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Zhiqiang (John) Zhai

Computational
Fluid Dynamics
for Built
and Natural
Environments
Computational Fluid Dynamics for Built
and Natural Environments
Zhiqiang (John) Zhai

Computational Fluid
Dynamics for Built
and Natural Environments

123
Zhiqiang (John) Zhai
University of Colorado at Boulder
Boulder, CO, USA

ISBN 978-981-32-9819-4 ISBN 978-981-32-9820-0 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9820-0
© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020
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To My Beloved Father
Daozhong Zhai
A Mechanical Engineer and Practitioner
(1944–2014)
Contents

1 Introduce CFD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 What Is Fluid Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 How to Study Fluid Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 What Is CFD? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4 How Old Is CFD? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.5 What Is CFD Used for? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.6 How Does CFD Make Predictions? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.7 Can CFD Be Trusted? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.8 How Does One Become a CFD User and a CFD Pro? . . . . . . . 18
Practice-1: Outdoor Isothermal Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Assignment-1: Simulating 2-D Flow Past a 2-D Square Cylinder . . . . . 23
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2 Model Real Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.1 General CFD Modeling Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.2 General Rules for Model Simplification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.3 Classification of Fluids and Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.4 Definition of Computational Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.5 Abstraction of Physical Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Practice-2: Forest Canopy Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Assignment-2: Simulating 3-D Flow Past a Heated
3-D Cube on a Plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .............. 46
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .............. 48
3 Select Equations to Be Solved . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 51
3.1 Fluid Mechanics Analysis System: Reynolds Transport
Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 51
3.2 Fluid Mechanics Conservation Equations in Integral Form .... 52
3.3 Fluid Mechanics Conservation Equations in Differential
Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 55

vii
viii Contents

3.4 Transport Equations for Particle and Droplet . . . ........... 64

Practice-3: Indoor Airflow and Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . ........... 74
Assignment-3: Simulating Wind Flow Pattern across an
Urban Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........... 80
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........... 82
4 Select Turbulence Modeling Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.1 Overview of Turbulence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.2 Direct Numerical Simulation (DNS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.3 Large Eddy Simulation (LES) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4.4 Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) Equations . . . . . . . . 87
4.5 Turbulence Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4.6 Select Proper Turbulence Modeling Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Practice-4: Outdoor Simulation with Different Turbulence Models . . . . 100
Assignment-4: Simulating Pollutant Dispersion
across an Urban Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
5 Select Numerical Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
5.1 Discretization Methods (FDM, FVM, FEM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
5.2 Discretization of Governing Equations with FDM . . . . . . . . . . . 122
5.3 Discretization of Governing Equations with FVM . . . . . . . . . . . 125
5.4 Explicit and Implicit Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Practice-5: Indoor Airflow and Fire in a Long Tunnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Assignment-5: Simulating Natural Convection in a
Confined Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
6 Specify Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
6.1 Classic Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
6.2 Practical Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Practice-6: Simulation of Computer Rack in Data Center . . . . . . . . . . 148
Assignment-6: Simulating Forced Convection in a
Confined Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
7 Generate Grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
7.1 Grid Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
7.2 Advanced Grid Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
7.3 Grid Quality Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
7.4 Numerical Viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
7.5 Applications of Structured Coarse Grids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Practice-7: 3-D Indoor Modeling with Optimized Coarse Grids . . . . . . 179
Contents ix

Assignment-7: Simulating Mixed Convection in

a Confined Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
8 Solve Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
8.1 General Solution Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
8.2 Velocity-Pressure Decoupling Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
8.3 Solution Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
8.4 Convergence and Stabilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Practice-8: Fast CFD Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Assignment-8: Simulating Microenvironment Around
Thermal Manikin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
9 Analyze Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
9.1 Result Visualization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
9.2 Quantitative Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
9.3 Result Verification and Validation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
9.4 Simulation Revision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
9.5 Parametric Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Practice-9: Simulation of Building Integrated Photovoltaic-Thermal
Collector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Assignment-9: Simulating Displacement Ventilation in
a Confined Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
10 Write CFD Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
10.1 General Requirements for Reporting CFD Results . . . . . . . . . . 241
10.2 Writing CFD Reports for Technical or Course Projects . . . . . . . 245
10.3 Writing CFD Articles for Formal Publications . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Practice-10: Coupled Indoor and Outdoor Simulation
with Air-to-Water Heat Exchange Using Multi-Block Meshes . . . . . . . 251
Assignment-10: Overall Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Chapter 1
Introduce CFD

1.1 What Is Fluid Mechanics

The essence of world and human life is fluids and flow. We all pass through life
surrounded—and even sustained—by the flow of fluids. Blood moves through the
vessels in our bodies, and air flows into our lungs. Our vehicles move through our
planet’s blanket of air or across its lakes and seas, powered by still other fluids, such
as fuels and oxidizers, which mix in the combustion chambers of engines. The fluid
flow indeed occurs in every aspect of our lives, such as:
• breathing, coughing, and sneezing;
• drinking, cooking, and digesting;
• delivering medicine in body;
• washing and drying clothes;
• swimming, biking, surfing, sailing, and parachuting;
• smoking, extinguishing a fire with water;
• heating, cooling or ventilating a room, etc.
Many of the environmental or energy-related issues we face today cannot pos-
sibly be confronted without detailed knowledge of the mechanics of fluids. Fluid
mechanics is the science of fluids (e.g., air, water, steam, oil, blood, etc.) and their
behaviors at rest (statics) or in motion (dynamics) as well as the interaction of fluids
with solids or other fluids. Figure 1.1 illustrates such fluid statics and dynamics,
which involves the flow mechanisms of lake water and the interactions between
water and air, between water and the land bank, and between water and the boat.
Another example is high-rise buildings or suspension bridges confronting a constant
or instantaneous wind.
Fluid mechanics is a fundamental field that is the basis of many important indus-
try and research topics such as aeronautics and astronautics, oil exploration, trans-
portation tools (airplane, high-speed train, submarine, etc.), building ventilation,
and human body metabolic regulation, etc. Well-known scientists have developed
basic principles of fluid mechanics as outlined in Table 1.1. The development of

