Academic Writing Skills – 2

(20MSO202)

Study Material

Prepared by
Dr. Anvar Sadhath V.P.
Associate Professor of English & Director, IQAC

The New College

Postgraduate & Research Department of English
Chennai - 600 014.
 CONTENTS
1. Unit 1: Academic Writing Skills ......................................................................................... 3
Unit Overview .......................................................................................................................... 3
1.1. Words and Phrases to be avoided in Academic Writing ........................................... 3
1.2. Samples for Alternative Expressions .............................................................................. 6
1.3. Discourse Markers ............................................................................................................ 8
1.4. Academic presentations: Introduction.......................................................................... 11
1.5. Writing Seminar Papers ................................................................................................. 11
1.6. Writing Abstract / Proposal ........................................................................................... 12
4.6. Preparing a Seminar Paper ........................................................................................... 13
2. Unit 2: Academic Writing Skills ....................................................................................... 14
Unit Overview ........................................................................................................................ 14
2.1. Writing for Scholarly Journals ...................................................................................... 14
2.2. Writing and Methodological Differences ...................................................................... 14
2.3. Writing for Humanities .................................................................................................. 15
2.3. Methodology of Social Science ....................................................................................... 16
2.4. Methodology of Science .................................................................................................. 16
2.5. Documenting the sources................................................................................................ 17
2.6. MLA and APA styles of Documentation....................................................................... 18

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 1. Unit 1: Academic Writing Skills
Unit Overview
▪ Words and Phrases to be avoided in Academic Writing
▪ Samples for Alternative Expressions
▪ Discourse Markers
▪ Writing Seminar Papers
▪ Abstract / Proposal
▪ Preparing a Seminar Paper
1.1. Words and Phrases to be avoided in Academic Writing
As you maintain appropriateness in your attire for different occasions, you need to
exercise propriety in using language for different purposes and in different contexts. Most of
the words you use everyday conversations with members of the family, children, and close
friends are informal and therefore you are not expected to use them in a formal writing. See the
box below for a list of the categories of words to be avoided with examples.

Table 1
Categories to be avoided Examples

Contracted forms can’t, isn’t, doesn’t, won’t.

Informal verbs, phrasal go on, put off, find out, get, keep, start, give, show.
verbs
Intensifiers, emphasis a bit, a lot of , a couple of, sort of, not enough, totally, really,
words, and words and very.
phrases indicating quantity
Informal transition so, anyways, but, also, plus, well, to sum up, all right.

First person and second I, me, us, we, you, your

person point of view
Run on expressions
Unsophisticated, and too
simple expressions
Words indicating absolute
quantities
Superlatives
Expressions usually found
in letters
Common abbreviations
etc., so on, and so forth.
bad, good, big, nice, cheap, right, wrong.
all, every.
best, worst, most, always, never.
hi, cheers, love, best wishes, best regards, yours
affectionately, yours truly.
ASAP, OK, TV, net (for internet), cell (for cell phone).

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Slang expressions
Clichéd expressions
Highly subjective
expressions
Vague and impolite
expressions
Ethnic slurs, racist
expressions
Discriminatory words handicapped, crippled, autistic, deaf and dumb, idiot,
associated with physical and imbecile, insane, mad, lame, lunatic, psycho, retard, moron,
mental disability cretin.
Words that are not gender
specific expressions
Approximations
Texting Language
Non Standard diction
Filler words / expressions,
empty phrases
Redundant phrases
(Excessive use of)
Qualifiers
dude, cool, guy, kidding, cop, bugger, bucks, nope, chap,
lad, lass, loo, rubbish, OK, okay, weird.
Last but not the least, time will tell, in a jiffy, brave as a lion,
fit as a fiddle, frightened to death, opposites attract, a waste
of time, at the end of the day, to be honest, every cloud has
a silver lining.
beautiful, ugly, wonderful, horrible, good, bad, obviously,
naturally, of course, amazing, stupendous, splendid,
awesome.
thing, stuff, sort of, kind of, in or around, more or less,
whatever, whoever, whenever, whichever.
nigger, Paki, ABCD, coloured, Eskimo, Yankee, Madrassi,
Gypsy.
policeman, gunman, mankind, fireman, chairman, female
pilot, woman photographer, poetess, actress, alumnae,
alumnus, seaman, waitress, watchman, headmaster,
housewife, layman.
nearly, almost, about, around, roughly, up to, sooner or later.
asap - As soon as possible.
b4 – Before.
btw - By the way.
ain't, theirselves, hisself, anyways, alot, alright, thusly,
irregardless, should of, would of, might of, regarded to be,
considered as.
Just, so, really, with regard to, it is important to note, the
fact that, needless to say, at all times, as a matter of fact.
Absolutely essential, Each and every, Still remains, Actual
facts, Advance warning, All-time record, And etc,
Assemble together, Originally created, Reason why, Brief
moment, Careful scrutiny, Knowledgeable expert,
Commute back and forth, Completely destroy, Final
outcome, Write down, Future plans
Appears, seems, indicates, suggests, May, might, could,
May be, might have been, may have been, Many, most,
4

