ANALYSIS OF PV TRACKER PARAMETERS

IMPACTING THE BIFACIAL GAIN

INTRODUCTION
PV plants using bifacial modules are becoming an increasing part of the PV mainstream market. Many factors contribute to the bifacial
gain, understood as the extra energy produced as a consequence of the additional irradiation reaching the back side of the modules.
Among these factors it is worth highlighting: albedo of the ground, bifaciality of the PV module, height from ground, ratio difuse/global
irradiation and others. Some parameters are especifically related to the PV tracker that is used in the plant.

PV Hardware has partnered with the Instituto de Energía Solar of the Universidad
Politecnica de Madrid (IES-UPM), one of the most recognized PV research centers
worldwide, to launch a project to determine these parameters.

PVH and the IES-UPM have used the Innovation center located at Cheste (Valencia-
Spain), to run the extensive tests required to come out with reliable information to
obtain the following parameters for both 1P and 2P tracking configurations:

Structure shading Mismatch loss Cell operation

factor (SSF) factor (MLF) temperature

Share of rear irradiance Due to the non-uniformity Paying especial attention to

that is obstructed by the of the rear irradiaction the temperature differences
structure. reaching the back side of between the top and bottom
the modules. module rows in the 2P
tracker, compared to the
temperature of the modules
in the 1P tracker.

PVH Innovation Center- Cheste (Valencia- Spain)

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1. PROCEDURE
The state of the art of estimation of SSF and MML is mainly supported by modelling. Typically ray-tracing for calculating SSF and
describing the spatial distribution of the rear irradiance at the cell-level. Then electronic circuit simulation software is used for
modelling the PV module, also at a cell-level, which allows translating such irradiance spatial distribution to generated current.
Comparing the results of different scenarios, with and without obstructions, that is, with and without rear irradiance distribution
non-uniformity, allows for calculating MML.

The approach followed here takes profit of modelling but is strongly supported by experiments. Dedicated instrumentation to
examine each of these items has been, first, constructed. Then, an experimental campaign has been carried out in the PVH testing
PV plant in Cheste (Valencia).

Some of the specific instrumentation used for the tests include:

Dedicated device with 21

reference cells to determine the Multiple sensors including individual
irradiation reaching the back side of voltage in every module of the string (20
each of the 72 cells of the module, modules). The voltaje distribution
and especially the back area due to back side non-uniformity
most influenced by the torque irradiation can be accurately
tube (1P configuration). translated into mismatch.
Meteo station
Calibrated reference modules able including albedometer
to measure the front and back
irradiations on the module
Surface and the cell operation
temperatures.

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2. MAIN RESULTS
The results for SSF and MLF are shown table 1.

SSF (%) MMLT MMLREAR (%)

1P 9.9 0.23 5.4

2P 3.6 0.18 4.5

Table 1: Structure Shading Factor and Mismatch Loss factor. MMLt affects the total irradiance received in
both sides of the module. However, most PV software simulators calculate PMPP by applying a mismatch
coefficient, MMLREAR, just to the rear irradiance, GREAR.

Parameters to be used on Simulation software are SSF(%) and MMLrear (%). It worths noting that over the total irradiance (front
and bottom) the losses are very small and near for both tracker configurations.

CELL OPERATION TEMPERATURE

Multiple combinations were tested to determine the operation cell temperatures in different configurations, aiming to assess
the variations measured in modules positioned in the upper or lower row of the 2P configuration as well as on the 1P.

Experimental values show a variation of ±2.5 ºC range and there´s not even a firm pattern in which is always the same row being
at higher or lower temperatures.

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3. CONCLUSIONS
1. Three key aspects impacting bifacial energy gain have been
experimentally reasearched for the 1P and 2P standard trackers
currently manufactured by PVH:
• The Structural Shading Factor, SSF, for 1P and 2P trackers.
• The Mismatch Losses, MML, for 1P and 2P trackers.
• The differences in solar cells operation temperatures
between 1P and 2P trackers.
2.
Table 1 on paragraph 2 shows the SSF and MMLrear to be
used when simulating on main software packages.
3. The impact in the overall production of a bifacial system is, by
far, much more influenced by other parameters, especially albedo
and module bifaciality.
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4. Although 2P configuration shows clearly better results,
both in SSF and MML, it can not be directly deduced that the
production driven by bifaciality will be better than on the 1P
tracker. The main reason for this statement is the fact that
aspect ratio is larger on 1P than 2P configuration, resulting in a
higher view factor and, so, a larger irradiation on the back side.
5. Operating cell temperatures variation is low, resulting in an
estimated maximum difference in production in the range of
±0.3 %. Obviously, this parameter can be strongly dependant on
the Meteo of the site.
6.
Considering all the above, There´s not evidence 1P or 2P
configurations are producing more than the other related to
bifacial gain. Our experience, in fact, shows the advantage of
the lower SSF and MML values of the 2P configuration does not
compensate the lower view factor vs 1P configuration. Other
factors may influence the decisión to choose either 1P or 2P
choice, but, according to our findings, correlated with field
Information, bifacial gain does not justify the election.
7. The results of the field measurements vs the models done
with PVSyst show quite close results, validating the accuracy of
the determined parameters.
 THE FULL REPORT
IS PRESENTED BELOW
 





CHESTE PV PLANT


ƒ„Ž‘‡”‘†‹‘ǡ Ǥƒ”–À‡œǦ‘”‡‘ǡ†—ƒ”†‘‘”‡œ‘
•–‹–—–‘‡”‰Àƒ‘Žƒ”–‹˜‡”•‹†ƒ†‘Ž‹–± ‹ ƒƒ†”‹†


Bifacial gains with 1P and 2P PVH trackers




 
ƒ”“—‡‡‰ƒǡ†‹ˆ‹ ‹‘
˜†ƒǤ†‡Žƒ”ƒ•‹ ‹×•’ƒÓ‘Žƒǡ͵ʹ
ʹͺͳͲͺŽ ‘„‡†ƒ•ǡƒ†”‹†


IES-PS-EG-2002


‘˜‡„‡”ʹͲʹͲ


 CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION ...........................................................................................................................1
2. STRUCTURE SHADING FACTOR………………………………………..........................................................1
2.1. Instrumentation….. ....................................................................................... ……. 1
2.2. SSF determination ............................................................................................... 2
2.3. Experiments and results ...................................................................................... 3
3. MISMATCH LOSSES .....................................................................................................................5
3.1 Available litterature ............................................................................................. 5
3.2 Experimental determination ............................................................................... 7
4. OPERATING TEMPERATURE ......................................................................................................11
5. CONCLUSIONS ...........................................................................................................................13