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 1

Z. Zhai, Computational Fluid Dynamics for Built
and Natural Environments, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9820-0_1
2 1 Introduce CFD

Fig. 1.1 Illustration of fluid statics and dynamics

Table 1.1 Historical milestones in fluid mechanics

Year Scientist Main contribution
250 B.C. Archimedes Buoyancy of floating bodies
1700 Isaac Newton Linear law of viscosity
1738 Daniel Bernoulli Energy law for incompressible fluids
1827 Claude Louis Marie Navier Navier-Stokes equations for fluid
1845 George Gabriel Stokes Motion and friction
1883 Osborn Reynolds Reynolds number for pipe flows
1890 Lord Rayleigh Dimensionless analysis
1904 Ludwig Prandtl Boundary layer theory

fluid mechanics greatly fosters the developments of the other fields. However, the
research of fluid flows is most challenging due to the sensitivity, randomness and
uncertainty of flows, as well as the special properties of different fluids. It requires not
only the strong physics background of researchers but also the skilled mathematics
capability (Fig. 1.2).

1.2 How to Study Fluid Mechanics

Mechanics of fluid flow can be studied in three approaches:

• Experimentally: experimental fluid mechanics. This includes various full-scale
and small-scale mock-up experiments, under either controlled or real operating
1.2 How to Study Fluid Mechanics 3

Frenchman, Claude Navier Irishman, George Stokes

(1785-1836) (1819-1903)

Fig. 1.2 Photos of Navier and Stokes

conditions of systems in study. Certain similarity principles need be met before

the results obtained from a mock-up experiment can be generalized to real-world
applications.
• Analytically: theoretical fluid mechanics. Analytical solutions may be obtained
for some special flow problems. Most theoretical analyses of fluid mechanics
can only be conducted for simple or simplified cases, such as steady and one-
dimensional problems. Proper simplification or approximation is the key for a
successful theoretical analysis.
• Numerically: computational fluid mechanics. This approach counts on computers
(sometimes, supercomputers) to solve the complicated and highly non-linear gov-
erning equations of fluid flow using various numerical techniques. Computational
fluid mechanics is typically called as computational fluid dynamics (CFD) as the
approach is mostly powerful in handling dynamic behaviors in fluid flow.
The following paragraphs compare the advantages and disadvantages of these
approaches, assuming they are performed by a researcher with adequate knowledge
and skill in each area. Obviously, these methods complement each other, and an
appropriate and integrated use of these research methods will ultimately lead to
substantial developments in fluid mechanics and its relevant disciplines.

Advantages of the Experimental Approach

• Physics: Experiments may reveal the actual (and new) physics that is not dis-
covered or understood with the current theoretical models. The new phenomena
discovered will thus stimulate the new developments in fundamental theories.
4 1 Introduce CFD

• Reality: Experiments may provide first-hand information on flow characteristics

under real conditions, which are usually the result of many comprehensive, influ-
encing factors. Experimental results provide good resources to verify and validate
various new theories and models developed upon a variety of approximations.

Disadvantages of the Experimental Approach

• Cost: Most physical experiments (either field or lab testing) can be very expensive
in terms of facility construction, instrumentation, labor, and study time. Different
types of instruments need to be acquired, allocated, calibrated, and monitored at
the same location in a flow domain if multiple variables are to be measured.
• Data: Associated with the cost, only a limited amount of discrete data can be
collected within a continuous space (such as a building). The scarceness of the
data can provide challenges to make a complete understanding and analysis of the
entire flow mechanisms.
• Complication: The comprehensive interactions among various influence factors
in a physical experiment may sometimes prevent a clear understanding of the
causes and consequences of the individual flow mechanisms involved.
• Representation: The testing results obtained in an experimental setup may only be
used to reveal the physics observed in similar environments. Caution is required to
generalize the experimental findings for other scenarios. Most laboratory experi-
ments concentrate on exploring the fundamental mechanisms of flow, thus focusing
on cases with simple geometries and flow conditions that can significantly differ
from real applications.
• Special conditions: Due to the safety and health concerns, experiments with
or under extreme conditions (e.g., with toxic or rotten materials, or under high
pressure, extreme temperature conditions) will either require special handling of
experimental facilities and instruments or use substitutive testing materials and/or
conditions. This may thus result in significant cost increase or unrealistic testing
environments.

Advantages of the Analytical Approach

• Physics: Analytical solutions, if acquired properly, can provide a straightforward

and important insight on principal flow physics, which is critical for developing
new flow assumptions, theories, and models. Analytical solutions often reveal
the most elemental aspects of flow mechanisms with super-simple (simplified)
problem setups.
• Accuracy: Due to the simple nature of problems studied, some analytical solutions
may represent the exact solutions to the problems. These analytical solutions are
of great value for validating new theories and models proposed.
• Cost: There is almost no monetary cost to conduct an analytical study for any flow
problem, if the time cost is not considered that could be very significant depending
on the capability of a researcher and the complexity of the problem.
1.2 How to Study Fluid Mechanics 5

Disadvantages of the Analytical Approach

• Simplification: Analytical approach can only be used for very few simple flow
problems (such as, one-dimension, in-viscid flow etc.). Obtained analytical solu-
tions may have very limited applicable ranges. Significant approximations are
often required to establish an analytically solvable mathematic system, which can
be largely different from real flow conditions.