Absolutes
Expressions showing
personal judgement
some, numerous, countless, a majority, Few, seldom,
Probably, possibly, Unlikely, improbable, doubtful.
Will, is, are, was, were, all, every, none, no, never,
certainly, impossible.
I agree, I am convinced that, I am sure that, I believe, I
disagree, I disliked, I feel, I liked, I think, It is my belief
that.

However, there is no complete ban for the use of informal expressions in formal writing. While
some are completely unacceptable others can be used sparingly if the situation demands.

Words and phrases used in expressing doubt, for instance, are to be used with care. Such
expressions are called qualifiers. They include the following:

appears, seems, indicates, suggests, may, might, could, may be, might have been, may have
been, many, most, some, numerous, countless, a majority, few, not many, a small number,
hardly any, a minority, often, frequently, commonly, for a long time, usually, sometimes,
repeatedly, rarely, infrequently, sporadically, seldom, probably, possibly, unlikely,
improbable and doubtful.

The above expressions are necessary when you are doubtful about the accuracy of your claims.
They allow you to be cautious. Sometimes, they are employed to avoid the use of absolutes
like the following:

will, am, is, are, was, were, all, every, none, never, always, undoubtedly, and certainly.

As qualifiers express doubt, they reduce the strength of your claims and conclusions. Therefore,
if you are sure of your findings, it is better not to employ qualifiers. In subjects that come under
humanities where subjective interpretations are acceptable, you may not be able to use
absolutes. For instance, every ‘reading’ and interpretation in literature is considered unique and
therefore fixing the meaning of texts or making categorical statements about the characters, are
not permissible. In such occasions a writer is often forced to use qualifiers; whereas, in subjects
like science, where clear evidence is provided for the finding, absolute expressions make sense.
Even in subjects like literature too many qualifiers will make your writing wordy and unclear.

Care should be taken in the use of certain other words, mostly adjectives, like the following, as
they may rob your writing of its clarity: basically, essentially, mostly, slightly, somewhat and
virtually.
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1.2. Samples for Alternative Expressions
Table 2
Avoid: Instead use:
Contracted form Full words
Don’t, Won’t, Shouldn’t Do not, will not, should not
personal pronouns as in alternative expressions like the following:
In this essay I have argued that... In this essay it is argued that...

From the evidence, we can perceive some From the evidence, some visible changes
visible changes in the functioning of special can be noted in the functioning of special
schools schools...
Informal verbs, phrasal verbs More formal verbs
Bad, good, go on, put off, find out, get, keep, Inferior/deficient, acceptable, Continue,
start, give, show, big postpone, discover, identify, preserve,
commence, provide, display, enormous /
substantial
Colloquial expressions: Formal alternatives:
Sooner or later, get out of hand, beyond doubt, Inevitably, deteriorate/backslide,
part and parcel of, lose temper, stumbling definitely, intrinsic to, enrage / infuriate,
block obstacle/impediment
Run on expressions as in: Use conjunction to connect the last item in
The outdoor games they played include the list.
Cricket, football, volleyball etc. The outdoor games they played include
Cricket, football and volleyball.
Learning academic writing will enable you to Learning academic writing will enable
write essays, reports, dissertations, case you to write essays, reports, dissertations
studies and so on. and case studies.
Too informal expressions like, a lot, a bit, as Remove such expressions and rephrase, if
in needed.

