 2 Divide both sides by 0.7.
sides. 2 Find the square root of both
3 Find the square root of both 3 Find the square root of both
2 Square both sides. sides.
sides. sides.
4) Examples including more complex fractions:
p+3 7 - 13 13 1 4×5
19 = 5 25 = = 45,5 = LCD = 10p
2 p p2 2 p × 10
19 5 p+3 -6 13 2 2 10 p 4 × 5 × 10 p
= 1 25 = p = 45,5p 1 = 1
5 5 2 p 2 p × 10
p2
19 p+3 -6 5p = 20
= 25p = p 1 2
5 2 p 13 = 45,5p
5p 20
19 p+3 = 2
2 = 2 2 25p = - 6 13 45,5p2 5 5
5 2 2
25p -6 45,5 45,5 p=4
7,6 = p + 3 = 2
25 25 13 2
=p
7,6 - 3 = p + 3 - 3 3 p = - 0,24 45,5
p = 4,6 13 2
p 3
45,5
p= 0 ,53 (2 dec. place)
1 Multiply both sides by p2.
1 Divide both sides by 5 1 Multiply both sides by 10p.
1 Multiply both sides by p. 2 Divide both sides by 45,5.
2 Multiply both sides by 2. 2 Divide both sides by 5.
2 Divide both sides by 25 3 Find the square root of both
sides.
8
Ratios
The Basics
If a certain substance consists of 3 kg of X and 5 kg of Y we say, “the ratio of the mass of X to the mass of Y is 3 to 5”.
X 3kg 3
This can be written as X : Y = 3 : 5 or in fraction form = = . NB: No units in the answer.
Y 5kg 5
If another substance consists of 9 kg of X and 12 kg of Y we say, “the ratio of the mass of X to the mass of Y is 9 to 12”.
X 9kg 3
This can be written as X : Y = 9 : 12 = 3 : 4 in simplest form or = = in simplest fraction form.
Y 12kg 4
Ratios can only be determined for quantities of the same kind i.e. the quantities must have the same units.
60c 60c 6 1
For example, the ratio of 60c to R5,40 = 60c : 540c = 6 : 54 = 1 : 9 in simplest form or R5,40 = 540c = 54 = 9 .
Writing ratios in different ways
1) “The ratio of 1 part to 2 parts is equal to the ratio of 5 parts to 10 parts” can be written in the following ways.
1 5 first first
1 : 2 = 5 : 10 and = =
2 10 sec ond sec ond
2 10 sec ond sec ond
or = =
1 5 first first
2) “The ratio of 2 parts to 3 parts is equal to the ratio of 4 parts to 6 parts” can be written in the following ways.
2 4 first first
2:3 = 4:6 and = =
3 6 sec ond sec ond
3 6 sec ond sec ond
or = =
2 4 first first
Solving problems involving ratios
NB: When solving a ratio for an unknown variable, always write the variable in the numerator of the fraction as it makes solving the
equation much easier.
The ratio of 2 parts to b The ratio of 4 parts to 3 The ratio of 0,5 parts to 0,3 The ratio of 1 to b is equal to the ratio
parts is equal to the ratio of parts is equal to the ratio of parts is equal to the ratio of 2
5 parts to 3 parts. b parts to 13 parts. 0,6 parts to b parts. of 2 to 3 .
3 4
2:b=5:3 4 : 3 = b : 13 0,5 : 0,3 = 0,6 : b 1 2 3
:b= : LCD = 12
b 3 4 b 0,3 b 2 3 4
= = =
2 5 3 13 0,5 0,6 1 2 3
12 : b 12 = 12 : 12 1
b 2 3 2 4 13 b 13 0,3 0,6 b 0,6 2 3 4
1 = 1 1
2 5 3 13 0,5 0,6 6 : 12b = 8 : 9
6 17,3 = b
b= or 1,2 0,36 = b 12b 9
5 2
b = 17,3 b = 0,36 6 8
9
2b 3
8
9
b= or 0,5625
16
1 Multiply each fraction by the LCD.
2 Simplify 12
1 Multiply both sides by 2. 1 Multiply both sides by 13. 1 Multiply both sides by 0,6. 6
3 Divide both sides by 2.
9
Dividing a number into a ratio:
1) Divide 15 in a ratio of 2 : 3. [think “2 parts to 3 parts”] 2) Divide 0,75 in a ratio of 2 : 1. [think “2 parts to 1 part”]
o Add: 2 + 3 = 5 [we have 5 equal parts] o Add: 1 + 2 = 3 [we have 3 equal parts]
o Divide: 15 ÷ 5 = 3 o Divide: 0,75 ÷ 3 = 0,25
o Multiply both sides of the ratio by 3: o Multiply both sides of the ratio by 0,25:
