OSI Model

Computer Networks(Part of Unit-I)

 Introduction OSI

 The OSI model stands for Open Systems Interconnection model. The
OSI model is also known as the ISO-OSI model as it was developed
by ISO (International Organization for Standardization). It is a
conceptual reference model that describes the entire flow of
information from one computer to the other computer.

 The OSI model is a 7-layered model, so it is also known as a 7-

layered architecture model. The basic idea behind layered
architecture is to divide the design into smaller pieces. Most
networks are organized in a series of layers to reduce the design
complexity.

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 What is the OSI Model?
 Open System Interconnection (OSI) is a reference model developed in 1984 by the
International Organization for Standardization that specifies how information from one
computer's software application passes through physical media to another computer's
software application.
 OSI reference model can be imagined to be a Math assignment of 7 questions divided
amongst 7 friends. Instead of one person doing the entire task, we have 7 friends, each
taking up one question, thereby reducing the time to complete the task at hand. Each
question is independent of the other, and hence each friend can independently answer
the questions.
 Moreover, OSI was intended to serve as a design standard to ensure uninterrupted
global communication between computers built on different architectures. Hence, no
matter the language each friend understands, be it Spanish or English, and the said
friend would be able to understand the question since it is Math.
 There are numerous users around the world, and to ensure national and worldwide
communication, the ISO developed a conceptual model named the OSI model. We can
define the OSI model as a conceptual reference model that describes the entire flow of
information from one computer to the other computer. The OSI model is a 7-layered
model, so it is also known as a 7-layered architecture model. 3
 OSI History

 The concept of a 7 layer model was provided by the work of

Charles Bachman, then of Honeywell.

 Various aspects of OSI design evolved from experiences with the

Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) and
the fledgling Internet.

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OSI Layers
OSI Model
Data unit Layer Function
7.Application Network process to application
Data representation, encryption
Data 6. Presentation
Host and decryption
layers 5. Session Interhost communication
End-to-end connections and
Segments 4.Transport
reliability, Flow control
Path determination and logical
Packet 3. Network
addressing
Media
Frame 2. Data Link Physical addressing
layers
Media, signal and binary
Bit 1. Physical
transmission
Going from layer 1 to 7: Please Do Not Throw Sausage Pizza Away
Going from layer 7 to 1: All People Seem To Need Data Processing
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 Layer1: Physical Layer
 The Physical Layer defines the electrical and physical specifications for devices. In
particular, it defines the relationship between a device and a physical medium.
 The physical layer coordinates the functions required to transmit the bitstream of data
over the physical medium. The physical layer is the lowest layer of the OSI model. The
main work of the physical layer of the OSI model is to activate, maintain, and
deactivate the physical connection. The physical layer is also responsible for the
transmission and reception of the unstructured raw data over the network.
 The data in the physical layer consists of a stream of bits. The bits of data must be
encoded into the form of signals for transmission. Now, for the transmission, the
physical layer sets the voltages, light speed(in the case of fiber optics cable), and data
rates (numbers of bits to be transmitted per second).
 This includes the layout of pin, voltages, cable specification, hubs, repeaters, network
adapters, host bus adapters, and more.

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 Layer1: Physical Layer
The major functions and services performed by the Physical Layer are:
 The physical layer encodes the signals at the sender's end and decodes the
signals at the receiver's end. It also defines the type of encoding scheme to
be used (how 0's and 1's are to be changed into signals).
 It deals with the synchronization of the sender and the receiver so that the
receiver and the sender are at the same bit level. (Their clocks must be
synchronized).
 The physical layer deals with the line configuration i.e. how the devices are
connected through a dedicated link.
 It deals with the type of topology to be used for example ring, mesh, bus,
star, hybrid, etc. Network topology is the physical and logical arrangement
of nodes and connections in a computer network.
 The physical layer also deals with the direction and type of transmission
between two or more devices. The mode of transmission can be simplex,
half-duplex, and full duplex.
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 Layer1: Physical Layer
The various protocols used in the physical layer are :
 Digital Subscriber Line.
 Integrated Services Digital Network.
 Ethernet, etc.