1. INTRODUCTION

Š‹•”‡’‘”–’”‡•‡–•–Š‡”‡•—Ž–•‘ˆƒ Ǧ™‘”–Šƒ–ƒ‹•ƒ–†‡–‡”‹‹‰–Š‡‡‡”‰›‰ƒ‹
†”‹˜‡„›„‹ˆƒ ‹ƒŽ‹–›‹’Žƒ–•–Šƒ–—•‡ͳȋ‘”–”ƒ‹–Ȍƒ†ʹ–”ƒ ‡”•ƒ—ˆƒ –—”‡†„› Ǥ
‘”–Šƒ–’—”’‘•‡ǡ–Š”‡‡‹–‡•Šƒ˜‡„‡‡ƒƒŽ›œ‡†ǣ
➢ The rear shading caused by the tracker’s mounting system (torque tube and panel rails). This
‹• Šƒ”ƒ –‡”‹œ‡†„›–Š‡•‘Ǧ ƒŽŽ‡†Structure Shading FactorǡSSFǡ†‡ˆ‹‡†ƒ•–Š‡•Šƒ”‡‘ˆ”‡ƒ”
‹””ƒ†‹ƒ ‡ –Šƒ– ‹• ‘„•–”— –‡† „› –Š‡ •–”— –—”‡Ǥ Š‹• ’ƒ”ƒ‡–‡” ‹• ƒ ‹’—– ”‡“—‹”‡† „› 
•‘ˆ–™ƒ”‡ȋ  ǡ•›•–ǤǤǤȌˆ‘”‡‡”‰››‹‡Ž†‡•–‹ƒ–‹‘•Ǥ
➢ Š‡ ‹•ƒ– Š Ž‘••‡• ‘ –Š‡ ‡Ž‡ –”‹  ’‘™‡” †‡Ž‹˜‡”‡† „› –Š‡  ƒ””ƒ› †—‡ –‘ –Š‡ ‘Ǧ
—‹ˆ‘”‹–› ‘ˆ –Š‡ ”‡ƒ” ‹””ƒ†‹ƒ ‡Ǥ Š‹• ‘Ǧ—‹ˆ‘”‹–› ‹• ’ƒ”–Ž› †—‡ –‘ –Š‡ ƒ–—”‡ ‘ˆ –Š‡
”ƒ†‹ƒ–‹‘”‡ˆŽ‡ –‡†„›–Š‡‰”‘—†ƒ†’ƒ”–Ž›–‘–Š‡•Šƒ†‹‰ ƒ—•‡†„›–Š‡–”ƒ ‹‰•–”— –—”‡Ǥ
–Š‡‘–Š‡”Šƒ†ǡ‹–—•–„‡—†‡”•–‘‘†–Šƒ–‹•ƒ– ŠŽ‘••‡•ƒŽ•‘†‡’‡†‘–Š‡‘†—Ž‡
–›’‡ȋ‡–‹”‡ ‡ŽŽǡŠƒŽˆǦcell…) and PV array electrical scheme. M‹•ƒ– ŠŽ‘•‡•ƒ”‡ Šƒ”ƒ –‡”‹œ‡†
„›ƒˆƒ –‘”ǡMML™Š‹ Š“—ƒ–‹ˆ‹‡•‡‹–Š‡”–Š‡–‘–ƒŽ’‘™‡””‡†— –‹‘†‡Ž‹˜‡”‡†„›–Š‡ƒ””ƒ›
‘”Œ—•––Š‡’‘™‡””‡†— –‹‘ ‘””‡•’‘†‹‰–‘–Š‡”‡ƒ”‹””ƒ†‹ƒ ‡Ǥ••‘ˆ–™ƒ”‡–‡†•–‘—•‡
–Š‡Žƒ•–ƒ’’”‘ƒ Šǡ™‡’”‘˜‹†‡„‘–Š˜ƒŽ—‡•Ǥ
➢ Š‡ solar cell operation temperatureǤ ‡ ’ƒ‹† ‡•’‡ ‹ƒŽ ƒ––‡–‹‘ –‘ ƒƒŽ›œ‡ –Š‡
–‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡ †‹ˆˆ‡”‡ ‡• „‡–™‡‡ –Š‡ –‘’ ƒ† „‘––‘ ‘†—Ž‡ ”‘™• ‹ –Š‡ ʹ –”ƒ ‡”ǡ
‘’ƒ”‡†–‘–Š‡–‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡‘ˆ–Š‡‘†—Ž‡•‹–Š‡ͳ–”ƒ ‡”Ǥ
Š‡•–ƒ–‡Ǧ‘ˆǦƒ”–”‡‰ƒ”†‹‰–Š‡‡•–‹ƒ–‹‘‘ˆSSF ƒ†MML ‹•ƒ‹Ž›•—’’‘”–‡†„›‘†‡ŽŽ‹‰ͳǤ
›’‹ ƒŽŽ›ǡ ”ƒ›Ǧ–”ƒ ‹‰ •‘ˆ–™ƒ”‡ ‹• ‡’Ž‘›‡† ˆ‘” ƒŽ —Žƒ–‹‰ SSF ƒ† †‡• ”‹„‹‰ –Š‡ •’ƒ–‹ƒŽ
†‹•–”‹„—–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡”‡ƒ”‹””ƒ†‹ƒ ‡ƒ––Š‡ ‡ŽŽǦŽ‡˜‡ŽǤŠ‡‡Ž‡ –”‘‹  ‹” —‹–•‹—Žƒ–‹‘•‘ˆ–™ƒ”‡‹•
—•‡†ˆ‘”‘†‡ŽŽ‹‰–Š‡‘†—Ž‡ǡƒŽ•‘ƒ–ƒ ‡ŽŽǦŽ‡˜‡Žǡ™Š‹ ŠƒŽŽ‘™•–”ƒ•Žƒ–‹‰•— Š‹””ƒ†‹ƒ ‡
•’ƒ–‹ƒŽ†‹•–”‹„—–‹‘–‘‰‡‡”ƒ–‡† —””‡–Ǥ‘’ƒ”‹‰–Š‡”‡•—Ž–•‘ˆ†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–• ‡ƒ”‹‘•ǡ™‹–Šƒ†
™‹–Š‘—– ‘„•–”— –‹‘•ǡ –Šƒ– ‹•ǡ ™‹–Š ƒ† ™‹–Š‘—– ”‡ƒ” ‹””ƒ†‹ƒ ‡ †‹•–”‹„—–‹‘ ‘Ǧ—‹ˆ‘”‹–›ǡ
ƒŽŽ‘™•ˆ‘” ƒŽ —Žƒ–‹‰MML.
Š‡ƒ’’”‘ƒ Šˆ‘ŽŽ‘™‡†Š‡”‡–ƒ‡•’”‘ˆ‹–‘ˆ‘†‡ŽŽ‹‰„—–‹••–”‘‰Ž›•—’’‘”–‡†„›‡š’‡”‹‡–•Ǥ
‡†‹ ƒ–‡†‹•–”—‡–ƒ–‹‘–‘‡šƒ‹‡‡ƒ Š‘ˆ–Š‡•‡‹–‡•Šƒ•„‡‡ǡˆ‹”•–ǡ ‘•–”— –‡†ǤŠ‡ǡƒ
‡š’‡”‹‡–ƒŽ ƒ’ƒ‹‰Šƒ•„‡‡ ƒ””‹‡†‘—–„‡–™‡‡ʹͲȀͲ͹ȀʹͲʹͲƒ†ʹͺȀͲ͹ȀʹͲʹͲ‹–Š‡ 
–‡•–‹‰’Žƒ–‹Š‡•–‡ȋƒŽ‡ ‹ƒȌǤŠ‡’Žƒ–‹ Ž—†‡•ͳƒ†ʹ–”ƒ ‡”•‡“—‹’’‡†™‹–Š͵ͷͷ
’„‹ˆƒ ‹ƒŽ‘‰‹‘Žƒ”͸Ǧ͹ʹǦ͵ͷͷ‘†—Ž‡• ‘’‘•‡†„›͹ʹ ‡ŽŽ•ǤŠ‡‰”‘—†‹•‰”ƒ˜‡ŽǦ
‘˜‡”‡†ǡ™‹–Š”‡ˆŽ‡ –‹˜‹–›ȋ‘”ƒŽ„‡†‘Ȍ Ž‘•‡–‘͵ͲΨǤ

2. STRUCTURE SHADING FACTOR

2.1. Instrumentation

‹‰—”‡ ͳ •Š‘™• –Š‡ ‹•–”—‡– †‡˜‡Ž‘’‡† „› Ǧ ˆ‘” ‘„•‡”˜‹‰ –Š‡ •’ƒ–‹ƒŽ
†‹•–”‹„—–‹‘ ‘ˆ –Š‡ ”‡ƒ” ‹””ƒ†‹ƒ ‡ǡ GǤ – ‘•‹•–• ‘ˆ ƒ ’Ž›™‘‘† „‘ƒ”† ™‹–Š –Š‡ •ƒ‡
†‹‡•‹‘•ƒ•ƒ‘†—Ž‡ȋʹšͳȌ‘™Š‹ Šʹͳ•‘Žƒ” ‡ŽŽ•ǡ™‹–Šƒ•—”ˆƒ ‡ƒ”‡ƒ‘ˆͳ͸
ʹǡŠƒ˜‡„‡‡‹•–ƒŽŽ‡†‹•–”ƒ–‡‰‹ ’‘•‹–‹‘•Ǥƒ Š ‡ŽŽ‹•‹†‹˜‹†—ƒŽŽ›•Š‘”–Ǧ ‹” —‹–‡†„›
‡ƒ• ‘ˆ ƒ ͲǤͷ ‘” ͳǤͷ  ”‡•‹•–‘”ǡ †‡’‡†‹‰ ‘ –Š‡ ‡ŽŽ ’‡”ˆ‘”ƒ ‡Ǥ Š‹• ƒŽŽ‘™•
•‹—Ž–ƒ‡‘—•G‡ƒ•—”‹‰ƒ–ƒŽŽ–Š‡’‘‹–•™‡”‡–Š‡ ‡ŽŽ•ƒ”‡Ž‘ ƒ–‡†ǤŠ‡„‘ƒ”†‹•ƒ––
„Žƒ ’ƒ‹–‡†ǡ‹‘”†‡”–‘ƒ˜‘‹†”‡ˆŽ‡ –‹‘•ǤŠ‡ͳͳ ‡ŽŽ•ƒ––Š‡‹††Ž‡‘ˆ–Š‡„‘ƒ”†ƒ”‡

1
Deline C, Ayala Pelaez S, MacAlpine S, Olalla C. Estimating and parameterizing mismatch power loss in
bifacial photovoltaic systems. Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications. 2020. 28: 691-703

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 •–ƒ‰‰‡”‡†–‘‹ ”‡ƒ•‡–Š‡”‡•‘Ž—–‹‘‹–Š‡”‡‰‹‘ƒˆˆ‡ –‡†„›–Š‡–‘”“—‡–—„‡ǡ™Š‡”‡–Š‡
˜ƒ”‹ƒ–‹‘ ‘ˆ G ‹• ‰”‡ƒ–‡”Ǥ ˆ–‡” ƒ ‘˜‡‹‡– —Ǧ‡š’‘•—”‡ –‘ ‹†— ‡ ‹‰Š–Ǧ †— ‡†
‡‰”ƒ†ƒ–‹‘ȋ ȌǡƒŽŽ–Š‡ʹͳ ‡ŽŽ•Šƒ˜‡„‡‡ ƒŽ‹„”ƒ–‡†ƒ––Š‡•ƒ‡–‹‡ǡ†‹”‡ –Ž›‡š’‘•‹‰
–Š‡ †‡˜‹ ‡ –‘ –Š‡ —ǡ –‘‰‡–Š‡” ™‹–Š ƒ ‡š–‡”ƒŽ ”‡ˆ‡”‡ ‡ ‡ŽŽǤ ‹‰—”‡ ʹ •Š‘™• –Š‡
‹•–”—‡– ‹•–ƒŽŽ‡† ‹ –Š‡   –”ƒ ‡”• ƒ– Š‡•–‡Ǥ ‘„‹‹‰ –Š‡ ʹͳ G ˜ƒŽ—‡•
‡ƒ•—”‡†„›–Š‡ ‡ŽŽ•™‹–Š–”ƒ•Žƒ–‹‘ƒŽ•›‡–”› ‘•‹†‡”ƒ–‹‘•‹Š‡”‡––‘–Š‡‘‡ƒš‹•
Š‘”‹œ‘–ƒŽ–”ƒ ‡”•ǡƒŽŽ‘™•–‘†‡–‡”‹‡Gƒ–ƒŽŽ–Š‡͹ʹ•‘Žƒ” ‡ŽŽ•Ž‘ ƒ–‹‘•‘–Š‡
‘†—Ž‡Ǥ

Figure 1. (Left) A PV module like those that are installed in Cheste. (Right) The sensor
developed by IES-UPM for observing the spatial distribution of the rear irradiance.