2×3:3×3 2 × 0,25 : 1 × 0,25
Answer is: 6 : 9 Answer is: 0,5 : 0,25
3) Divide a current of 1,5 A in a ratio of 3 : 6. 4) Divide 10m in a ratio of 1 : 3
2 4
o 3 : 6 = 1 : 2 NB: Simplify the ratio first
NB: Simplify the ratio first:
o Add: 1 + 2 = 3 [we have 5 equal parts] 1 3
o Divide: 1,5 ÷ 3 = 0,5 : (LCD = 4)
2 4
o Multiply both sides of the ratio by 0,5: 1 3
4: 4
1 × 0,5 : 2 × 0,5 2 4
Answer is: 0,5A : 1A 2 : 3
o Add: 2 + 3 = 5 [we have 5 equal parts]
o Divide: 10 ÷ 5 = 2
o Multiply both sides of the ratio by 2:
2×2:3×2
Answer is: 4m : 6m
5) Divide a current of 33 A in a ratio of 1 : 3 . 4) Divide 55m in a ratio of 2 : 1
2 5 3 4
1 3 2 1
: (LCD = 10) : (LCD = 12)
2 5 3 4
1 3 2 1
10 : 10 12 : 12
2 5 3 4
5 : 6 8 : 3
o Add: 5 + 6 = 11 o Add: 8 + 3 = 11
o Divide: 33 ÷11 = 3 o Divide: 55 ÷ 11 = 5
o Multiply both sides of the ratio by 3: o Multiply both sides of the ratio by 5:
5×3:6×3 8×5:3×5
Answer is: 15A : 18A Answer is: 40m : 15m
10
Straight line graphs and the Cartesian plane
The table below shows a relationship between input values (x values) and output values (y values).
x 1 2 3 4 y 3
The rule is y = 3x or x:y=1:3 or x 1
y 3 6 9 12
Another way to express the relationship between the x-values and the y-values is as ordered number pairs, namely (1 ; 3) , (2 ; 6) , (3 ; 9)
and (4 ; 12). The input value (x-value) is always written 1st and the output value (y-value) 2nd inside the round brackets.
Graphs are visual representations of relationships where the shape of the graph indicates Y
the properties of the relationship. Graphs are drawn on the Cartesian plane. The vertical
Quadrant 2 Quadrant 1 X
number line, called the Y-axis, and the horizontal number line, called the X-axis, divide
the Cartesian plane into 4 quadrants. Quadrant 3 0 Quadrant 4
Y
The input (x) values are represented on the horizontal axis and the
12 (4 ; 12)
output (y) values on the vertical axis.
10 The x- and y-values are called the co-ordinates of the points.
(3 ; 9) The x co-ordinate of a point indicates how far the point is from the Y-axis.
8
The y co-ordinate of a point indicates how far the point is from the X-axis.
6 (2 ; 6) The point (2 ; 6) is 2 units from the Y-axis and 6 units from the X-axis.
The point (0 ; 0), the point of intersection of the X-axis and the Y-axis, is
4 called the origin.
(1 ; 3)
If the points are joined with a straight line, it means that each point on
2
the line represents the rule y = 3x.
0 1 2 3 4 5
X
In the Cartesian plane:
Horizontal change to the right is in a positive direction and to the left is in a negative direction.
Vertical change upwards is in a positive direction and downwards is in a negative direction.
NB: DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL RELATIONSHIPS
y
Consider the equation y = 3x above. This is a directly proportional relationship. y = kx or x k
y
This means that y = kx where k is a constant. This can also be written as x k. Graph is a straight line passing
through the origin.
In the above example, the value of this constant is 3.
Types of straight line graphs:
Graphs are used to communicate information and relationships. To read a graph, one must understand how the quantities in the graph
relate to each other e.g. look to see if the quantities make the graph go up or down or remain constant.
Constant linear function Increasing linear function. Decreasing linear function.