Advantages of the Computational Approach

• Relatively low cost: Thanks to the rapid development in computer industry, the
computational approach is less expensive in investment and can obtain more infor-
mative results with much shorter time. The costs are likely to decrease as com-
puters become more powerful. For most studies, the cost of CFD simulation is
almost negligible when compared to the experimental approach, whether on-site
or mock-up experiments.
• Speed: The computational approach can be executed in a short period of time (rang-
ing from a few seconds to a few days depending on the physics of the problem and
the resolution requirement of the solution). Quick turnaround means engineering
data can be introduced early in various decision-making processes.
• Ability to simulate real conditions: The computational approach provides the
ability to theoretically simulate any physical condition, especially those that can-
not be (easily) tested in experiments, e.g. hypersonic flow. CFD can effectively and
safely model the situations under extreme or ideal conditions, such as, extreme-
hot/cold and high-toxic scenarios, in which the measurement is usually very dif-
ficult or even impossible.
• Ability to simulate ideal conditions: The computational approach allows great
control over the physical process, and provides the ability to isolate specific phe-
nomena for study. For instance, a heat transfer process can be idealized with adia-
batic, constant heat flux, or constant temperature boundaries. One can deliberately
study the influence of a particular design feature on the whole system performance
by adjusting this specific parameter while keeping others unchanged in the CFD
simulation.
• Comprehensive information: The computational approach allows an analyst to
examine a large number of locations in the domain of interest, and yields a com-
prehensive set of flow parameters (e.g., detailed distributions of air velocity, pres-
sure, temperature, moisture, and contaminant concentrations etc.) for examination,
mostly under a single computation. The information allows one to have a global
knowledge of flows, rather than limited observations based on a few of measure-
ment points.
• Operation easiness: Thanks to the attention and development in intelligent graphic
user interface (GUI) technologies, a CFD user can easily change and test different
modeling scenarios once the base model is well built and validated. In many
6 1 Introduce CFD

commercial CFD programs, the above operation may be as simple as clicking a

button.

Disadvantages of the Computational Approach

• Accuracy: The accuracy of computational results is strongly dependent on whether

the flow governing equations solved by a computer can correctly describe the flow
physics (such as turbulence). In addition, developing an appropriate computer
model of a reality sometimes is an art requiring profound knowledge, prior expe-
rience, and creativity of handling similar problems. Simplification processes of
complex real objects into computer recognizable models will largely influence the
accuracy of modeling results.
Accurate prediction of airflow, temperature and contaminant concentration dis-
tributions requires deep understanding of physics of flows in the domain. For
example, for building indoor environment modeling, since the airflow ranges from
laminar to turbulent flow, a comprehensive airflow model considering both lam-
inar and turbulence effect is desired. Although there are a number of turbulence
models available nowadays, a universal model that is able to describe diversity of
flow regimes in and around buildings is still not available. Meanwhile, the buoy-
ancy and near-wall effect impose more challenges on the turbulence models. The
distribution of air-phase contaminant concentration, although mainly determined
by the airflow patterns, needs special models to handle the correlation between the
fluctuation of concentration and airflow. Different contaminant sources may have
different behaviors and need different models. If the contaminants are in liquid
or solid particle phase, the problem is becoming the two-phase or multi-phase
flow. Therefore, profound knowledge on various flow models for accurate CFD
simulation is always desired.
The accuracy of CFD prediction is highly sensitive to the boundary conditions
supplied (assumed) by the user. These boundary conditions are crucial for the
accuracy of the CFD results. The boundary conditions specified in CFD can be
obtained from measurements. But most of them are based on empirical data or even
experienced guess. The circumstance may become more challenging when time-
varying boundary conditions are required for an unsteady calculation, in which the
dynamic measurement data is usually unavailable and even the estimate is difficult
to make.
• Numerics: Continuous space and time domains in physics must be discretized
into discrete systems before a computer code can recognize and process. Various
numerical schemes and methods are utilized during the process, which may lead
to unstable, un-converged, and unrealistic results if handled improperly.
Since the flow governing equations are highly non-linear and strongly self-coupled,
CFD applies numerical methods, such as the finite volume method (FVM), to
discretize the partial differential equations (PDE) and obtain the corresponding
algebraic equations that can be solved iteratively. The numerical approximation
and iterative calculation may introduce various uncertainties and instabilities. For
1.2 How to Study Fluid Mechanics 7

instance, the high-order-accuracy differencing convection scheme may bring sig-

nificant instability into the computation. That is why many state-of-the-art algo-
rithms and techniques are created to ensure the calculations toward a conver-
gent and stable direction, such as false-time-step and relaxation factor methods.
However, when more sophisticated mathematical models (e.g. the Reynolds stress
turbulence model) and numerical techniques (e.g., the multi-grid algorithm) are
developed and used to handle the complex problems, the numerical stability and
convergence problem is always of big concern.

1.3 What Is CFD?

With the rapid development of computer science and numerical techniques, numerical
simulation of reality has been playing an increasingly important role. Computational
Fluid Dynamics (CFD) is the field of numerical simulation of flow-related problems,
typically using a computer.
With the assistance of computers and numerical algorithms, CFD is solving the
flow governing equations (i.e., the fundamental conservation equations in mass,
momentum, and energy) to predict what will happen, quantitatively, when fluids
flow, often with the complications of:
• simultaneous flow of heat
• mass transfer (e.g., perspiration, dissolution)
• phase change (e.g., melting, freezing, boiling)
• chemical reaction (e.g., combustion, rusting)
• mechanical movement (e.g., of pistons, fans, rudders)
• stresses in and displacement of immersed or surrounding solids.
CFD results, after validations and verifications, can then be used to under-
stand physics, improve designs, optimize systems, guide procedures, and influence
decision-makings.