The controller of examinations found it a bit The controller of examinations found it

difficult to prepare seating arrangements. difficult to prepare seating arrangements

Redundant expressions: Remove the unnecessary part

Absolutely essential, Still remains, Actual
facts, Advance warning, All-time record,
Assemble together, Originally created, Brief
moment, Careful scrutiny, Knowledgeable
expert,
Essential, remains, facts, warning, record,
assemble, created, moment, scrutiny,
expert, commute, destroy, outcome,
interdependent, mix together, mix, history,
persists, visible.

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Commute back and forth, Completely destroy,
Final outcome, mutually interdependent, mix
together, past history, still persists, visible to
the eye.
Vague expressions like thing, stuff as in: Use clearer alternatives
In the train the passengers fixed their eyes on
their stuff. In the train the passenger fixed their eyes
on their luggage.
The discussion addressed many things
concerning the school children. The discussion addressed many
issues/problems concerning the school
children.

Superlative expressions, intensifiers and Tone down your phraseology.

words indicating exaggeration like Perfect,
best, worst, most, always, never, very,
extremely.
The team contained a perfect combination of
players.
Subjective expressions like of course,
obviously, beautiful, ugly, horrible, naturally,
wonderful as in:
The novelist presents the village scene
beautifully.
The character was immaculately dressed
Accomplishes / experienced, ideal/
outstanding, unfavourable/ comparatively
inferior, the majority/practically,
consistently, rarely, positively/notably
The team contained a combination of
experienced players.
use alternatives:
Perceptibly, understandably, vividly,
colourless, mundane, seemingly
undesirable, logically, reasonable
The novelist presented the village scene
vividly.

The character was properly dressed

nigger, Paki, ABCD, coloured, Eskimo, Use acceptable expressions:
Yankee, Madrasi, Gypsy African, Pakistani, Asian-American,
misrepresented / black, indigenous
people, American, South Indian, nomadic
person / tribe
Gendered expressions: Gender inclusive expressions:
fireman, chairman, freshman aviator/aviatrix, firefighter, chair or chairperson
woman photographer, poetess, actress, first year, pilot, photographer, poet,
bachelor, alumnae, alumnus, mankind, actor, single person, old student,
waiter/waitress, watchman, headmaster, humankind/human beings, server,

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 housewife, layman, police man/woman, security guard, principal, homemaker,
postman, flight steward / stewardess layperson,
police officer, postal worker, flight
attendant

Personal or judgemental expressions: Expressions referring to evidence, it

I think, I believe, in my opinion
Abbreviations like bro, prof., sec, cafe, tsp,
tbsp, ASAP, DIY, BYOB, Rd., Ln., Ave., st.
Note: Lexicalized abbreviations like fridge,
photo and phone are often accepted in lieu of
their full forms.
Symbols instead of words:
3, 4, &, x-tra
constructions:
As shown in the table...
Considering the results...
It is evident from the text that...
Full forms
Brother, professor, second, cafeteria,
teaspoon, tablespoon. as soon as
possible, do it yourself, Bring your own
bottle/bag, road, lane, avenue, street.
Three, four, and, extra

1.3. Discourse Markers

Look at the following words and expressions:
Table 3
anyway anyhow apparently
as far as ... is further but
concerned
as regards whereas moreover
on the one hand despite in spite of
regarding however nonetheless
similarly on the contrary incidentally
while in the same way therefore
with reference to nevertheless in addition

Where do you normally find these expressions? What is the function of these
expressions?
In linguistics, the term ‘discourse’ refers to ‘a unit of language longer than a sentence’.
A discourse may be as short as a conversation consisting of three or four utterances, or as long
as a lengthy piece of writing like a novel. When you speak or write in your social context you
use some expressions to connect ideas, parts of your speech or writing, to emphasise, to clarify,