Figure 2. The instrument for observing the special distribution of irradiance installed on a
1P tracker (left) and 2P tracker (right). The main causes of shading are, respectively, the
torque tube and the panel rails.

2.2. SSF determination

‘”–Š‡•ƒ‡‘ˆ‡šƒ’Ž‡ǡ ‹‰—”‡͵•Š‘™•–Š‡Gƒ’•†‡†— ‡†ˆ”‘‡ƒ•—”‡‡–•–Š‡

ʹ͵ȀͲ͹ȀʹͲʹͲƒ–ͳͶǣͳʹ‹–Š‡‹††Ž‡‘ˆƒͳ–”ƒ ‡”Ǥ––Š‡Ž‡ˆ–ǡ–Š‡ƒ’ƒ•†‹”‡ –Ž›†‡†— ‡†
ˆ”‘ ‡ƒ•—”‡‡–•ǡ ‹Ǥ‡Ǥ ‹ Ž—†‹‰ –Š‡ •Šƒ†‹‰ ˆ”‘ –Š‡ –‘”“—‡ –—„‡Ǥ – –Š‡ ”‹‰Š–ǡ –Š‹•
•Šƒ†‹‰Šƒ•„‡‡ȋƒ–Š‡ƒ–‹ ƒŽŽ›Ȍ‡Ž‹‹ƒ–‡†ǤŠ‡•—”ˆƒ ‡Ǧ‹–‡‰”ƒ–‹‘‘ˆG ȋȀʹȌ

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 •Š‘™ ‹ –Š‡•‡ ƒ’• ƒŽŽ‘™• –‘ ƒŽ —Žƒ–‡ –Š‡ ‘””‡•’‘†‹‰ ”ƒ†‹ƒ– ˆŽ—š ȋ‘” ’‘™‡”ǡ Ȍ
”‡ ‡‹˜‡†„›–Š‡„ƒ •—”ˆƒ ‡‘ˆ–Š‡‘†—Ž‡ǡ 𝜙𝜙𝐸𝐸shade = ∬ 𝐺𝐺𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
𝑠𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑ƒ†𝜙𝜙𝐸𝐸no−shade =
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛−𝑠𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
∬ 𝐺𝐺𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑ǡ”‡•’‡ –‹˜‡Ž›ǤŠ‡SSF ‹•–Š‡‰‹˜‡„›ǣ

no−shade shade
𝜙𝜙𝐸𝐸 −𝜙𝜙𝐸𝐸
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = no−shade   ȋͳȌ
𝜙𝜙𝐸𝐸

Š‡”‡•—Ž–‹‰˜ƒŽ—‡ˆ‘”–Š‹•‡šƒ’Ž‡‹•SSFαͻǤͳΨǤ –‹•™‘”–Š‘–‹‰–Šƒ–ǡ„‡ ƒ—•‡„‘–Š
𝜙𝜙𝐸𝐸shade ƒ†𝜙𝜙𝐸𝐸no−shade ǡƒ”‡Ž‹‡ƒ”Ž›†‡’‡†‡–‘–Š‡ƒŽ„‡†‘‘ˆ–Š‡‰”‘—†ǡSSF „‡ ‘‡•
‹†‡’‡†‡–‘ˆ‹–Ǥ

Figure 3. Rear irradiance maps with (left) and without (right) shading casted by the torque
tube.

2.3. Experiments and results

Gƒ’•ƒ† ‘””‡•’‘†‹‰SSF ™‡”‡‘„–ƒ‹‡†‹„‘–Šͳƒ†ʹ–”ƒ ‡”•ƒ–†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–

–‹‡•–Š”‘—‰Š‘—–ʹ͵ȀͲ͹ȀʹͲʹͲƒ†ʹͺȀͲ͹ȀʹͲʹͲǡ”‡•’‡ –‹˜‡Ž›ǡ„‘–Š„‡‹‰˜‡”› Ž‡ƒ”†ƒ›•Ǥ
‹‰—”‡ Ͷ •Š‘™• –Š‡ ͳ –”ƒ ‡” G ƒ’• ™‹–Š –‘”“—‡ –—„‡ •Šƒ†‹‰ ‘„–ƒ‹‡† ƒ– –Š”‡‡
Šƒ”ƒ –‡”‹•–‹ –‹‡•–Š‡ʹ͵ȀͲ͹ȀʹͲʹͲȋƒ’’”‘š‹ƒ–‡Ž›–™‘Š‘—”•„‡ˆ‘”‡‘‘ǡƒ–‘‘ǡƒ†
–™‘ Š‘—”• ƒˆ–‡” ‘‘Ȍǡ –‘‰‡–Š‡” ™‹–Š –Š‡ ‘””‡•’‘†‹‰ –”ƒ ‡” ’‘•‹–‹‘•Ǥ Š‡ •Ž‹‰Š–
‹””ƒ†‹ƒ–‹‘’‡ƒ•‹–Š‡˜‹ ‹‹–‹‡•‘ˆ–Š‡ ‡–‡”‘ˆ–Š‡‘†—Ž‡ȋ•‹‰ƒŽ‡†™‹–Š†ƒ•Š‡†Ǧ
Ž‹‡”‡† ‹” Ž‡•Ȍ ‘””‡•’‘†–‘†‹ˆˆ—•‡Ž‹‰Š–”‡ˆŽ‡ –‹‘•‹–Š‡–‘”“—‡–—„‡ǡƒ†–Š‡›‹†‹ ƒ–‡
–Š‡Š‹‰Š•‡•‹–‹˜‹–›‘ˆ–Š‡‡ƒ•—”‹‰†‡˜‹ ‡Ǥ

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Figure 4. Rear irradiance maps (up) and corresponding tracker positions (bottom)
obtained in a 1P tracker at three characteristic times the 23/07/2020.
ƒ„Ž‡ ͳ •Š‘™• –Š‡ SSF ”‡•—Ž–• ˆ‘” ‹‡ †‹ˆˆ‡”‡– –‹‡• –Š”‘—‰Š‘—– –Š‹• †ƒ›Ǥ ‘–‡ –Šƒ–ǡ
although the region shaded by the PV array moves following the Sun’s elevation, strongly
‘†‹ˆ›‹‰–Š‡‰”‘—†˜‹•‹‘ˆ”‘–Š‡‘†—Ž‡ǡ–Š‡ SSF˜ƒ”‹ƒ–‹‘‹•ˆƒ‹”Ž›•ƒŽŽǤŠ‹•
†ƒ‹Ž›‘˜‡‡– ‘˜‡”•‘•–ƒ—ƒŽ’‘•‹–‹‘•ǡƒ†–Šƒ–‹•–Š‡”‡ƒ•‘™Š›–Š‡‡ƒ•—”‡†
SSFƒ˜‡”ƒ‰‡˜ƒŽ—‡‹•“—‹–‡”‡’”‡•‡–ƒ–‹˜‡‘ˆ–Š‡ƒ—ƒŽ„‡Šƒ˜‹‘”‘ˆ–Š‹•ͳ–”ƒ ‡”Ǥ – ƒ
„‡ƒ”‰—‡†–Šƒ––Š‹•˜ƒŽ—‡Šƒ•„‡‡‘„–ƒ‹‡†™‹–Š‘—– ‘•‹†‡”‹‰–Š‡’‘••‹„Ž‡•Šƒ†‡•ˆ”‘
’‹ŽŽƒ”•ǡ ”ƒ•ƒ†‘–Š‡”–”ƒ ‡” ‘’‘‡–•Ǥ’‡ ‹ˆ‹ ‡š’‡”‹‡–•–‘ˆ—”–Š‡”‹˜‡•–‹‰ƒ–‡
–Š‹•’‘‹–ƒ”‡ƒŽ”‡ƒ†›’Žƒ‡†ǡ„—–™‡‡š’‡ –‡‰Ž‹‰‹„Ž‡SSF ˜ƒ”‹ƒ–‹‘•‹–‡”•‘ˆ›‡ƒ”Ž›
‡‡”‰›’”‘†— –‹‘Ǥ

‹‡ ͳͲǣͷͺ ͳͳǣͶͲ ͳʹǣͶ͸ ͳ͵ǣʹͷ ͳͶǣͳʹ ͳͶǣͶ͹ ͳͷǣʹͷ ͳ͸ǣͲʹ ͳ͸ǣͶʹ Average
SSFȋΨȌ ͳͲǤ͹ ͳͲǤʹ ͺǤͺ ͺǤ͸ ͻǤͳ ͻǤ͹ ͳͲǤʹ ͳͳǤͲ ͳͲǤͺ 9.9

Table 1. SSF values measured on a 1P tracker at different times the 23/07/2020.