1.4 How Old Is CFD?

The early beginnings of CFD were in the 1960s, mostly moving along with the
development pace of computer industry. Its first successes came to prominence in
the 1970s, while the creation of the CFD-service industry started in the 1980s. In
1990s, the CFD industry expanded significantly due to the initial deployment of
personal computers (mostly in research entities though). Expansion continued in the
Second Millennium as commercial CFD packages developed easy GUIs (graphic user
interface) and compatible connections with those for CAD and solid-stress analysis.
As a demonstration, Fig. 1.3 reveals the trend of using CFD in building indus-
8 1 Introduce CFD

200
Total
180
CFD
160

140

120
Papers

100

80

60

40

20

0
1985 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003

Fig. 1.3 Papers presented at earlier IBPSA conferences (Zhai 2006)

try between 1980s and 2000s by analyzing the numbers of CFD-relevant papers
published in the proceedings of the biannual International Conference on Building
Simulation of IBPSA (The International Building Performance Simulation Associa-
tion), one of the most premier events in the field with a focus on computer simulation
in building. It is noted that before 1997, CFD was new to most building designers and
engineers and still at the stage of accumulating credentials by validating CFD with
building experiments and discussing appropriate boundary conditions for building
simulation. With the development of computer capacity and well establishment of
CFD reputation, CFD had gained more and more attentions in 2000s due to its advan-
tages mentioned above. It thus has been growingly used for various building projects.
Buildings and systems modeled in CFD have become more and more sophisticated,
while less knowledge of fluid mechanics and building science is required to conduct
CFD simulations due to smart GUIs of commercial CFD programs. This, therefore,
results in the necessity of developing guidelines and standards to regulate the use of
CFD for building design in early 2000s.

1.5 What Is CFD Used for?

Fluid mechanics governs all of the phenomena related to fluids and flows, from air to
water to oil and from atmosphere to ocean to blood. As a promising means of fluid
mechanics study, CFD has recently grown from a mathematical curiosity to an essen-
tial tool in almost every branch of fluid dynamics, ranging from aerospace propulsion
to weather prediction. Today’s CFD industry in the world is tightly coupled with var-
ious manufacturing and design industries such as automotive, aerospace, chemical
1.5 What Is CFD Used for? 9

and materials processing, power generation, biomedical, electronics, heating, ven-

tilation and air conditioning (HVAC), generating over hundred billion profits every
year. Professionals and non-professionals have been using personal computers and
supercomputers to simulate flows in such diverse cases as the America’s Cup racing
yachts and blood movement through an artificial heart.
Knowing how fluids flow, and their quantitative effects on the solids with which
they are in contact, can assist, for instance:
• architects and building engineers to provide comfortable and safe human environ-
ments;
• power-plant designers to attain maximum efficiency and reduce release of pollu-
tants;
• chemical engineers to maximize the yields from their reactors and processing
equipment;
• land/air/marine vehicle designers to achieve maximum performance at least cost;
• risk analysts and safety engineers to predict how much damage to structures, equip-
ment, human beings, animals and vegetation will be caused by fires, explosions
and blast waves.
In addition, CFD-based flow simulations enable:
• metropolitan authorities to determine optimal locations of pollutant-emitting
industrial plants, and conditions that should restrict motor-vehicle access, to pre-
serve air quality;
• meteorologists and oceanographers to foretell winds and water currents;
• hydrologists to forecast impacts of changes to ground-surface cover, of the creation
of dams and aqueducts on the quantity and quality of water supplies;
• petroleum engineers to design optimum oil-recovery strategies and equipment
systems;
• surgeons to understand probable consequences of potential surgery solutions on
the flow of fluids within the human body (blood, urine, air, and/or the fluid within
the brain).
In the last two decades, CFD has been playing an increasingly important role in
building designs and environmental studies. The information provided by CFD can
be used to analyze the impact of building exhausts to the environment, to predict
smoke and fire risks in buildings, to quantify indoor environment quality, and to
design natural ventilation systems, etc. The following paragraphs summarize the
most important aspects in which CFD can assist in achieving a comfortable, healthy,
and energy-efficient building design (Zhai 2006). The areas range from building site
planning to individual room layout design, from active heating, ventilating and air-
conditioning (HVAC) system design to passive ventilation study, and from regular
indoor air quality assessment to critical fire smoke and contaminant control.
• Application-1: site planning
Site planning is the first stage of building design. CFD can help optimize building
sites by predicting the distributions of air velocity, temperature, moisture, turbulence
Practice-1: Outdoor Isothermal Flow 21

X-Y Plane
Outlet: P=0

2L

Inlet: U, T
Outlet: P=0 W
L Tree
5L D 3L

2L

Outlet: P=0

X-Z Plane
Outlet: P=0

Outlet: P=0 Inlet: U, T

3H

W Tree
H
Ground

Fig. 1.11 Computational domain and boundary conditions (not scaled)

Results and Analysis:

Figure 1.12 shows the horizontal pressure contour plots at the middle plane of
the building without and with trees. As anticipated, high pressure is observed on
the windward side of the building, and low pressure on the leeward side of the
building. The existence of trees results in an additional pressure drop through the
trees, reducing the wind speed encountered by the building. Figure 1.13 presents the
average pressure differences between the front and back facades of the building with