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to deviate from one idea to the next, and to link what you already mentioned with what you are
going to mention. Such expressions are called ‘discourse markers’. To put it differently,
discourse markers are words and expressions used to connect one discourse to another. They
are also called ‘sentence connectors’, ‘linking words’, ‘linking phrases’, and ‘transition signals’
in academic writing terminology.
There are a number of discourse markers in English; some of them are used in informal
conversations, while the others are used in formal writing or speech. Appropriate use of
discourse markers help you present your ideas in a logical, coherent and orderly manner, and
enhance your communication. However, you should avoid excessive use of discourse markers.
Using many of them in a paragraph may make your paper look artificial.
Examples of informal discourse markers:
Table 4
actually anyway apparently
as I say fine good
for one thing for another thing let me see
great honestly I am afraid
I feel I mean I suppose
I think kind of Like
mind you more or less no doubt
now oh okay
of course by the way as I was saying
really right So
so to speak sort of Still
that is to say well you know

Examples of formal Discourse markers:

Table 5
as a result despite this/that firstly
for instance furthermore however
in addition in conclusion in general
in other words in spite of in the same way
that/this
incidentally moreover on the contrary
on the contrary on the one hand on the other
hand
on the whole secondly therefore
thirdly to a great extent to begin with

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 In academic writings in expository, persuasive and argumentative style, it becomes
essential to use discourse markers in order to arrange your ideas and arguments logically. The
main function of a discourse marker in a piece of writing is to establish connections or
relationships between ideas. They help an academic writer in:
▪ sequencing ideas
▪ balancing contrasting points
▪ introducing a new idea
▪ giving concessions and similar ideas
▪ emphasising / clarifying / softening a point
▪ presenting a counter argument
▪ changing of subject
▪ dismissing a previous argument or claim
▪ adding
▪ persuading
▪ structuring
▪ generalising
▪ giving example
▪ clarifying points
▪ summing up / drawing a conclusion
Discourse markers as used in academic writing usually take the initial position in a
phrase or a clause. They may either be used to begin a new sentence or a news clause that
follows a semicolon. A few of them can be used in mid-positions, at the beginning of another
clause.
Read the excerpts from an article on Hero Worship and see how discourse markers are
employed to link ideas:
The four south Indian states and the Union Territory of Puducherry are home to a unique
variant of fandom, which is organised and hyper visible. Each State—and perhaps every
region within the State—has its own variant of the fan club. Nonetheless, across the
southern States, including Kerala, we see the signs of activities by fan clubs on the streets.
The relatively high density of cinema halls in south India is a necessary condition for the
emergence of fans’ associations. However, fans also participate in a wide range of activities
that are completely unrelated to film watching. These range from acts of charity (feeding
the poor, blood donation, disaster relief work, etc.) to electioneering. An anthropologist
studying the fan phenomenon wrote that he was surprised to find that active members of
fan clubs did not watch films regularly. Evidently, a fan club is not the poor man’s film
society. Young men do not join or form fan clubs only to watch films.
(Source: http://www.frontline.in)
It is evident that the writer has used the discourse markers sparingly. Here is another passage
overloaded with discourse markers.

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 Louis rushed and got ready for work, but, when he went out the door, he saw the
snowstorm was very heavy. Therefore, he decided not to go to work. Then, he sat down to
enjoy his newspaper. However, he realized his boss might get angry because he did not
go to the office. Finally, he made another decision that he must go to work. So, he went
out the door and walked to the bus stop.
(Source: http://humbox.ac.uk)
The above paragraph results from the over emphasis given to the conscious use of discourse
markers. Excessive use of discourse markers is likely to make your writing clumsy and
ineffective.
1.4. Academic presentations: Introduction
Academics at the tertiary level are expected to present papers in seminars and
conferences. The way an academician presents will impact the effectiveness of the
presentation. Sometimes lofty ideas and concepts introduced by a scholar do not reach the
audience owing to poor presentation skills. The following tips will make academic
presentations effective:
▪ An academic presentation is a serious activity. You need to assume some seriousness.
▪ You need to be aware that your audience consists only of academicians and experts.
Therefore, do not try to explain basic concepts; rather use them assuming that everyone
knows them.
▪ Use an easy to follow PowerPoint slides to display the key points in your presentations.
Only points and illustrations may be done using slides. Do not show large texts on
PowerPoint slides. Besides, use a proper font size, which anyone in any corner of the
hall can read easily.
▪ Follow the methodology correctly as per your subject. Deliver your presentation in the
pattern prescribed by your methodology.
▪ Though you are expected to read out your paper, try to present it in such a way that no
one thinks you are reading.
▪ Maintain eye contact with the audience.
▪ Be ready to receive questions and clarifications. Treat every question or rejoinder with
seriousness. Do not ridicule those who ask questions you consider stupid or inferior.
▪ Respect the time allotted for you. Do not proceed after your time is over without the
permission of the chairperson.
▪ Practise your presentation and if possible, video record it while practising. This can
help you correct your mannerisms.
1.5. Writing Seminar Papers
A seminar is a gathering of faculty members from higher education institutions,
postgraduate students, research scholars, and others who are seriously interested in the subject,
meet and share their ideas on a topic. Seminars are categorised as regional / national and
international, depending on the places from which the scholars are invited for presenting
papers.