‹‰—”‡ͷ•Š‘™•–Š‡ʹ–”ƒ ‡”G ƒ’•‘„–ƒ‹‡†ƒ––Š”‡‡–‹‡•–Š‡ʹͺȀͲ͹ȀʹͲʹͲǤŠ‡
‘•–”‡Ž‡˜ƒ–•Šƒ†‡‹• ƒ—•‡†„›–Š‡’ƒ‡Ž”ƒ‹Ž••—’’‘”–‹‰–Š‡‘†—Ž‡•ǤŠ‡–‘”“—‡–—„‡
†‹ˆˆ—•‡ Ž‹‰Š– ”‡ˆŽ‡ –‹‘ ‹• ˜‹•‹„Ž‡ ƒ‰ƒ‹Ǥ Š‡ ˆ‹‰—”‡ ‘””‡•’‘†• –‘ –Š‡ ‡ƒ•– ”‘™ ‘ˆ –Š‡
–”ƒ ‡”ǤŠ‡G ƒ’•ˆ‘”–Š‡™‡•–”‘™ ƒ„‡‘„–ƒ‹‡†„›•›‡–”›™‹–Š”‡•’‡ ––‘
•‘Žƒ”‘‘Ǥƒ„Ž‡ʹ‰‹˜‡•–Š‡SSF ”‡•—Ž–•ˆ‘”‹‡†‹ˆˆ‡”‡––‹‡•–Š”‘—‰Š‘—––Š‹•†ƒ›ǤŠ‡
ƒˆ‘”‡‡–‹‘‡† ƒ”‰—‡–• •—’’‘”–‹‰ –Š‡ ”‡’”‡•‡–ƒ–‹˜‹–› ‘ˆ –Š‡•‡ ‡ƒ•—”‡‡–•
”‡‰ƒ”†‹‰–Š‡ƒ—ƒŽ„‡Šƒ˜‹‘”‘ˆ–Š‡–”ƒ ‡”ƒ’’Ž›ƒŽ•‘Š‡”‡Ǥ


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Figure 5. Rear irradiance maps (up) and corresponding tracker positions (bottom) obtained in
the east row of a 2P tracker at three characteristic times the 28/07/2020.

‘—” ͳͲǣͷͺ ͳͳǣͶͲ ͳʹǣͶ͸ ͳ͵ǣʹͷ ͳͶǣͳʹ ͳͶǣͶ͹ ͳͷǣʹͷ ͳ͸ǣͲʹ ͳ͸ǣͶʹ Average
SSFȋΨȌ ͵Ǥͷͺ ͵Ǥ͸ʹ ͵Ǥ͸ʹ ͵Ǥ͸ʹ ͵Ǥ͸ͺ ͵Ǥ͸ͳ ͵Ǥ͹ʹ ͵Ǥ͸ʹ ͵ǡ͸ͺ 3.6
Table 2. SSF values measured at the east row of a 2 tracker at different times the 28/07/2020.

3. MISMATCH LOSSES

Mismatch losses have been investigated using two different methods. On the one hand, we
have explored some mathematical tools found in the available literature. On the other hand,
we have made some experiments at Cheste.

3.1 Available litterature

ƒ––”ƒ –‹˜‡’‘••‹„‹Ž‹–›–‘ ‘’—–‡ ‘•‹•–•‘ˆƒ‡’‹”‹ ƒŽ”‡Žƒ–‹‘„‡–™‡‡–Š‡‘Ǧ

—‹ˆ‘”‹–›‘ˆ–Š‡”‡ƒ”‹””ƒ†‹ƒ ‡ƒ†MML–Šƒ–Šƒ•„‡‡’”‘’‘•‡†„›”‡•‡ƒ” Š‡”•ˆ”‘–Š‡
2ǡ„ƒ•‡†‘‡š–‡•‹˜‡•‹—Žƒ–‹‘™‘”ˆ‘”ƒ‘†—Ž‡•‹‹Žƒ”–‘ –Š‘•‡‘—–‡†ƒ–
Š‡•–‡ȋͳʹʹǢ͹ʹ‡–‹”‡•‘Žƒ” ‡ŽŽ•ȌǤŠ‡ ƒŽ —Žƒ–‹‘’”‘ ‡†—”‡‹•ƒ•ˆ‘ŽŽ‘™•Ǥ ‹”•–ǡ–Š‡–‘–ƒŽ
‡“—‹˜ƒŽ‡–‹””ƒ†‹ƒ ‡ˆ‘”‡ƒ Š ‡ŽŽǡGǡ‹•†‡–‡”‹‡†ƒ•–Š‡•—‘ˆˆ”‘–ƒ†”‡ƒ”‹””ƒ†‹ƒ ‡ǡ
–Š‡Žƒ•–™‡‹‰Š–‡†„›–Š‡„‹ˆƒ ‹ƒŽ ‘‡ˆˆ‹ ‹‡–‘ˆ–Š‡‘†—Ž‡ǡ𝜑𝜑P ǣ

𝐺𝐺𝑇𝑇 = 𝐺𝐺FRONT + 𝜑𝜑P . 𝐺𝐺REAR   ȋʹȌ

Š‡ǡ –Š‡ ˜ƒ”‹ƒ„‹Ž‹–› ‘ˆ G ‹• Šƒ”ƒ –‡”‹œ‡† „› ‡ƒ• ‘ˆ –Š‡ •‘Ǧ ƒŽŽ‡† ‡ƒ „•‘Ž—–‡
‹ˆˆ‡”‡ ‡ǡMADǡ‰‹˜‡„›ǣ

ʹ‡Ž‹‡ǡ›ƒŽƒ‡Žƒ‡œǡƒ
Ž’‹‡ǡŽƒŽŽƒǤ•–‹ƒ–‹‰ƒ†’ƒ”ƒ‡–‡”‹œ‹‰‹•ƒ– Š’‘™‡”Ž‘••‹
„‹ˆƒ ‹ƒŽ ’Š‘–‘˜‘Ž–ƒ‹  •›•–‡•Ǥ ”‘‰ Š‘–‘˜‘Ž– ‡• ’’ŽǤ ʹͲʹͲǢ ʹͺǣ ͸ͻͳ–͹Ͳ͵Ǥ
Š––’•ǣȀȀ†‘‹Ǥ‘”‰ȀͳͲǤͳͲͲʹȀ’‹’Ǥ͵ʹͷͻ

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 1
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 = ∑𝑛𝑛 ∑𝑛𝑛 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎(𝐺𝐺𝑇𝑇,𝑖𝑖 − 𝐺𝐺𝑇𝑇,𝑗𝑗 )  ȋ͵Ȍ
𝐺𝐺𝑇𝑇 𝑖𝑖=1 𝑗𝑗=1
𝑛𝑛2̅̅̅̅

̅̅̅T̅‹•–Š‡G ƒ˜‡”ƒ‰‡Ǥ –‹•‹–‡”‡•–‹‰–‘

™Š‡”‡n ‡š–‡†•–‘ƒŽŽ–Š‡ ‡ŽŽ•‘ˆ–Š‡‘†—Ž‡ƒ†𝐺𝐺
‘–‡–Šƒ–MAD”‡’”‡•‡–•ƒ‡ƒ•—”‡‘ˆ–Š‡˜ƒ”‹ƒ„‹Ž‹–›‘ˆ–Š‡‰‡‡”ƒ–‡† —””‡–‹–Š‡ ‡ŽŽ•
‘ˆ–Š‡‘†—Ž‡Ǥ
‹ƒŽŽ›ǡMML‹•†‡†— ‡†ˆ”‘MAD—•‹‰–Š‡‡’‹”‹ ƒŽ‡“—ƒ–‹‘ǣ

MMLȋΨȌ αͲǤͳͶʹMADȋΨȌΪͲǡͲ͵ʹȏMADȋΨȌȐʹ ȋͶȌ

The subscript “T” refers to the total power delivered by the PV module, Pǣ

𝑃𝑃𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 = 𝐺𝐺T (1 − 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀T )𝜂𝜂    ȋͷȌ