Fig. 1.12 Predicted pressure contours at the middle plane (XY) of the building (Z = 4 m) without
trees (left) and with trees at D = 8 m from the building (right)
Another random document with
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"Stand by to haul up courses!" shouted the captain. "Phil, you stay at
the fore scuttle, and let Baxter take hold here."
"Ay, ay, sir!" I replied.
I went to the forecastle, where Baxter, already half drowned by the
water which poured in over the top-gallant forecastle, was faithfully
keeping guard over the scuttle. He had stretched a life-line across
the deck, to enable him to act efficiently; but the hatch was clamped
down and toggled with an iron strap, so that it could not be lifted from
below; and really there was no danger of an onslaught through this
aperture till it was opened by some one on deck. I relieved Baxter,
and he joined the working force at the courses. Some of the tipsy
crew were sufficiently sobered by the torrents of cold water which the
stormy sea had tossed upon them to assist, and the courses were
promptly furled.
While I was at my post over the scuttle, I heard a rap from beneath;
and I judged that the pirates below were impatient at the unexpected
delay. I put my head down to the deck and listened. In a momentary
lull of the roaring sea, I heard the name of Martino, in the voice of
Waterford; but I made no reply, though I rapped on the deck to
signify that he had been heard.
The courses were hauled up, and again the bark was relieved; but
the captain was not satisfied, and the fore topsail was also furled.
The vessel was then under jib, spanker, and main topsail. The effect
was decided and satisfactory. Though the spray still dashed over
her, she no longer took the water aboard by the tun. The bark went
along very comfortably, still headed on her course to the north-west,
for the gale came from the southward and westward.
While I stood at my post, holding on at the life-line, I considered the
plan which I had adopted for capturing the pirates. The fore scuttle
was forward of the fore mast, and the house on deck just abaft it.
The darkness was deep and dense, though sailors are just as much
at home in the gloom of the night on deck as in the glare of the
noonday sun; for weeks of service on this limited area of planking
familiarize them with every inch of space, and every object near
them. I had reasoned myself into the belief that the sailors would be
sent on deck first when the scuttle was opened, for they belonged to
the crew, and their presence would cause no suspicion. They were
to strike the first blow, and the others were to follow when it had
been done.
As soon as the fore topsail had been furled, Baxter and Sanderson
came forward, and reported themselves ready for the next step. The
captain soon followed them, for he had been aft to satisfy himself
that all was quiet there. There were really only five of us who were
entirely reliable for the difficult duty we were to perform. Franklin
declared that he was willing to take part in anything; but we had
some of the old suspicion of him lingering in our minds.
"You two will station yourselves just inside of the forecastle," I said to
Sanderson and Baxter.
"Where shall I go?" asked the captain.
"You and Franklin can be at hand, and if they need any help, you will
be able to give it to them. I shall let only three of them come up."
"Then we don't want any help," added Baxter.
"As soon as you have ironed the three, go aft, and see that nothing
happens in the cabin."
"Ay, ay," said the party, in a low tone, as they took the stations
assigned to them.
I opened the scuttle, and whispered that all was ready. As I had
anticipated, the three sailors were the first to obey the summons.
 CHAPTER XXV.
IN WHICH PHIL COMPLETES THE VICTORY, AND
EMPTIES THE RUM BARRELS.
"Hush!" said I, when the scuttle was opened, in order to impress upon
the minds of those below the necessity of great caution, for I was not
ready to do any talking with them. Of course I knew nothing of their
plans except what I surmised. I had on a heavy pea-jacket, which I
had found in the cabin; and dark as it was, I took care to show no
more of myself than was necessary. Grego was the first man who
came on deck. He said something in Spanish or Portuguese, which I
could not understand.
"Aft," I replied, at a venture, muffling my voice so that it should not be
recognized.
He went aft, and was immediately followed by the other two sailors, to
each of whom I repeated the direction given to the first. The first two
paused till the other had joined them, and they began to creep aft
with great caution. The head of a fourth man, which I judged to be
that of the mate, appeared; but I dropped down the scuttle, clamped
and toggled it, as hastily as possible, but without noise.
By this time the three sailors had passed the fore mast, and the crisis
had come. They took the weather side of the house on deck, and our
three men who had been stationed on the forecastle went after them.
Having secured the scuttle, I followed them. At the right time
Sanderson and the rest of his party threw themselves upon the
pirates, and taking them by surprise, threw them upon the deck, and
ironed them before they knew what the matter was.
"Don't kill me! Don't kill me!" pleaded the cowardly pirates.
"Hold still, then," replied Baxter.
They were secured to the weather rail, and Captain York and Franklin
hastened to the cabin, as they had been instructed, to meet any
demonstration which might be made in that direction. I followed them,
but found that there was no appearance of the conspirators in that
quarter. We listened for some time, but could hear nothing which
indicated a movement of any kind.
"It's all right so far, Phil," said the captain. "You managed that very
well."
"It worked better than I expected," I replied. "I dropped the scuttle
upon Waterford's head, so that I think it aches somewhat. If he had
come on deck with the others, we should not have had so easy a time
of it. He is a desperate fellow, and has a pistol, without any doubt."
"There is certainly one pistol among them."
"We will take care that they don't have a chance to use it."
"But there are four of them between decks now," added the captain.
"Yes; and the worst of the battle is yet to be fought."
"We will leave it all to you, Phil."
"Palmer, you will tell Baxter to bring Grego into the cabin. Let
Sanderson have an eye to the fore scuttle. Franklin, you will stand by
the steerage door, and let us know if you hear any movement in
there."
Franklin and the steward left us to execute their orders, and I was
alone with the captain.
"What do you want of Grego in the cabin, Phil?" asked Captain York.
"I wish to ascertain more about their plan, if possible," I replied. "If I
can find out what was to be done, we may be able to manage the rest
of the case better."
"Why do you send for Grego?"
"Because he is the most artful of the five sailors, and the greatest
coward. He is the one who provided the rum, and, if I mistake not, the
one who has managed the affair for the pirates."
Baxter presently appeared with Grego, whose wrists were ironed
behind him.
"Put him on that locker," I continued, as I cocked my revolver, and laid
it upon the table at my side.
"Don't shoot me!" pleaded the cowardly wretch.
"That will depend upon yourself. Answer my questions," I added,
picking up the pistol.
"I will! I will!" he replied, keeping his eyes fixed on the dangerous
weapon.
"Who provided the rum for the men?"
"I don't know!" gasped he, lying as if by instinct.
"I see you are not ready to speak the truth," I added, raising the
revolver.
"Don't shoot me! Don't shoot me! Madre de Dios!"
"Speak the truth then. Who furnished the rum for the men?"
 The Spanish Sailor tells the Truth.