As the x-values increase the y-values As the x -values increase the As the x -values increase the y -values
remain constant. y -values increase. decrease.
11
The gradient of a straight line graph
The vertical change divided by the horizontal change between any 2 points on a straight line indicates the steepness of its slope and
whether it slopes to the left or the right. This value is known as the gradient of the straight line.
change in y y y2 y1 Note:
The gradient is written as follow The vertical change or or most commonly . Delta ( ) means “change in”.
The horizontal change change in x x x2 x1
Example 1
The two straight line graphs below, A and B, both slope to the right and therefore have positive gradients.
The gradients can easily be worked out using the formula y y2 y1 , as shown below.
x x2 x1
Graph A is visibly “steeper” than graph B and therefore has a larger gradient.
Y Gradient of graph A Gradient of graph B
A
y2 y1 y y
2 1 y2 y1
(2;4)
4 x2 x1 x2 x1 x2 x1
B 4 2 3 1 3 2
3 or
2 1 3 1 3 2
(3;3)
2 2 1
(1;2)
2 1 2 1
(2;2) 2 1 1
1 Note: Any two co-ordinates on a graph
(1;1)
can be used to work out its gradient.
0 1 2 3 X
Example 2
The two straight line graphs below, C and D, both slope to the left and therefore have negative gradients.
The gradients can easily be worked out using the formula y y2 y1 , as shown below.
x x2 x1
Graph D is visibly “steeper” than graph C and therefore has a larger gradient.
Y Gradient of graph C
D Gradient of graph D
y2 y1 y2 y1
y2 y1
x2 x1 x2 x1
x2 x1
1 ( 1) 1 1
(0;1) 1 1
C 1 2 2 ( 1)
(-1;1) 1 0
1 1 or 1 1
2
1 2 2 1
X 1
0 2 2
2
(2;-1) 3 3
(1;-1) 0, 6 0, 6
Note: (-1;1) can be used as the
starting point or (2;-1) can also be
used to calculate the gradient of
line C.
12
Example 3
The two straight line graphs below, E and F, are both constant graphs. Remember, the gradient of the graphs means The vertical change .
The horizontal change
Graph E is horizontal and therefore has no vertical change i.e. 0 . Therefore a horizontal line’s gradient is 0.
The horizontal change
Graph F is vertical and therefore has no horizontal change i.e. The vertical change . Therefore a vertical line’s gradient is undefined.
0
Y Gradient of graph E Gradient of graph F
2 2 2 0
E
1 2 1 ( 1)
(-1;2) (0;2) (1;2) 0 2 0
3 1 1
(-1;1) 0 2
0
X
(-1;0) 0 undefined
(-1;-1)
F
Inversely proportional relationships
The table below shows a relationship between input values (x values) and output values (y values).
x 1 2 4 6 6
y 6 3 1,5 1 The rule is y or xy = 6
x
This relationship is represented graphically as follows:
Y
6
5
4
3
2
1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 X
NB: INVERSELY PROPORTIONAL RELATIONSHIPS
k
Consider the equation y 6 above. xy = k or y
x x
k Graph is a curved line and does
This is an inversely proportional relationship. This is written as y or xy = k.
x not pass through the origin.
In the above example k = 6.
13
Trigonometry
Trigonometry is the branch of Mathematics which deals with the relationship between the sides and angles of a triangle.
Understanding the terms “Opposite”, “Adjacent” and “Hypotenuse”.
Definition: The Hypotenuse is the longest side of a right-angled triangle. It is always the side opposite the right angle.
Consider the right-angled triangles below:
Example 1: Example 2:
B
A With respect to Â :
With respect to B̂ :
o BC is the opposite side
opposite
o AC is the opposite side