™‡”‡η”‡’”‡•‡–•–Š‡‡ˆˆ‹ ‹‡ ›‘ˆ–Š‡‘†—Ž‡‹ƒ„•‡ ‡‘ˆ‹•ƒ– ŠǤ

Š‡”‡•—Ž–‹‰ƒ˜‡”ƒ‰‡ MADƒ†MML˜ƒŽ—‡• ‘””‡•’‘†‹‰–‘–Š‡‡ƒ•—”‡‡–•’”‡•‡–‡†
‹–Š‡ˆ‹”•–’ƒ”–‘ˆ–Š‡’”‡˜‹‘—••‡ –‹‘ƒ”‡ʹǤͳͺΨƒ†ͲǤͶ͸Ψˆ‘”–Š‡ͳ–”ƒ ‡”ǡƒ†ͳǤ͹ʹΨ
ƒ† ͲǤ͵ͶΨ ˆ‘” –Š‡ ʹ –”ƒ ‡”Ǥ – ‹• ™‘”–Š ‘–‹‰ –Šƒ– –Š‡ ’”‡•‡ ‡ ‘ˆ –Š‡ –‘”“—‡ –—„‡
‹ ”‡ƒ•‡• MML ‹ ƒ„‘—– ͲǤͳΨ ȋ†‹ˆˆ‡”‡ ‡ „‡–™‡‡ ͳ ƒ† ʹȌǡ ‹ ƒ‰”‡‡‡– ™‹–Š ‘—”
‡ƒ•—”‡‡–• ‹ Š‡•–‡ Ǧ†‡• ”‹„‡† ‹ –Š‡ ‡š– •‡ –‹‘Ǧǡ ƒ† ™‹–Š –Š‡ ”‡•—Ž–• ‘ˆ ‘–Š‡”
ƒ—–Š‘”•ͶǤ ‘™‡˜‡”ǡ–Š‡ƒ„•‘Ž—–‡MML˜ƒŽ—‡•ǡ†‡•’‹–‡„‡‹‰ˆ”ƒŽ›‹‹ƒŽǡƒ”‡Žƒ”‰‡”–Šƒ
”‡’‘”–‡†ˆ‘”‘–Š‡” ‘‡” ‹ƒŽ–”ƒ ‡”•ͷǡ͸Ǥ –Š‹•”‡‰ƒ”†ǡ‹–—•–„‡ ‘•‹†‡”‡†–Šƒ–ǡƒ’ƒ”–
ˆ”‘–Š‡–‘”“—‡–—„‡‹’ƒ –ǡMML ‡••‡–‹ƒŽŽ›†‡’‡†•‘–Š‡”ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡–”ƒ ‡”Š‡‹‰Š–
ȋ –”ƒ ‡”•ǣͳǤ͵ͷˆ‘”ͳƒ†ʹǤͳˆ‘”ʹȌ–‘–Š‡ƒ””ƒ›™‹†–Šȋʹˆ‘”ͳƒ†ͶǤͳͷ
ˆ‘”ʹȌ™Š‹ Š†‘‘–†‹ˆˆ‡”— Šˆ”‘•Š‘™‹–Š‡ƒˆ‘”‡‡–‹‘‡†Ž‹–‡”ƒ–—”‡ǤŠƒ–Ž‡ƒ†•
—•–‘ƒƒŽ›œ‡–Š‡˜ƒŽ‹†‹–›‘ˆ‡“—ƒ–‹‘ȋͶȌƒ†–‘Ž‘‘ˆ‘”‘–Š‡”‡•–‹ƒ–‹‘’‘••‹„‹Ž‹–‹‡•Ǥ

“—ƒ–‹‘ȋͶȌ‹•ƒˆ‹––‘–Š‡MML”‡•—Ž–•ȋ„ƒ•‡†‘†‡–ƒ‹Ž‡† ‡ŽŽǦŽ‡˜‡Ž‡Ž‡ –”‹ ƒŽ‹•ƒ– Š
‘†‡Ž•Ȍˆ‘”ƒ™‹†‡”ƒ‰‡‘ˆˆ‹š‡†ƒ†–”ƒ ‹‰ƒ””ƒ›•™Š‘•‡‰‡‘‡–”‹  Šƒ”ƒ –‡”‹•–‹ •
˜ƒ”›‹•— Šƒ™ƒ›–Šƒ–„‘–ŠMADƒ†MML”ƒ‰‡ˆ”‘Ͳ–‘ƒ„‘—–ͳͲΨǤŠ‡ʹ’ƒ”ƒ‡–‡”
‘ˆ–Š‡ˆ‹–‹•ͻͻΨǡ™Š‹ Š•—‰‰‡•–•–Šƒ–— ‡”–ƒ‹–›‹–Š‡‡•–‹ƒ–‡•‹•ƒ„‘—–άͲǤʹΨȋαʹȌǤŠ‹•
‹• Ž‘•‡–‘–Š‡‘”†‡”‘ˆƒ‰‹–—†‡‘ˆ–Š‡˜ƒŽ—‡•‡•–‹ƒ–‡†Š‡”‡Ǥ

‡‰ƒ”†‹‰‘–Š‡”’‘••‹„‹Ž‹–‹‡•ǡƒ‡š–”‡‡Ž›†‡–ƒ‹Ž‡†•‹—Žƒ–‹‘•–—†›‘ˆƒͳ–”ƒ ‡”™‹–Š
”ƒ–Š‡” •‹‹Žƒ” Šƒ”ƒ –‡”‹•–‹ • –‘ –Š‘•‡ ‘ˆ –Š‡   ͳ –”ƒ ‡” ȋ–”ƒ ‡” Š‡‹‰Š–ǣ ͳǤʹ Ǣ 
‘†—Ž‡ǣͳʹʹǡ͹ʹ‡–‹”‡ ‡ŽŽ•ǢƒŽ„‡†‘: ≈0.3Ȍ‹•ƒ˜ƒ‹Žƒ„Ž‡͹Ǥ‘””‡•’‘†‹‰MML‹•ͲǤʹ͵ΨǤ
‡ ƒ—•‡ –Š‹• ‹• –Š‡ †‹”‡ – ”‡•—Ž– ‘ˆ ƒ •‹—Žƒ–‹‘ ‡š‡” ‹•‡ ˆ‘” ƒ ’ƒ”–‹ —Žƒ” •‹–—ƒ–‹‘ǡ –Š‡
ƒ••‘ ‹ƒ–‡† — ‡”–ƒ‹–› ‹• Ž‘™‡” –Šƒ –Š‡ ƒ••‘ ‹ƒ–‡† ™‹–Š ƒ ˆ‹– –‘ ƒ ”ƒ‰‡ ‘ˆ —Ž–‹’Ž‡
•‹–—ƒ–‹‘•Ǥ ‡ ‡ǡ™Š‹Ž‡–Š‡”‡‹•‘–‘”‡ ‘ ”‡–‡‹ˆ‘”ƒ–‹‘ǡ™‡ƒ ‡’––Š‹•˜ƒŽ—‡ƒ•–Š‡
„‡•–MML‡•–‹ƒ–‡ˆ‘”–Š‡ ͳ–”ƒ ‡”Ǥ ‘Š‡”‡–‡•–‹ƒ–‡ˆ‘”–Š‡ ʹ–”ƒ ‡”‹•

4
Janssen GJM, Gali RSR, de Groot K, Carr AJ, Van Aken BB, Romijin IG. 2017. Impact of
inhomogeneous irradiance at the rear of bifacial panels on modelled energy yield. 33rd EU
PVSEC. Amsterdam.
5
Beardsworth G, Asgharzadeh A. 2020. Quantifying your bifacial gains. Nextracker white
paper
6
Guerrero-Perz J, Muñoz I, Navarro J. 2020. The Bifacial Year. Soltec White paper
7
McIntosh K, Abbott M, Sudbury B, Meydbray J. 2019. Mismatch Loss in Bifacial Modules
Due to Nonuniform Illumination in 1-D Tracking Systems. IEEE Journal of Photovoltaics,
9(6):1504-1512

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 ‘„–ƒ‹‡†„›†‡–”ƒ –‹‰ͲǤͳΨˆ”‘–Š‡•‹—Žƒ–‹‘”‡•—Ž–ǡ•‹ ‡–Š‡–‘”“—‡–—„‡‹•‘—–‘ˆ–Š‡
ˆ‹‡Ž† ‘ˆ ˜‹‡™ ‘ˆ –Š‡ ‘†—Ž‡•Ǥ  ƒ††‹–‹‘ǡ ‹– •Š‘—Ž† „‡ ‹ ”‡ƒ•‡† „› ͲǤͲͷΨǡ ƒ• –Š‡
Š‡‹‰Š–Ȁ™‹†–Š”‡Žƒ–‹‘†‡ ”‡ƒ•‡•ˆ”‘ͲǤ͹ȋ•‹—Žƒ–‹‘Ȍ–‘ͲǤͷȋ‡š’‡”‹‡–ȌǤŠƒ–Ž‡ƒ†•–‘
MMLαͲǤͳͺΨǤ
‹ƒŽŽ›ǡ‹–—•–„‡—†‡”•–‘‘†–Šƒ–MMLƒˆˆ‡ –•–Š‡–‘–ƒŽ‹””ƒ†‹ƒ ‡”‡ ‡‹˜‡†‹„‘–Š•‹†‡•
‘ˆ –Š‡ ‘†—Ž‡Ǥ ‘™‡˜‡”ǡ ‘•–  •‘ˆ–™ƒ”‡ •‹—Žƒ–‘”• ƒŽ —Žƒ–‡ P   „› ƒ’’Ž›‹‰ ƒ
‹•ƒ– Š ‘‡ˆˆ‹ ‹‡–ǡ 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀REAR ǡŒ—•––‘–Š‡”‡ƒ”‹””ƒ†‹ƒ ‡ǡ𝐺𝐺REAR ǣ

𝑃𝑃𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 = [𝐺𝐺FRONT + 𝜑𝜑P . 𝐺𝐺REAR (1 − 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀REAR )]𝜂𝜂 ȋ͸Ȍ

𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀T ƒ†𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀REAR ƒ”‡–Š—•”‡Žƒ–‡†ƒ•ǣ

𝐺𝐺T (1−𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀T )−𝐺𝐺FRONT

𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀REAR = 1 −  (7)
𝜑𝜑P .𝐺𝐺REAR

In the case of the PVH trackers at Cheste that leads to 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀REAR = 5.4% for the 1P and
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀REAR = 4.5% for the 2P.

3.2 Experimental determination

MML Šƒ• „‡‡ ‡ƒ•—”‡† ‹ Š‡•–‡ „› ‘„•‡”˜‹‰ –Š‡ †‹•’‡”•‹‘ ‹ –Š‡ ‹•–ƒ–ƒ‡‘—•
‘’‡”ƒ–‹‘˜‘Ž–ƒ‰‡ǡVǡ‘ˆ‹†‹˜‹†—ƒŽ‘†—Ž‡•‘ˆƒ•ƒ‡ƒ””ƒ›—†‡”‘”ƒŽ‘’‡”ƒ–‹‘ǡ
i.e. with the inverter at the MPP. “T” shaped quick connectors were used measure in†‹˜‹†—ƒŽ
voltages. Figure 6 shows an illustration of the measurement procedure and a “T” connector.