The various devices used in the physical layer are :

 Network adapters,
 Hubs,
 Cables,
 Repeaters,
 Modem, etc.
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 Layer 2: Data Link Layer

The data link is the second layer of the OSI model, which is used
to transmit the error-free frames from one node to the other. If the
two computer nodes are on the same networks, then the data link
layer provides a connection between the two nodes.
The main work of the data link layer is to convert the data into the
form of frames.

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 Layer 2: Data Link Layer
The functions provided by the physical layer are as follows :
 It provides reliable and efficient communication between two or more devices.
 Framing : Framing is the technique in which the data is divided into streams of bits
(called frames) received from the network layer. Along with the conversion of data into
frames, the data link layer adds a header and trailer to the frames. The header (present
at the starting of the frame) contains the hardware's physical address of source and
destination. The trailer (present at the end of the frame) contains the error detection and
correction bits.
 The data link layer also maintains the flow control of data during transmission. Suppose
that the rate of data transmission and data absorption varies then there is data loss, so
the data link layer maintains the flow control.
 As we have seen above, the data link layer adds the error detection and correction bits
at the end of the frames in the form of trailers. These bits are used to detect the errors
and then retransmit the damaged or lost data to prevent any kind of duplication.
 It also maintains access control. In situations where two or more devices are connected
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to the same communication medium then the data link layer protocols determine the
device that can transmit the data.
 Layer 2: Data Link Layer
 The Data Link Layer provides the functional and procedural
means to transfer data between network entities and to
detect and possibly correct errors that may occur in the
Physical Layer.
 Originally, this layer was intended for point-to-point and
point-to-multipoint media, characteristic of wide area media
in the telephone system.
 The data link layer is divided into two sub-layers by IEEE.

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 Layer 2: Data Link Layer

 One is Media Access Control (MAC) and another is Logical

Link Control (LLC).
 Mac is lower sub-layer, and it defines the way about the media
access transfer, such as CSMA/CD/CA(Carrier Sense Multiple
Access/Collision Detection/Collision Avoidance)
 LLC provides data transmission method in different network. It
will re-package date and add a new header.

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The various protocols used in this layer are :
 PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol),
 Frame Relay,
 ATM (The asynchronous transfer mode protocol), etc.

The various devices used in this layer are :

 Bridges,
 Switches,
 NIC cards (Network Interface Cards), etc.
 Layer 3: Network Layer
 The network layer is the third layer of the OSI model which provides communication
between hosts of different networks. The network layer divides the data received from
the transport layer in the form of packets. The network layer provides two ways of
communication namely - connection-oriented and connectionless.
 In connection-oriented communication, a communication session is established before
any useful data can be transferred.
 In connectionless communication, the data can be transferred without establishing any
connection.
 The Transport Layer provides transparent transfer of data between end users, providing
reliable data transfer services to the upper layers.
 The Transport Layer controls the reliability of a given link through flow control,
segmentation/de-segmentation, and error control.

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 Layer 3: Network Layer

 The Network Layer provides the functional and procedural means of transferring
variable length data sequences from a source to a destination via one or more networks,
while maintaining the quality of service requested by the Transport Layer.
 The Network Layer performs
 network routing functions,
 perform fragmentation and reassembly,
 report delivery errors.
 Routers operate at this layer—sending data throughout the extended network and
making the Internet possible.

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The functions provided by the network layer are as follows :

 Logical Addressing : The network layer adds the logical address i.e. IP address
(Internet Protocol address) if the packet crosses the network boundary. It helps in the
proper identification of devices on the network. Hence, the network layer adds the
source and destination address to the header of the frame.