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 A seminar usually begins with an inaugural session in which a well-known scholar in
the field delivers a keynote address on the topic of the seminar. The inaugural session leads to
many technical sessions in which scholars present their papers. Each paper presentation is
usually followed by questions and clarifications on the presentation from the audience.
The basic prerequisites for writing a seminar paper include, interest in research, ability
to think critically and write academically. You may follow the principles of academic writing
that you have studied in the previous section, to enhance your awareness of academic writing
skills.
The process of holding a seminar is as follows:
▪ Announcement and Call for papers - The organisers invite proposals or abstracts from
scholars and give the important dates and venue of the seminar.
▪ Scholars interested in presenting papers submit an abstract or proposal of their papers.
▪ Acceptance of Abstracts / Proposals and communication of the same to the proposer.
▪ Submission of full-papers
▪ Conduct of the seminar and releasing Proceedings of the seminar. ‘Proceedings of the
Seminar’ refers to a compilation of the papers presented in the seminar. All papers
accepted for presentation are normally included in this compilation.
1.6. Writing Abstract / Proposal
Abstract is a brief summary of the paper proposed to be presented in a seminar. The
standard length of the abstract is less than three hundred words. Abstract contains the following
details:
▪ Title of the paper
▪ Name and institutional affiliation of the presenter
▪ Key words (four of five important words or phrases repeatedly used in the paper indicating
the area / domain of the paper)
▪ A brief description of the main arguments / points of the paper.
Here is a sample of abstract submitted to a seminar on literature:
ABSTRACT
Among the distinctive ways of articulating cultural identity found in fictional works by
ethnic minority writers, references to food culture and eating habits and the unique taste
preferences of the respective communities are widely acknowledged. The present study
makes an attempt to explore the food culture as expressive of the ethnicity of the Anglo-
Indians in Allan Sealy’s Trotter-Nama, a work that can be considered as an example of
ethnic articulation in Indian English fiction. While narrating the fictional chronicle of the
Anglo-Indian Trotter family Allan Sealy’s Trotter-Nama traces what and how the members
of the Anglo-Indian community in India ate over a period of about two hundred years
through seven generations. The novel thus tries to examine the cultural precincts of the
Anglo-Indian community as gathered from the community’s food preferences and eating
habits. It is interesting to note that, for the Anglo-Indians, the traditional food culture is the
adoption of mixed varieties from its twin influencing sources, viz., the Indian culture and

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 the European culture. However, they showed a leaning mostly to the West in their food
selection and dining table etiquettes. Food can also be approached as a location of resistance
of a community, as it is expressive of the beliefs, likes and dislikes that the community
inherited from its ancestors as a method of differentiating themselves from the others. Pierre
Bourdieu in his Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste argues that
quotidian realms like cookery and fashion operate as “symbols of difference” that “allow
the most fundamental social differences to be expressed almost as completely as the most
complex and refined expressive systems available in the legitimate arts”. Thus viewed the
articulations with reference to the preferences in food, cookery, prohibitions and acceptance
of food, recipes and cuisines, and eating habits and etiquettes as portrayed in ethno-fictional
works cannot be looked at in isolation, as they have something to do with the ethno-cultural
experiences of the respective communities.