opposite
o BC is the adjacent* side o AC is the adjacent side

o AB is the hypotenuse o AB is the hypotenuse
A adjacent C
B adjacent C *adjacent means next to or adjoining
Example 3: Example 4:
With respect to B̂ :
A B
With respect to Â : o AC is the opposite side
o BC is the opposite side o BC is the adjacent side
adjacent
adjacent
o AC is the adjacent side o AB is the hypotenuse

o AB is the hypotenuse
B opposite C C opposite A
Trigonometric ratios: Sine, Cosine and Tangent
1) Sine
D In the adjacent triangles, BC = 4 and DE = 8 = 4 . Therefore BC = DE .
AB 5 AD 10 5 AB AD
For any angle Â , the ratio of the length of the side opposite Â to the length of the
hypotenuse is a constant. This constant ratio is called the sine of Â or sin A.
B
8cm opposite
sin A =
opposite
LEARN: hypotenuse
4cm
A
A E adjacent
C
2) Cosine
D
In the adjacent triangles, AC = 3 and AE = 6 = 3 . Therefore AC = AE .
AB 5 AD 10 5 AB AD
B For any angle Â , the ratio of the length of the side adjacent to Â to the length of the
hypotenuse is a constant.
This constant ratio is called the cosine of Â or cos A.
opposite
adjacent
LEARN: cos A = hypotenuse A
A 3cm C E
adjacent
6cm
14
3) Tangent
D
In the adjacent triangles, BC = 4 and DE = 8 = 4 . Therefore BC = DE .
AC 3 AE 6 3 AC AE
B For any angle Â , the ratio of the length of the side opposite Â to the length of the side
8cm adjacent to Â is a constant.
4cm This constant ratio is called the tangent of Â or tan A.
opposite
opposite
A LEARN: tan A = adjacent A
3cm C E
adjacent
6cm
NB: Trigonometric ratios are independent of the lengths of the sides of a triangle and depend only on the angle size.
Hence trigonometric ratios are considered to be functions of the angles.

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DBE ESSENTIALS GRADE

www .scienceclinic.co.za facebook.com/scienceclinicsa c Science Clinic (Pty) Ltd 2018

Pulse: A single disturbance in a medium. INTERFERENCE OF PULSES

FORMATION OF TRANSVERSE WAVES CALCULATIONS

ONE TRANSVERSE WAVE MULTIPLE TRANSVERSE WAVES

When a series of forwards and backwards

Longitudinal wave: a wave in which the TOTALLY OUT

A pulse is a single disturbance that is propagated from a source through a medium.

SOUND WAVES WAVE PROPERTIES & SOUND

ULTRASOUND ECHOES EXAMPLE:

Electromagnetic radiation behaves

energy (J) hc speed of light (3 × 108 m ⋅ s−1)

WAVE EQUATION (EM) EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE:

INCREASING WAVE ENERGY

frequency (Hz) • Energy of a photon can be calculated using:

Electromagnetic Spectrum Planck′s constant (6,63 × 10−34 )

f Waves hc speed of light (3 × 108 m ⋅ s−1)

(e¯ excess) (e¯ deﬁcient)

The POWER SOURCE The LOAD is a de- Cell

EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE: EXAMPLE:

1. There is only one path for the current to follow.

RESISTORS IN SERIES RESISTORS IN PARALLEL

Quantity Current (I) Potential Difference (V) Resistance (R)

Scalar Vector NET OR RESULTANT VECTOR

3 METHODS TO DESCRIBE THE DIRECTION OF A VECTOR

On a graph Bearing Compass (Cardinal Points or directions)

FRAME OF REFERENCE AND POSITION DISTANCE AND DISPLACEMENT

SPEED VELOCITY ACCELERATION

Tips on reading graphs:

Identify the separate stages of the motion (Forward direction positive):

a) What is the initial speed of the cars in kmh-1?

b) Which car had the greatest deceleration?

Car A, because the gradient is more steep.

Consider the racing car we used to illustrate the equations of motion:

The two stages of the motion can be

x-t: a. Describe the motion of the object from 0 to 8 seconds.

f. Draw the corresponding a – t graph for the motion:

Constant negative acceleration of -2 m.s-2

Measuring Instantaneous Velocity Measuring Acceleration

Quan&ty Deﬁni&on Vector/scalar Unit

Old symbols New symbols Leaves out

• 4 is at rest, but negative AREA:

ENERGY PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF MECHANICAL ENERGY

EP = mgh EK = mv (EP + EK )A = (EP + EK )B

Example: Example: v = 78,4

EM = mgh + 12 mv 2 EXAMPLE 3: Rollercoaster

Par:cles Non-metals Metals Metalloids

Pure Poor thermal conductors

MIXTURES AND PURE SUBSTANCES ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS

Components can be Cannot be

Eg. Sand in water Eg. H2O, MgSO4 Eg. Cu, H2

Physical Properties of materials

Thermal conductivity: the ability of material to conduct heat

Electrical conductivity: the ability of a material to conduct electricity Par:cles

Malleable: Ability to be hammered or pressed into shape without

Non-magnetic: a material which is not attracted or repelled by a mag-

Melting point: The temperature at which a solid becomes a liquid.

A substance that cannot be separated into simpler

TABLE OF COMMON COMPOUNDS TABLE OF COMMON CATIONS AND ANIONS