 Routing : Routing simply means determining the best (optimal) path out of multiple
paths from the source to the destination. So the network layer must choose the best
routing path for the data to travel.

 If many devices are connected to the same router then there is a change of packet drop
because a router may not be able to handle all the requests. So, the network layer
controls the congestion on the network as well.
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The various protocols used in this layer are :
 IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4),
 IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6),
 ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol),
 IPSEC ( IP Security),
 ARP (Address Resolution Protocol),
 MPLS (Multiprotocol Label Switching), etc.

 The various devices used in this layer are :

 Routers,
 Brouters, etc.
 Layer 4: Transport Layer
 The transport layer is the fourth layer of the OSI model which is responsible for the
process to process delivery of data. The main aim of the transport layer is to maintain
the order so that the data must be received in the same sequence as it was sent by the
sender. The transport layer provides two types of services namely - connection-oriented
and connectionless.
The functions provided by the transport layer are as follows :
 The transport layer maintains the order of data.
 It receives the data from the upper layer and converts it into smaller parts known as
segments.
 One of the major tasks of the transport layer is to add the port addressing (addition of a
port number to the header of the data). The port number is added so that the data can be
sent to the respective process only.
 The transport layer on the receiver's end reassembles the segments to form the actual
data.
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 The transport layer also deals with flow control and error control (discussed in the
physical layer section).
The various protocols used in this layer are :
 TCP (Transmission Control Protocol),
 UDP (User Datagram Protocol), etc.

The various devices used in this layer are :

 Segments,
 Load Balancers/Firewalls, etc.
 Layer 5: Session Layer
The session layer is the fifth layer of the OSI model whose main aim is to establish,
manage, and terminate the connection between applications.

There are mainly two functions provided by the session layer, they are as follows :
 The session layer is responsible to create a dialog box which allows two systems to
enter into a dialog and transmit the data in either half-duplex or full-duplex mode and
establishes checkpointing, adjournment, termination, and restart procedures.
 The session layer is also responsible to adding synchronization bits or checkpoints into
the stream of data. These checkpoints help to detect any kind of error that may have
occurred during the data transmission. So, if an error has occurred in between the
transmission then the re-transmission will take place from the last checkpoint only.

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 Layer 5: Session Layer
 The OSI model made this layer responsible for graceful close of sessions, which is a
property of the Transmission Control Protocol, and also for session check pointing and
recovery, which is not usually used in the Internet Protocol Suite. The Session Layer is
commonly implemented explicitly in application environments that use remote
procedure calls.
The various protocols used in this layer are :
 PAP (Password Authentication Protocol)
 PPTP (Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol)
 RPC (Remote Procedure Call Protocol)
 RTCP (Real-time Transport Control Protocol), etc.

 The various devices used in this layer are :

 Gateway, etc.

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 Layer 6: Presentation Layer
 The Presentation Layer establishes a context between Application Layer
entities, in which the higher-layer entities can use different syntax and
semantics, as long as the presentation service understands both and the
mapping between them.
 This layer provides independence from differences in data representation (e.g.,
encryption) by translating from application to network format, and vice versa.
 This layer formats and encrypts data to be sent across a network, providing
freedom from compatibility problems.
 It is sometimes called the syntax layer.
 The main aim of the presentation layer is to convert the data from one
presentation format to the other format as different applications may use
different applications.
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 Layer 6: Presentation Layer
There are mainly three functions provided by the presentation layer.
They are as follows:

 Since different computer systems use different encoding systems,

the presentation layer must translate the data into a computer-
dependent format.
 The presentation layer deals with the encryption and decryption
of the data so that the data can be transmitted securely.
 The presentation layer also deals with the compression and
expansion of the information.
 Layer 6: Presentation Layer
 The various protocols used in this layer are:
• AFP (Apple Filing Protocol),
• ICA (Independent Computing Architecture),
• Citrix system core protocol,
• LPP (Lightweight Presentation Protocol),
• NCP (NetWare Core Protocol),
• NDR (Network Data Representation),
• Tox protocol, etc.
Layer 7: Application Layer
 The application layer is the OSI layer closest to the end user, which means that
both the OSI application layer and the user interact directly with the software
application.
 Application layer functions typically include:
 identifying communication partners,
 determining resource availability,
 synchronizing communication.