"I did—have mercy upon me!"

"Where did you get the rum?"
"In the hold," stammered he.
"Did the men agree to join you in this mutiny?"
"No, no! We did not ask them to join us."
"Who got up this plot?"
"Martino and myself; but we didn't ask any of your men to help us."
"Why did you give them rum, then?"
"To get them drunk, so that we could handle them."
"How did you get the rum?"
"I went down the fore scuttle, and then down the main hatch into the
hold. I helped load the bark, and I knew where the rum was."
"What were Martino and Gorro to do?"
"They were to let us know, through the fore scuttle, when to come on
deck."
"Did you give them any rum?"
"Yes; and they took more than enough. We could not keep them from
drinking all they wanted."
"What were you to do after you came on deck?"
"All the men forward were too drunk to stand up, and we were to
throw ourselves upon the officers, and get the vessel again."
"Did Waterford tell you to do this?" I asked, sharply, as I flourished the
pistol.
"We haven't seen him before to-night for a week," he replied,
evasively.
I knew this; but I was not satisfied.
"Did Waterford tell you to do this?" I repeated, earnestly.
"We haven't seen him for a week."
"Answer me, or feed the fishes!"
"Madre de Dios!" exclaimed he, his teeth chattering with terror.
"If you don't mean to tell the whole truth, you need not say any more."
"I do! I do! I will tell all I know," he answered, quaking with terror, as
he looked into the muzzle of my revolver.
"Then answer me. Did Waterford tell you to do this?"
"Yes."
"When, and where?"
I knew that there had been some concert of action between the
pirates and the crew, and those in the steerage, and I was afraid that
some of our men had been corrupted.
"I knew where was Mr. Waterford's berth in the steerage, and I talked
with him through the bulkhead."
"How could you talk with him through the bulkhead?"
He explained that he had bored a hole through the thin board partition
which formed the bulkhead, and arranged the whole plot with
Waterford. This confession afforded me great relief, since it assured
me that none of the men upon whom we relied had been faithless.
Our men, in their anxiety to obtain liquor, had aided the pirate in going
between decks, and while they supposed he was simply procuring
the rum, he was plotting with Waterford for the recapture of the bark.
This was Grego's story. Whether it was true or not I had no means of
knowing, though it appeared to be entirely plausible.
"Didn't you promise, and even swear, that you would do your duty,
and obey the present officers of the bark, when we set you at liberty?"
I continued.
"I did, sir—pardon me!" pleaded he.
"Will you obey the orders of the present officers of the bark?"
"I will, and I call upon La Madre—"
"Don't call upon any one above. You are a liar at heart, and your word
is just as good as your oath. Take off his irons, Baxter."
The stout seaman obeyed the order without a question.
"If you don't do just what I tell you, I'll shoot you without any warning.
Do you understand me?"
"I do; I will obey you."
I led the way to the deck, and directed Baxter to follow. Going
forward, I gathered all our available force, which included half a
dozen of the tipplers, who were now steady enough to act with us. I
explained what I intended to do, and stationed my men in proper
places to perform the work I had for them to do.
"Now, Grego, when the fore scuttle is opened, you will tell Mr.
Waterford that all is ready. As soon as he comes on deck, you will
lead the way aft towards the cabin. Tell him you have the bark. If you
are treacherous I will shoot you."
"I will do just what you tell me," replied the trembling wretch.
I placed him near the scuttle, and told him to open it, while Sanderson
and myself dropped down under the top-gallant forecastle. Grego
opened the scuttle, precisely as he had been ordered to do; but I was
lying on the forecastle, within three feet of him, as he did so.
"All ready, Mr. Waterford. Come on deck," said Grego. "We have the
bark."
"What have you been about all this time?" demanded Waterford,
angrily and impatiently.
"Come up quick!" urged Grego. "We have the bark."
He did come up quick; and obedient to his orders, Grego led the way
towards the cabin. He was closely followed by Captain Farraday, and
then by the two Spanish passengers. Waterford had hardly passed
beyond the house on deck before the struggle commenced. Our men
threw themselves upon the pirates. I heard the report of a pistol, and I
trembled when I thought of the mischief the bullet might have done.
The struggle was short and decisive, except with Waterford, and I
hastened to the assistance of Baxter, who had grappled with him.
Before I could do anything, the stout seaman had struck him a blow
which silenced him. I did not stop then to inquire whether he was
killed or not.
The pirates were ironed, and made fast to the weather rail in the
waist. Then I felt that the battle had been fought and won. We had
taken the pirates in three different parties, which made the victory
comparatively easy.
"What shall we do with them now?" asked the captain.
"Let them rest where they are," I replied. "They have made their own
bed; let them sleep in it a while."
"But we must reef the main topsail very soon."
"We have hands enough now to do that, and to take care of our
prisoners."
"Then we will do it at once."
The bark was beginning to labor again, as the fury of the gale
increased. The spray dashed furiously over the prisoners, and the
motion of the vessel wrenched them badly, tied as they were to the
rail. Two reefs were taken in the main topsail, and again the vessel
was easier. It required two men at the wheel. By the time we had
finished our work it was two bells in the mid-watch, or one o'clock in
the morning. Most of the crew who had been drunk were in condition
to do duty now. They were sorry and ashamed when they realized the
mischief to which their inebriation had exposed them, and promised
not to drink any more.
We did not regard their promises; but Sanderson and I made our way
to the hold, and pulling out the bungs, permitted the contents of the