Key Words: Anglo-Indian, ethnicity, food culture, food preferences, culinary culture,
taste, difference, hybrid, recipe, identity.
4.6. Preparing a Seminar Paper
You are expected to propose a paper in a seminar only if the topic of the seminar is
familiar or interesting to you. Preparing a seminar paper involves conducting research into the
topic selected for presentation. A seminar paper can also be published in a journal after making
necessary modifications to suit the requirements of the Journal. The following are the steps in
preparing a seminar paper:
▪ Deciding if the paper you wish to present comes under the purview of the seminar
topic.
▪ Frame title and thesis statement
▪ Write abstract and keywords
▪ Gather materials and understand the research gap. Ensure that the topic of your paper
is new and not much study has already taken place on it.
▪ Prepare the preliminary draft.
▪ Revise and add citations or references.
▪ Revise and rewrite
▪ Send the finalised paper to the organisers of the seminar.

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 2. Unit 2: Academic Writing Skills
Unit Overview
▪ Writing for Scholarly Journals
▪ Writing and Methodological Differences
▪ Writing for Humanities
▪ Methodology of Social Science
▪ Methodology of Science
▪ Documenting the sources
▪ MLA and APA styles of Documentation
2.1. Writing for Scholarly Journals
Scholarly journals are also called academic journals. They are publications in which
research articles get published. Scholarly journals at the national and international level are
available on all the subjects taught and researched in higher educational institutions. There are
also journals that publish interdisciplinary studies. The principles of writing seminar papers
applied to scholarly papers written for journals as well.
What happens to a paper submitted to a journal? All standard journals follow a
mechanism called Peer Reviewing to evaluate the quality of the papers submitted to them. That
is, every paper is sent to experts in the field and it is based on their recommendations that a
paper is either accepted or rejected.
Every journal follows certain styles of presenting ideas and documenting of sources
cited in the paper. These styles include MLA (Modern Language Association), APA (American
Psychological Association) and Chicago Manual of Style. Before submitting a paper to a
journal it is essential to know the submission guidelines prescribed by the journal. Submission
guidelines will give you details of the styles to be followed.
For more details of the styles of documentation, you may visit the websites of the
respective style guides.
2.2. Writing and Methodological Differences
Every academic writing work, whether it is a seminar paper or a scholarly paper written
for a journal, basically belongs to a broad area of study like science, social science and
humanities. Subjects that you study in a college or university belong to one of these broad
areas, and so understanding of the basic assumptions in your broad area is an essential
prerequisite to succeed in academic writing. In other words, each broad area is marked by its
methodological distinctiveness. Thus a paper in humanities cannot follow the methodology of
social science, and vice versa.
“The humanities—including the study of languages, literature, history, jurisprudence,
philosophy, comparative religion, ethics, and the arts—are disciplines of memory and
imagination, telling us where we have been and helping us envision where we are
going.”

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 —The Heart of the Matter (Report of the American Academy of Arts & Science’s
Commission on the Humanities and Social Sciences to the U. S. Congress in June
2013)
2.3. Writing for Humanities
The humanities are those academic disciplines, like philosophy, religion, languages and
literatures, linguistics, history, and the arts, that deal with or study human culture. Those who
study the humanities employ methods that are basically critical, or speculative, and they try to
develop historical perspectives. Within humanities, many different methods like historical
method, conceptual analysis or phenomenology, textual analysis, stylistic analysis, semiotics
and so on.
For instance, the history uses historical method, where information gathered from
diverse sources like excavations, records from various government departments, archival
materials, and personal records of individuals, is analysed and presented chronologically, with
the objective of arriving at perspectives on the way people lived at a particular time and place,
or on some incidents of importance that happened in the past. In fact, every study in history is
aimed at making sense of the past in a nation's culture. Making sense of the past is important,
as it would enable a people to understand how they have come to their present position
chronologically. Like any other subjects in humanities, historical analyses tend to be subjective.
That is, personal preferences, ideological and political factors are likely to influence a
historian’s perspectives on the past incidents presented in a historical study. According to E.
H. Carr, ‘history is an unending dialogue between the present and the past’. History as an
academic discipline can also be studied using the methodology of social sciences. The
methodology employed by humanities is not singular. Indeed, each subject area has contributed
a methodology.
Whereas students who pursue languages and literature use methodologies derived from
textual criticism. They select literary texts and come out with interpretations by way of close
critical readings. Most of these critical readings of texts are informed by theoretical positions
derived from well-established literary and critical theories like feminism, Marxism, post-
colonialism, and deconstruction.
The historical method is the oldest of the four methodologies used in the humanities. What
this methodology attempts to do is look at a given period of time that is first defined and
temporally delineated, and then analyze texts and recorded events within that perspective.
Textual criticism is strictly concerned with the analysis of a given text regardless of
discipline. It is used primarily in literature, i.e., literary criticism, and in the nineteenth
century, the “higher criticism” in Biblical studies yield hermeneutics.
Conceptual elucidation has really always been in the domain of philosophy. Since ancient
times, e.g., Plato’s dialogues and the texts of Aristotle, the principal concern was and still
is the analysis of abstract concepts. In the early twentieth century, both logic (Bertrand
Russell) and the study of ordinary language use (Ludwig Wittgenstein) would give
additional weight to this methodology.