Figure 6. (Left) Principle of MML experimental observation. (Right) A “T” connector used for
accessing the voltage of the individual modules when the PV array is injecting power to the
inverter.
‘” ƒ ’ƒ”–‹ —Žƒ” †‹•–”‹„—–‹‘ ‘ˆ ‹†‹˜‹†—ƒŽ ˜‘Ž–ƒ‰‡• 𝑉𝑉𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 𝑖𝑖 ǡ –Š‡ ‹†‹˜‹†—ƒŽ ”‡Žƒ–‹˜‡ ˜‘Ž–ƒ‰‡
†‡˜‹ƒ–‹‘ ˆ”‘ –Š‡ ˜ƒŽ—‡ ƒ–  ‹• ‡•–‹ƒ–‡† ‘ –Š‡ ƒ••—’–‹‘ –Šƒ– –Š‡ ƒ˜‡”ƒ‰‡ ‘ˆ –Š‡
̅̅̅̅̅
†‹•–”‹„—–‹‘ǡ𝑉𝑉𝑂𝑂𝑃𝑃 ǡ™‹ŽŽ„‡–Š‡‘’‡”ƒ–‹‰V˜ƒŽ—‡ȋƒ–Ȍ‘ˆƒŽŽ–Š‡‘†—Ž‡•‹ƒ„•‡ ‡‘ˆ
‹•ƒ– ŠǤŠ‡ǡ–Š‡”‡Žƒ–‹˜‡˜‘Ž–ƒ‰‡†‡viation of a module “i” is defined as:


̅̅̅̅̅
𝛥𝛥𝑣𝑣𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 𝑖𝑖 = (𝑉𝑉𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 𝑖𝑖 − 𝑉𝑉 ̅̅̅̅̅
𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 )/𝑉𝑉𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂    ȋͺȌ

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 ƒ†–Š‡”‡Žƒ–‹˜‡MML‹• ‘’—–‡†ƒ•ǣ
1 𝑖𝑖
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑇𝑇 = 𝑁𝑁 ∑𝑁𝑁 𝑖𝑖
𝑖𝑖=1 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎[𝛥𝛥𝑣𝑣𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 𝑥𝑥(𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥/𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥) ] ȋͻȌ

™Š‡”‡𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥/𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥”‡’”‡•‡–•–Š‡”ƒ–‹‘„‡–™‡‡–Š‡”‡Žƒ–‹˜‡’‘™‡”Ž‘••ȋ”‡•’‡ ––‘PȌ–‘–Š‡
”‡Žƒ–‹˜‡˜‘Ž–ƒ‰‡†‡˜‹ƒ–‹‘ȋ”‡•’‡ ––‘VȌǤŠƒ–‹•ǣ

𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥 (𝑃𝑃𝑉𝑉𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 −𝑃𝑃𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 )/𝑃𝑃𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀

=   ȋͳͲȌ
𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥 (𝑉𝑉𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 −𝑉𝑉𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 )/𝑉𝑉𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀

 ‘–Š‡” ™‘”†•ǡ –Š‡ ’‘™‡” Ž‘•• 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥 ‘””‡•’‘†‹‰ –‘ ƒ ˜‘Ž–ƒ‰‡ †‡˜‹ƒ–‹‘ 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥 ˆ”‘ –Š‡
theoretical MPP. The superscript “i” extends to all the N‘†—Ž‡•‘ˆ–Š‡ƒ””ƒ›Ǥ‹ ‡ƒŽŽ
–Š‡ modules’ IǦ —”˜‡• ƒ”‡ ˜‡”› •‹‹Žƒ”ǡ 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥/𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥 ‹• ƒ••—‡† –‘ „‡ –Š‡ •ƒ‡ ˆ‘” ƒŽŽ –Š‡ N
‘†—Ž‡•Ǥ•ƒ‡šƒ’Ž‡ǡ ‹‰—”‡͹ȋŽ‡ˆ–Ȍ•Š‘™•–Š‡†‹•–”‹„—–‹‘‘ˆ 𝛥𝛥𝑣𝑣𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 ‘„•‡”˜‡†‹ƒ
ƒ””ƒ›‘ˆʹͲ‘†—Ž‡•ƒ••‘ ‹ƒ–‡†‹•‡”‹‡•ȋͳͲ‹ͳǡͳͲ‹ʹǡ•‡‡„‡Ž‘™Ȍƒ†–Š‡ʹͶȀͲ͹ȀʹͲʹͲǤ
Š‡†‹•–”‹„—–‹‘‹• Šƒ”ƒ –‡”‹œ‡†„›ƒ•–ƒ†ƒ”††‡˜‹ƒ–‹‘𝜎𝜎𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥 αͳǡͳΨǤ ‹‰—”‡͹ȋ”‹‰Š–Ȍ’Ž‘–•
𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥˜‡”•—•𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥ǡƒ•†‡”‹˜‡†ˆ”‘–Š‡Ǧ —”˜‡‡ƒ•—”‡†ˆ‘”ƒ‹†‹˜‹†—ƒŽ‘†—Ž‡Ǥ‘–‡–Šƒ–ǡ
„‡ ƒ—•‡Δpƒ†Δvƒ”‡†‡ˆ‹‡†‹”‡Žƒ–‹˜‡–‡”•ǡ–Š‡ˆ— –‹‘ Δp˜‡”•—•Δv‹•ƒ‹˜ƒ”‹ƒ–
™‹–Š”‡•’‡ ––‘–Š‡‘’‡”ƒ–‹‘ ‘†‹–‹‘•ǡ‹•‘ˆƒ”–Š‡ ‹ŽŽ ƒ –‘”˜ƒ”‹ƒ–‹‘• ƒ„‡‡‰Ž‡ –‡†Ǥ
‡ƒ”–Š‡ǡ–Š‹•ˆ— –‹‘‹•’”‘’‡”Ž›†‡• ”‹„‡†„›ƒ•‡ ‘†Ǧ†‡‰”‡‡’‘Ž›‘‹ƒŽǣ

𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥 2     ȋͳͳȌ

™Š‡”‡a ƒ†b ƒ”‡†‹‡•‹‘Ž‡••’ƒ”ƒ‡–‡”•ˆ‹––‡†–‘–Š‡‘„•‡”˜‡† —”˜‡Ǥ ‘—” ƒ•‡ǡ™‹–Š

Δpƒ†Δv ‹ΨǡaαͲǤͳͶͶȋͲǤͲͺͻȌ ƒ†bαǦͲǤͳʹͻȋǦͲǤͲ͸Ȍˆ‘”ΔvεͲȋδͲȌǤ‡•—Ž–‹‰Ž‘••‡•ˆ‘”–Š‹•
‡šƒ’Ž‡ƒ”‡ ƒ’–—”‡†„›ƒMMLαͲǤͲͶΨǤ –‹•™‘”–Š‘–‹‰–Šƒ–MML‹•— ŠŽ‘™‡”–Šƒ
𝜎𝜎𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥 Ǥ




Figure 7. (Left) Observed distribution of the relative variations of operation voltage (with
respect to the mean) in a PV array composed by 20 modules split in 1P-2P trackers (see below).
(Right) Relative power versus voltage deviations near the MPP of the PV module.
‹‰—”‡ ͺ ȋ–‘’Ȍ •Š‘™• –Š‡ ‡˜‘Ž—–‹‘ ‘ˆ MML –Š”‘—‰Š‘—– –Š‡ †ƒ›Ǥ —–Ž‹‡”• ƒ”‡ †—‡ –‘
–”ƒ•‹–‘”›’Š‡‘‡ƒȋ Ž‘—†•ǡ•Šƒ†‹‰•ǡ‡– ǤȌǤ’ƒ”–ˆ”‘–Šƒ–ǡMML‹•”‡Žƒ–‹˜‡Ž› ‘•–ƒ–Ǥ
Š‡•Ž‹‰Š–‘• ‹ŽŽƒ–‹‘‹•Ž‹‡Ž›†—‡–‘ƒ ‘„‹ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ‘†—Ž‡–‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡‘• ‹ŽŽƒ–‹‘•ƒ†
‹˜‡”–‡”•‡ƒ” Š‹‰Ǥ ‹‰—”‡ͺȋ„‘––‘Ȍ•Š‘™•–Š‡ˆ”‡“—‡ ›†‹•–”‹„—–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡˜‘Ž–ƒ‰‡
†‡˜‹ƒ–‹‘•‘„•‡”˜‡†–Š”‘—‰Š‘—––™‘†‹ˆˆ‡”‡–†ƒ›•ǤŠ‡›ƒ”‡˜‡”›•‹‹Žƒ”ǡ™Š‹ Š•—‰‰‡•–

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–Šƒ–MML”‡ƒ‹• ‘•–ƒ–ƒŽ‘‰–Š‡›‡ƒ”ǤŠ‹•ƒ‰”‡‡•™‹–ŠŽ‘‰–‡”MML‘„•‡”˜ƒ–‹‘•‹
‡š‹•–‹‰‰‡‡”ƒ–‘”•ƒ––Š‡ Ǧ–‡””ƒ ‡Ǥ

Figure 8. (Top) Evolution of MMLT in a 1P tracker throughout the 26/07/2020. (Bottom)

Frequency distribution of voltage deviations with respect to average along July 24 and July 25.