rum barrels to flow into the bottom of the vessel. We felt safe then,
and only regretted that we had not done it before, for without rum the
mutiny would have been impossible. On my way up I examined the
partition between decks, and found the hole which Grego had made.
 CHAPTER XXVI.
IN WHICH PHIL REACHES NEW YORK, MEETS
THE GRACEWOODS, AND ABANDONS CRINGLE
AND CROSS-TREE.
It was "all hands on deck" the rest of that night, and the gale came
with a fury which I had never seen before. I was second mate of the
bark; and, though it was not expected of me, I took the lead in
reefing and furling. I was ambitious to do my whole duty, and what I
lacked in experience I endeavored to make up in courage and
resolution. The captain and the veteran mate gave me a great deal
of credit for my exertions, and when the gale broke, I was tolerably
well satisfied with myself, as boys of eighteen generally are.
In the midst of the gale we transferred our prisoners to their old
quarters in the steerage, tied them as before, and placed a guard
over them. Captain Farraday said nothing, and seemed to be
mourning the loss of his rum. Waterford was sullen and silent; and I
thought he had abandoned all hope of escaping his fate, which was
nothing less than the penitentiary for a long term. The two Spanish
gentlemen seemed to take their lot more hardly than the others.
They offered money, and everything else they had to offer, if we
would land them at one of the West India or the Madeira Islands.
At noon the next day the gale broke, and after the storm came a
calm. We were glad of the quiet which followed, and within the next
twenty-four hours there was a great deal of heavy sleeping done on
board of the Michigan. We released the five Spanish and Portuguese
sailors, though without much regard to the solemn promises they
made us; for with the rum had gone their power to do mischief on
board of the vessel. We watched them closely, but we made them
work.
"I ought to have let you leave the bark, Phil, when you wanted to do
so," said Waterford, as I called down to see the prisoners after the
gale.
"That was your blunder; and I have made more out of it than you
have," I replied.
"I suppose you have divided the money before this time."
"No; we mean to be honest men; and we shall hand everything over
to the government officers."
"That don't include your fifteen hundred dollars—does it?"
"No; what is mine belongs to me, and the government officers have
nothing to do with my money, any more than they have with my
clothes," I answered.
"There is gold in my trunk to the amount of about eight thousand
dollars," he continued.
"I know there is. Where did you get that gold, Waterford?"
"I bought it in St. Louis."
"With the money obtained on the forged checks?"
"Yes; I spoke for the gold at a broker's, and he had it all ready for
me. Then I presented my checks, and in less than fifteen minutes
after they were paid, I was on my way out of the city. My plans would
have worked well, if you had not crossed my path."
"Then the gold really belongs to the banks who paid the forged
checks?"
"I suppose so. I have nothing more to expect in this world, and I don't
care what becomes of it."
I did not tell him that he had nothing to expect in the next world, any
more than in this, but that was the thought in my mind. His failure to
recover the bark had completely disheartened him, and, like others
whom I had seen under similar circumstances, he appeared to find
relief in confessing his error, or at least in pointing out the cause of
the miscarriage of his plans.
"Did you intend to rob me when you left St. Louis?" I asked.
"No; not exactly, though I knew you had the gold. I was afraid you
would see and recognize me. I watched you closely, without being
seen myself. I went to your trunk, and took your money when you
were on the hurricane deck of the steamer. I had decided to go mate
of this vessel, and went from New York to St. Louis to raise the
money to enable me to buy some negroes on my own account. I
wanted all I could get, and your gold was very convenient. I should
have made a fortune out of this voyage, and then I intended to go to
Chicago, marry Marian Collingsby, and be happy. You have spoiled
my plan, and I have given up in despair."
"The plan was too wicked to succeed, even if you had not seen me.
If you had made your fortune out of the flesh and blood of your
fellow-beings, you would never have been happy with it; and Marian
would have married a boa constrictor rather than you. Men may
seem to succeed, but God never permits them really to do so, in
such schemes."
"I am not quite ready to listen to any cant yet; I may be by and by,"
said he, bitterly. "You thwarted me once before, and I hated you. I
came with you all the way from Parkersburg. I wanted you in the
same vessel with me, for I knew, as you had lost your money, you
must either work your passage or return to St. Louis. When I met
Captain Farraday, I set him at work upon you, and succeeded in
getting you on board of the vessel. I wanted to punish you; but the
tables are turned upon me, and you are punishing me."
"I have no wish to punish you. For all the injury you have done me,
and have tried to do me, I forgive you."
"Will you let me escape?"
"No; I have a duty to the community which will not permit me to do
that."
"I don't understand your kind of forgiveness—that which would send
a man to prison for ten or twenty years."
"I can forgive the personal wrong you have done me, but I have no
right to throw a pirate upon the community—one who is willing to
steal the child from his father, the wife from her husband."
"There's no use in talking," he added, hopelessly.
"Certainly not, if you expect to escape through my agency."
I left him; and I felt that crime was pretty sure of its punishment, even
in this world.
But my story is really told. The rest of our passage was comfortable
and pleasant, and at daylight one morning in May, we came in sight
of Sandy Hook. We had all our prisoners safe, and our voyage was
ended. We took a pilot, and, as we were going through the Narrows,
we overhauled a handsome clipper ship, which had been in sight
since daybreak. The Michigan outsailed her; and, as we came up, I