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 Lastly, the synoptic method is an attempt to look at the origin and development of an idea
or concept from various disciplinary perspectives. The synoptic method is not concerned
with the truth or falsehood of an idea or concept, like conceptual elucidation, but strictly
how a given idea or concept emerged and evolved within various disciplines to increase
human knowledge.
Source: https://libguides.usc.edu/humanitiesresearch
2.3. Methodology of Social Science
In social sciences, the empirical method is the most widely accepted method gaining
knowledge by means of direct and indirect observation. Most often the social science studies
depend on data collected through interviews and by using questionnaires from the required
number of samples. The data collected is interpreted quantitatively or qualitatively. There are
also studies that employ mixed methods wherein both quantitative and qualitative analyses are
used in one study. Students in social sciences employ statistical tools to test the data and to
arrive at their findings.

The word empirical describes any information gained by experience,

observation, or experiment. One of the central tenets of the scientific
method is that evidence must be empirical, i.e. based on evidence
observable to the senses.
Philosophically, empiricism defines a way of gathering knowledge by
direct observation and experience rather than through logic or reason alone
(in other words, by rationality). In the scientific paradigm the term refers
to the use of hypotheses that can be tested using observation and
experiment. In other words, it is the practical application of experience via
formalized experiments.
Empirical data is produced by experiment and observation, and can be
either quantitative or qualitative.
Source: https://explorable.com/empirical-research
2.4. Methodology of Science
Research and studies in Science also uses empirical methods to gain knowledge. Science
students employ direct and indirect observation or experience as a means of understanding
phenomena. Recording of one's direct observations or experiences can be analysed
quantitatively. Scientific research using empirical methods follows certain patterns.
The scientific method can be thought of as a cycle, consisting of the following stages:
1. Observation
Observation involves collecting and organizing empirical data. For example, a
biologist may notice that individual birds of the same species will not migrate some
years, but will during other years. The biologist also notices that in the years they

16
 migrate, the birds appear to be bigger in size. He also knows that migration is
physiologically very demanding on a bird.
2. Induction
Induction is then used to form a hypothesis. It is the process of reaching a conclusion
by considering whether a collection of broader premises supports a specific claim. For
example, taking the above observations and what is already known in the field of
migratory bird research, the biologist may ask a question: “is sufficiently high body
weight associated with the choice to migrate each year?” He could assume that it is
and stop there, but this is mere conjecture, and not science. Instead he finds a way to
test his hypothesis. He devises an experiment where he tags and weighs a population
of birds and watches to observe whether they migrate or not.
3. Deduction
Deduction relies on logic and rationality to come to specific conclusions given general
premises. Deduction allows a scientist to craft the internal logic of his experimental
design. For example, the argument in the biologist’s experiment is: if high bird weight
predicts migration, then I would expect to see those birds who I measure at higher
weights to migrate, and those who do not to opt out of migration. If I don’t see that
birds with higher weight migrate more often than those who don’t, I can conclude that
bird weight and migration are not connected after all.”
4. Testing
Test the hypothesis entails returning to empirical methods to put the hypothesis to the
test. The biologist, after designing his experiment, conducting it and obtaining the
results, now has to make sense of the data. Here, he can use statistical methods to
determine the significance of any relationship he sees, and interpret his results. If he
finds that almost every higher weight bird ends up migrating, he has found support
(not proof) for his hypothesis that weight and migration are connected.
5. Evaluation
An often-forgotten step of the research process is to reflect and appraise the process.
Here, interpretations are offered and the results set within a broader context. Scientists
are also encouraged to consider the limitations of their research and suggest avenues
for others to pick up where they left off.
Source: https://explorable.com/empirical-research
2.5. Documenting the sources
Academic writing activities often involve citing various sources to justify the claims
made by their writers, in the form of quotations, or paraphrases of quotations. All academic
writers are therefore expected to clearly distinguish their words and ideas from the words and
ideas of others in their works. The acknowledgement of the sources used in an academic paper
is called citing of sources. In fact, citation of sources is one of the main technical aspects of an
academic writing assignment. Sources used in a paper are cited in two ways – i) parenthetical
citation, or in-text citation and ii) works cited or reference. Depending on the style followed,