‹•ƒ– Š‡‡”‰›Ž‘••‡•ˆ‘”ƒ‰‹˜‡’‡”‹‘†ƒ”‡ ƒŽ —Žƒ–‡†ƒ•–Š‡MMLƒ˜‡”ƒ‰‡™‡‹‰Š–‡†„›
–Š‡”‡•’‡ –‹˜‡G. Š‹•™ƒ›ǡ†ƒ‹Ž›Ž‘••‡•ǡMML†ǡƒ”‡‰‹˜‡„›ǣ

∑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑇𝑇 𝑥𝑥𝐺𝐺𝑇𝑇
𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = ∑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐺𝐺𝑇𝑇
  ȋͳʹȌ
MML† Šƒ• „‡‡ ‡ƒ•—”‡† ˆ‘” ˆ‘—”  ƒ””ƒ›• ”‡•—Ž–‹‰ ˆ”‘ †‹ˆˆ‡”‡– ‘ˆ‹‰—”ƒ–‹‘• ‘ˆ
‘†—Ž‡•ȋʹͲǦ‘†—Ž‡•–”‹‰•Ȍ‹ͳƒ†ʹ–”ƒ ‡”•Ǥ ‹‰—”‡ͻ•Š‘™•–Š‡•‡ ‘ˆ‹‰—”ƒ–‹‘•‹
–Š‡ Š”‘‘Ž‘‰‹ ƒŽ‘”†‡”‹™Š‹ Š–Š‡›™‡”‡–‡•–‡†Ǥ







9 / 12
 21-23/07/2020

Only 1P
24/07/2020

Half 1P - Half 2P
25-26/07/2020

Half 2P_East - Half 2P_West

27-28/07/2020

Only 2P_East

Figure 9. Different configurations of PV modules for MML monitoring. Modules conforming

the monitored string are in light blue and numbered from 1 (positive pole) to 20 (negative
pole). Reference modules for measuring the frontal and rear irradiance and cell temperature
are shown in yellow. The panel for measuring spatial distribution of GREAR is shown in brown.

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ƒ„Ž‡͵•Š‘™•–Š‡MML†‡ƒ•—”‡‡–•Ǥ –—•–„‡‘–‡†–Šƒ––Š‹•‡–Š‘†‹•ƒ„Ž‡–‘ ƒ’–—”‡–Š‡
‹’ƒ – ‘ˆ ‘†—Ž‡Ǧ–‘Ǧ‘†—Ž‡ ‹•ƒ– Š ”‡•—Ž–‹‰ ˆ”‘ ƒ—ˆƒ –—”‹‰ ˜ƒ”‹ƒ–‹‘•ǡ †‹ˆˆ‡”‡–
‘†—Ž‡ –‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡• ƒ† †‹ˆˆ‡”‡– ”‡ƒ” ‹””ƒ†‹ƒ ‡ †‹•–”‹„—–‹‘•Ǥ –Š‡” ‡ˆˆ‡ –• Ž‡ƒ†‹‰ –‘
‡ˆˆ‡ –‹˜‡ ’‘™‡” ”‡†— –‹‘ ‘ˆ –Š‡ ‘†—Ž‡• ƒ”‡ ‘– ƒ’–—”‡† „› –Š‹• ‡–Š‘†‘Ž‘‰› ™Š‡ –Š‡›
—‹ˆ‘”Ž›ƒˆˆ‡ –ƒŽŽ–Š‡‘†—Ž‡•Ǥ• ƒ„‡•‡‡ˆ”‘–Š‡–ƒ„Ž‡•ǣ
✓ ‘••‡• ‹ Ž› ͳ ƒ† Ž› ʹ ƒ•– ‘ˆ‹‰—”ƒ–‹‘• —•– ”‡ˆŽ‡ – –Š‡ ƒ—ˆƒ –—”‹‰
˜ƒ”‹ƒ–‹‘•ƒ†ƒ”‡ˆ”ƒŽ›Ž‘™ǤŠ‹•‹• ‘Š‡”‡–™‹–Š–Š‡–‡ Š‘Ž‘‰›‘ˆ–Š‡ ‡ŽŽ•ȋ‹Ǧ‘‘ǡ
Ȍƒ†™‹–Š–Š‡Š‹‰Š“—ƒŽ‹–›‘ˆ–Š‡ —””‡–ƒ••’”‘†— –‹‘Ǥ
✓ ‘••‡•‹ ƒŽˆʹ̴ƒ•–Ǧ ƒŽˆʹ̴‡•– ‘ˆ‹‰—”ƒ–‹‘ƒ”‡‘ˆ–Š‡•ƒ‡‘”†‡”–Šƒ‹Ž›
ʹ ‘‡Ǥ Šƒ– ‡ƒ• –Š‡ ‹’ƒ – ‘ˆ –Š‡ G ˜ƒ”‹ƒ„‹Ž‹–› „‡–™‡‡ –Š‡ –™‘ ”‘™• ‘ˆ –Š‡
–”ƒ ‡”‹•‡‰Ž‹‰‹„Ž‡Ǥ
‘••‡• ‹ ƒŽˆ ͳ – ƒŽˆ ʹ ‘ˆ‹‰—”ƒ–‹‘ ƒ”‡ ƒ”‘—† ͲǤͳΨ Š‹‰Š‡” –Šƒ ‹ Ž› ʹ ƒ•–
‘ˆ‹‰—”ƒ–‹‘Ǥ Š‹• ƒ‰”‡‡• ™‹–Š –Š‡ ƒ„‘˜‡ •–ƒ–‡‡– ‘ˆ –Šƒ– –Š‡ ’”‡•‡ ‡ ‘ˆ –Š‡ –‘”“—‡ –—„‡
‹ ”‡ƒ•‡•MML‹ƒ„‘—–ͲǤͳΨǤ

PV array MMLTd(%)
Ž›ͳ ͲǤͲͷ
ƒŽˆͳ– ƒŽˆʹ ͲǤͳͳ
ƒŽˆʹ̴ƒ•–– ƒŽˆʹ̴‡•– ͲǤͲ͵
Ž›ʹ̴ƒ•– ͲǤͲʹ

Table 3. MMLTd(%) results for four different PV array configurations

4. OPERATING TEMPERATURE

Figure 10 shows a ‘bifacial reference module’ developed by the IESǦ–‘‡ƒ•—”‡–Š‡•‘Žƒ”

‡ŽŽ‘’‡”ƒ–‹‰–‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡ǡTǡƒŽ‘‰™‹–ŠG ƒ†GǤŠ‡‘†—Ž‡‹•‡Ž‡ –”‹ ƒŽŽ›†‹˜‹†‡†
‹–‘–Š”‡‡’ƒ”–•ȋ–Š‹•‹•‡ƒ•‹Ž›†‘‡„›ƒ ‡••‹‰–Š‡Œ— –‹‘„‘š‡•ȌǤŠ‡ ‡–”ƒŽ’ƒ”–‹•‡’–
‹‘’‡ ‹” —‹–ǤŠ‡‘’‡ ‹” —‹–˜‘Ž–ƒ‰‡‹••‡•‹–‹˜‡ƒ‹Ž›–‘Tƒ†•‡ ‘†ƒ”‹Ž›–‘‹””ƒ†‹ƒ ‡Ǥ
Š‡ Žƒ–‡”ƒŽ ’ƒ”–• ƒ”‡ •Š‘”–Ǧ ‹” —‹–‡† –Š”‘—‰Š ƒŽ‹„”ƒ–‡† ”‡•‹•–ƒ ‡•Ǥ  „Žƒ  ˜‹›Ž •Š‡‡– ‹•
†‹”‡ –Ž›•–‹ ‡†–‘–Š‡ˆ”‘–ƒ†”‡ƒ”‘ˆ‘’’‘•‹–‡•‹†‡•ǡƒ†–Š‡’”‘–‡ –‡†™‹–Šƒ™Š‹–‡˜‹›Ž
•Š‡‡–ǤŠ‡„Žƒ ˜‹›Ž”‡†— ‡•‹–‡”ƒŽ”‡ˆŽ‡ –‹‘ǡ•‘–Šƒ–‹””ƒ†‹ƒ ‡‹•’”‘’‘”–‹‘ƒŽ–‘–Š‡
•Š‘”– ‹” —‹– —””‡–ǤŠ‡Š‹‰Š”‡ˆŽ‡ –ƒ ‡‘ˆ–Š‡™Š‹–‡˜‹›ŽŠ‡Ž’•–‘ƒ˜‘‹†–‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡”‹•‹‰
†—‡ –‘ ƒ”–‹ˆ‹ ‹ƒŽ ƒ„•‘”’–‹‘ „› –Š‡ „Žƒ  ˜‹›ŽǤ Š‹• ™ƒ›ǡ –Š‡ ‘””‡•’‘†‹‰ •Š‘”–Ǧ ‹” —‹–
—””‡–ǡIǡȋIǡ Ȍǡ‹•‘Ž›•‡•‹–‹˜‡–‘GȋG ȌǤ
T‹•†‡”‹˜‡†ˆ”‘V„›ǣ
1 𝑉𝑉 𝐺𝐺FRONT +𝐺𝐺REAR
𝑇𝑇C = 𝑇𝑇C∗ + 𝛽𝛽 [ 𝑉𝑉OC
∗ − 1 − 𝑎𝑎. 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝐺𝐺 ∗
]  ȋͳ͵Ȍ
𝑂𝑂C