was surprised and delighted to see upon her stern the word
"Bayard," for this was the ship in which the Gracewoods were to
come home. I saw upon her quarter-deck a gentleman and two
ladies. One of them must be Ella, and my heart was thrilled at the
discovery. But how tall she had grown! We took the ship's wind, and
went by her. I hailed the party by name, and shouted my own.
Though they responded to my signals, I concluded that they did not
recognize me.
We ran up the bay, and anchored off the Battery, near where the
revenue cutter lay. Captain York, at my request, sent me on shore to
give information of the state of affairs on board to the proper
authorities. I found the United States marshal, and told my story in
detail. He sent a force to take possession of the vessel, and secure
the prisoners. Captain Farraday, Waterford, and the two Spanish
passengers were taken to the Tombs. Martino and his fellow-pirates
were not arrested; they were too small game. In the cabin nearly fifty
thousand dollars in gold was found; but I put in a claim for that in
Waterford's trunk on behalf of the banks of St. Louis which had paid
the forged checks. The present officers and crew were directed to
hold themselves in readiness to attend the examination of the slave
traders.
The Bayard came up the harbor and anchored. As soon as I could
leave the Michigan, I hastened on board of her. The Gracewoods
were going on shore; but such a welcome as they extended to me
gladdened my heart. Ella gave me both hands, and blushed like a
June rose. She had not only grown tall, but handsome; and I was
glad to know that she still regarded me as kindly as ever. The health
of Mrs. Gracewood was completely restored, and my excellent friend
and instructor seemed to have grown younger since we parted four
years before. I went on shore with them, and it seemed to me I had
never been so happy in my life. I told Ella I was second mate of the
bark, and she expressed her astonishment so prettily that I felt
rewarded for all the trials and discouragements of the voyage, as
well as for its triumphs. I went to the hotel with my friends, and spent
the rest of the day with them, talking over the events of the past.
The slaveholders were examined and committed for trial. The bark
was taken possession of by the authorities, and the crew discharged.
The name and address of each man were taken, for they were
deemed to be entitled to a share in "the moiety of the vessel and her
lading," after she had been condemned and sold. I found my gold
safe, and of course I did not leave it in the bark. As we were not
required for some time in New York, I went to St. Louis with the
Gracewoods. My father gave me a warm welcome, of course, and so
did all my other friends.
"I did not expect you back so soon, Philip," said he.
"O, I have only come back on a visit. I must go again in a short time;
for I intend to see my mother, if possible, before the summer is
ended," I replied, lightly.
"I suppose you consider yourself a sailor now."
"I ought to be; I came home second mate of the bark Michigan. I can
hand, reef, and steer; make a short splice, a long splice, an eye
splice, a cringle, a Turk's head; can worm, serve, and parcel."
"You have a briny look, as though you had just escaped from a pickle
barrel."
"O, I'm as salt as a red herring."
"I hope you have had enough of the sea."
"Enough as a sailor before the mast; but if ever I am a rich man, I
intend to have a yacht, and go round the world in her."
"I'm afraid you will never be rich enough to do that."
"If I am not I will not complain."
"You didn't make much on this cruise," laughed my father.
"In money probably two or three thousand dollars, and in experience
and knowledge as much more."
I explained my plans and views to my father; but as I intended to go
to Europe by steamer, as soon as I could get rid of the trial of the
slave traders, he offered no objection. I remained in St. Louis a
week, when the United States marshal wrote for me to appear in
New York. Before I went, I called on my friend Mr. Lamar, and told
him all about Waterford; and when I started, an agent of the banks
went with me to claim the money which the pirate had obtained from
them by forgery. This claim was established and allowed, and the
loss of the banks was made good to them. The trial of the slavers
came on sooner than I had reason to expect, and they were
sentenced to three years' imprisonment—which I thought was a very
mild punishment.
The bark was condemned and sold, with all her stores and cargo,
and, including my share of the Spaniards' money, which was
regarded as part of the "lading," I had the handsome sum of twenty-
five hundred dollars. As we all fared alike in the division, my
shipmates were willing to acknowledge that, even in a pecuniary
point of view, it was better to do right than to do wrong. Sanderson
and Baxter kept sober after they went on shore, and both of them
are now temperance men. Baxter is chief mate of a large Indiaman,
and Sanderson has retired to a little farm in Maine, which he bought
with his share of the prize-money. Of the rest of the crew I know
nothing; but I suppose most of them kept drunk till they had spent all
their money, or had been robbed of what they did not spend, and
then went to sea again; but I will venture to say that none of them
ever voluntarily served in a slave ship.
I was prepared for more sea swashes, for I liked the sea. I was ready
to sail for Europe as a passenger in a steamer. I hoped soon to find
my mother, and unite our little family under one roof in St. Louis. And
so, for a time, I abandoned Cringle and Cross-tree.

THE UPWARD AND ONWARD SERIES.

1. Field and Forest; or, The Fortunes of a Farmer.
2. Plane and Plank; or, The Mishaps of a Mechanic.

3. Desk and Debit; or, The Catastrophes of a Clerk.

4. Cringle and Cross-Tree; or, The Sea Swashes of a Sailor.
IN PREPARATION.
5. Bivouac and Battle; or, The Struggles of a Soldier.

6. Sea and Shore; or, The Tramps of a Traveller.

*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CRINGLE AND
CROSS-TREE ***

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