 The application layer is the seventh and the last layer of the OSI model, which
mainly concentrates on providing services to the users. The application layer
contains numerous protocols that are used by users for different purposes (refer to
the list provided at the end of this section for details).
 Application layers allow users to access and share files, access and send emails,
access webpages (via the world wide web), etc.

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Layer 7: Application Layer
 Identifying communication partners
 Determines the identity and availability of communication
partners for an application with data to transmit.
 Determining resource availability
 Decide whether sufficient network or the requested
communication exist.
 Synchronizing communication
 All communication between applications requires cooperation
that is managed by the application layer.

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Layer 7: Application Layer
The various protocols used in this layer are:
 DNS (Domain Name System),
 SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol),
 FTP (File Transfer Protocol),
 POP (Post Office Protocol),
 HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol), etc.

The various devices used in this layer are:

 PC's (Personal Computer),
 Phones,
 Servers,
 Firewalls, etc. 36
OSI Feature

 Open system standards over the world

 Rigorously defined structured, hierarchical network model
 Complete description of the function
 Provide standard test procedures

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Advantages of OSI Model
Let us now discuss the various advantages of the OSI model:
 Using the OSI model, various other layered models are developed (for example
- TCP/IP).
 Using the OSI model, we can see the big picture of the communication of data
over the network.
 Each layer of the OSI model handles a specific job; hence can be handled and
tested separately.
 The OSI model depicts how hardware and software work together.
 The OSI model can be used to compare the basic functional relationship on a
different network.
 The OSI model provides abstraction so we can change any layer without
thinking about other layers; hence, it can be easily used to incorporate new
technologies.
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Disadvantages of OSI Model
Let us now discuss the various disadvantages of the OSI model:
 There are some duplicate services provided by the various layers, for example -
flow control, error control, etc.
 The OSI model is quite complex, slow, and costly to implement and use.
 The OSI model is theoretical, so it is not perfectly adequate for practical data
transmission and communication.

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 Conclusion
 The OSI model stands for Open Systems Interconnection model. The OSI model is
also known as the ISO-OSI model because the OSI model was developed
by ISO (International Organization for Standardization).
 The OSI model is a conceptual reference model that describes the entire flow of
information from one computer to the other computer. The OSI model is a 7-layered
model so it is also known as a 7-layered architecture model.
 The basic idea behind layered architecture is to divide the design into smaller pieces.
Most networks are organized in a series of layers to reduce the design complexity.
 Each layer of the OSI model handles a specific job; hence can be handled and tested
separately. The OSI model depicts how hardware and software work together.
 The OSI model provides abstraction so we can change any layer without thinking
about other layers; hence, it can be easily used to incorporate new technologies.
 The OSI model is theoretical, so it is not perfectly adequate for practical data
transmission and communication. It is quite complex, slow, and costly to implement
and use.
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 OSI VS TCP/IP Model
Parameters OSI Model TCP/IP Model
TCP/IP stands for Transmission
OSI stands for Open Systems
Full Form Control Protocol/Internet
Interconnection.
Protocol.

Layers It has 7 layers. It has 4 layers.

Usage It is low in usage. It is mostly used.

Approach It is vertically approached. It is horizontally approached.

Delivery of the package is guaranteed in Delivery of the package is not

Delivery
OSI Model. guaranteed in TCP/IP Model.

Replacement of tools and changes can Replacing the tools is not easy
Replacement
easily be done in this model. as it is in OSI Model.

It is more reliable than OSI

Reliability It is less reliable than TCP/IP Model.
Model.