Š‡”‡𝑇𝑇C∗‹•–Š‡”‡ˆ‡”‡ ‡–‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡ˆ‘”ȋʹͷ‘C), β is the thermal coefˆ‹ ‹‡–‘ˆ˜‘Ž–ƒ‰‡ǡ

∗
𝑉𝑉𝑂𝑂C ‹•–Š‡‘’‡ ‹” —‹–‹ǡƒ† a‹•–Š‡”ƒ–‹‘‘ˆ–Š‡–Š‡”ƒŽ˜‘Ž–ƒ‰‡–‘–Š‡‘’‡ ‹” —‹–
˜‘Ž–ƒ‰‡ȋaαͲǤͲͷ‹•ƒ”‡ƒ•‘ƒ„Ž‡ƒ’’”‘š‹ƒ–‹‘ˆ‘” ”›•–ƒŽŽ‹‡•‹Ž‹ ‘‘†—Ž‡•ȌǤŠ‡”‡ˆ‡”‡ ‡
∗
‘†—Ž‡‹• ƒŽ‹„”ƒ–‡†‹β and 𝑉𝑉𝑂𝑂C ƒˆ–‡”•–ƒ„‹Ž‹œƒ–‹‘ȋ—‡š’‘•‹–‹‘‘ˆƒ–Ž‡ƒ•–͸ͲŠȀʹȌǤ

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Š‡‡›ƒ•’‡ –‘ˆ–Š‹•T‡ƒ•—”‹‰’”‘ ‡†—”‡‹•–Šƒ–V”‡•’‘†•–‘–Š‡–‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡‘ˆ–Š‡
‡–‹”‡‘†—Ž‡ǡ‹•–‡ƒ†‘ˆ‘Ž›‘‡‘”ˆ‡™’‘‹–•ǡ™Š‹ Š‹•–Š‡ ƒ•‡™Š‡‡ƒ•—”‹‰ T„›
‡ƒ•‘ˆ–•‡•‘”••–‹ ‡†–‘–Š‡”‡ƒ”‘ˆ–Š‡‘†—Ž‡Ǥ


Figure 10. Reference module for measuring the operation conditions: TC, GFRONT and GREAR
Š”‡‡”‡ˆ‡”‡ ‡‘†—Ž‡•Šƒ˜‡„‡‡‹•–ƒŽŽ‡†‹Š‡•–‡Ǥ‡‹ƒͳ–”ƒ ‡”ƒ†–™‘‹–Š‡
–™‘ ”‘™• ‘ˆƒ ʹ –”ƒ ‡”Ǥ ‹‰—”‡ͳͳ•Š‘™• –Š‡ ”‡•—Ž–•‘ˆ T ‡ƒ•—”‡‡–•ˆ‘” ƒ ͳǦ‹—–‡
•ƒ’Ž‹‰ –Š”‘—‰Š‘—– ʹͶȀͲ͹ȀʹͲʹͲǤ ƒ”–‹ —Žƒ”Ž› ‹–‡”‡•–‹‰ ‹• –Š‡ †‹ˆˆ‡”‡ ‡ „‡–™‡‡ –Š‡
ƒ˜‡”ƒ‰‡‘ˆ–Š‡T‘„•‡”˜‡†‹–Š‡–™‘”‘™•‘ˆ–Š‡ʹ”ƒ ‡”ƒ†–Š‡T‘„•‡”˜‡†‹–Š‡ͳ
̅̅̅̅ − 1𝑃𝑃)ǡȋ„Žƒ •’‘––‡†Ž‹‡ȌǤ –˜ƒ”‹‡•‹–Š‡άʹǤͷ‘”ƒ‰‡ǤŠ‡ ‘””‡•’‘†‹‰
–”ƒ ‡”ǡ𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥𝐶𝐶 (2𝑃𝑃
‹’ƒ –‹†ƒ‹Ž›‡‡”‰›’”‘†— –‹‘ǡΔEǡ ƒ„‡‡•–‹ƒ–‡†ƒ•–Š‡‡ƒ‘ˆ–Š‡’”‘†— –‘ˆ•— Š
difference multiplied by the power thermal coefficient of the PV modules, γ, weigh–‡†„›–Š‡
‹””ƒ†‹ƒ ‡ǣ
̅̅̅̅ −1𝑃𝑃)
∑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐺𝐺T 𝛾𝛾 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥𝐶𝐶 (2𝑃𝑃
𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥 = ∑𝑑𝑑𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐺𝐺T
  ȋͳͶȌ

Š‡”‡•—Ž–‹•‘Ž›ͲǤ͵ΨǤ˜‡ƒ ‘™Ž‡†‰‹‰–Šƒ––Š‡”ƒŽ„‡Šƒ˜‹‘”‹•Ž‹‡Ž›ƒˆˆ‡ –‡†„›Ž‘ ƒŽ

‘†‹–‹‘•ǡ ƒ† –Šƒ– ‹– ƒ ˜ƒ”› ™‹–Š ™‡ƒ–Š‡”ǡ –Š‹• ”‡•—Ž– ƒ•–• †‘—„– ‘ ‘ –Š‡ •–ƒ–‡‡–
•‘‡–‹‡•ˆ‘—†‹–Š‡ˆ‹‡Ž†–Šƒ–ʹ–”ƒ ‡”•‡–ƒ‹Žƒ–Š‡”ƒŽƒ†˜ƒ–ƒ‰‡‘˜‡”ͳ–”ƒ ‡”•Ǥ


Figure 11. Differences in TC observed in a 1P and a 2P trackers the 24/07/2020. In blue, the
difference between the temperatures in the East row of the 2P tracker and the 1P tracker,
̅̅̅̅ − 1𝑃𝑃); in green,
𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥𝐶𝐶 (2𝑃𝑃𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 − 1𝑃𝑃); in yellow, 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥𝐶𝐶 (2𝑃𝑃𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 − 1𝑃𝑃); in black, 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥𝐶𝐶 (2𝑃𝑃
𝛥𝛥𝑇𝑇𝐶𝐶 (2𝑃𝑃𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 − 2𝑃𝑃𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 ). Ambient temperature is given in red.

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5. CONCLUSIONS

Š”‡‡‡›ƒ•’‡ –•‹’ƒ –‹‰„‹ˆƒ ‹ƒŽ‡‡”‰›‰ƒ‹Šƒ˜‡„‡‡‡š’‡”‹‡–ƒŽŽ›‹˜‡•–‹‰ƒ–‡†ˆ‘”

–Š‡ͳƒ†ʹ–”ƒ ‡”• —””‡–Ž›ƒ—ˆƒ –—”‡†„› ǣ
✓ Š‡–”— –—”ƒŽŠƒ†‹‰ ƒ –‘”ǡSSFǡˆ‘”ͳƒ†ʹ–”ƒ ‡”•Ǥ
✓ Š‡‹•ƒ– Š‘••‡•ǡMMLǡˆ‘”ͳƒ†ʹ–”ƒ ‡”•Ǥ
✓ Š‡†‹ˆˆ‡”‡ ‡•‹•‘Žƒ” ‡ŽŽ•‘’‡”ƒ–‹‘–‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡„‡–™‡‡ͳƒ†ʹ–”ƒ ‡”•Ǥ
‡†‹ ƒ–‡†‹•–”—‡–ƒ–‹‘Šƒ•„‡‡†‡•‹‰‡†ƒ† ‘•–”— –‡†Ǥ•—„•‡“—‡–‡š’‡”‹‡–ƒŽ
ƒ’ƒ‹‰Šƒ•„‡‡ ƒ””‹‡†‘—–„‡–™‡‡–Š‡ʹͲȀͲ͹ȀʹͲʹͲƒ†–Š‡ʹͺȀͲ͹ȀʹͲʹͲ‹–Š‡ 
–‡•–‹‰’Žƒ–Ž‘ ƒ–‡†ƒ–Š‡•–‡ȋƒŽ‡ ‹ƒȌǤŠ‡’Žƒ–‹ Ž—†‡•ͳƒ†ʹ–”ƒ ‡”•‡“—‹’’‡†
™‹–Š„‹ˆƒ ‹ƒŽ‘†—Ž‡••‹œ‡†ʹšͳƒ† ‘’‘•‡†„›͹ʹ‡–‹”‡ ‡ŽŽ•Ǥ
Š‡ƒ‹”‡•—Ž–•”‡‰ƒ”†‹‰‡‡”‰››‹‡Ž†•‹—Žƒ–‹‘•ƒ”‡ǣ
✓ Šƒ”ƒ –‡”‹•–‹ ˜ƒŽ—‡•–‘„‡—•‡†ƒ•‹’—–ˆ‘”•‘ˆ–™ƒ”‡ǣ
 SSF (%) MMLT(%) MMLREAR(%)
1P ͻǤͻ ͲǤʹ͵ ͷǤͶ
2P ͵Ǥ͸ ͲǤͳͺ ͶǤͷ

✓ „•‡”˜‡†–‡’‡”ƒ–—”‡†‹ˆˆ‡”‡ ‡•„‡–™‡‡ͳƒ†ʹ–”ƒ ‡”•”ƒ‰‡„‡–™‡‡άʹǤͷ‘ǤŠ‡
‘””‡•’‘†‹‰‹’ƒ –‘†ƒ‹Ž›‡‡”‰›’”‘†— –‹‘‹•Ž‘™ǡƒ”‘—†ͲǤ͵Ψ

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