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there will be variations in the way citation is carried out in academic writings. The following
are the advantages of citing the sources:
● Citing gives credit to the writers whose works are cited.
● Citing makes your academic writing work more credible.
● Citing informs your reader where you got your information.
● Citing provides your reader opportunities to learn more. Your work cited serves as a
window to further research and study on your topic.
● Citing protects you from plagiarising.
2.6. MLA and APA styles of Documentation
MLA (Modern Language Association), APA (American Psychological Association)
are popular styles of documentation. Each academic paper requires citation of sources in a
specific style mandated by the publisher. In other words, the methodology used for citing needs
to be the same throughout a paper. Awareness of the citation style is an important prerequisite
for writing scholarly papers for publication or presentation in a seminar.
MLA style is widely used by scholars and students in English and the Humanities. APA
style is commonly used in social sciences and science subjects. Both the styles insist on citing
sources in two parts: a list of Works Cited (in MLA) or Reference (in APA), and parenthetical
references (also called in-text citations).
Parenthetical Citation in MLA Style
Citation entries provided within the text in brackets are called parenthetical citations.
For example, if you have quoted from a book by Susan Strange, your quotation will be followed
by the last name of the author and page number of the book from which the quote was taken.
For example,
This paper examines the languages given to what an economist has dubbed “Casino
Capitalism,” an unregulated international economy in which money is able to act
independently of both the politics of the nation state and the financial verities of the
real market (Strange 2).
In the above sentence, (Strange 2) is an example of parenthetical citation. In case the writer’s
name is mentioned in the text itself, only page number needs to be mentioned. For example,
This paper examines the languages given to what an economist Susan Strange has
dubbed “Casino Capitalism,” an unregulated international economy in which money is
able to act independently of both the politics of the nation state and the financial verities
of the real market (2).
The parenthetical citation depends on the type of materials you use. For example, if you are
quoting from a book by two authors, the entry will look like this: (Lutgens and Tarbuck 219).
Likewise, if the article quoted does not have an author, the first two or three letters in the title
will be used in parenthetical citation. Example: (American Heritage 49).

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 An academic writer has to keep a copy of the style guide handy while writing a paper,
to ensure that each type of material is cited properly.
Works Cited in MLA Style
Works cited is a detailed list of books and other materials cited in your academic writing
work. It is added at the end of a paper or article. The following are the basic principles followed
in the list of works cited:
▪ Works Cited list is arranged alphabetically by the author’s last name, or, if there is no
author, by the first word in the title. However, “The”, “An” or “A” at the beginning of
the title are ignored (but not omitted) while arranging the entries alphabetically.
▪ After the first line each entry is indented ½ inch or 5 spaces. This is called a hanging
indent. For example,
Lutgens, Frederick K., and Edward J. Tarbuck. The Atmosphere: An Introduction to
Meteorology. 13th ed., Pearson, 2016.
▪ Each entry presents information in a specific order: the author’s name, the title, the
publication information.
▪ The entire list to be presented in double-space, both between and within entries.
▪ If a book does not give the publisher, or the date of publication, then give what
information you might know in square brackets [ ].
▪ Each citation in the Works Cited ends with a period.
▪ With a few exceptions, the punctuation for citations in the works cited list is restricted
to commas and periods and follows a format. Periods are used after the author, after the
title of the source, and at the end of the information for each container. Commas are
used in the author's name and between elements within each container.
Sample MLA Works Cited Entries
Books with Single Author
Amis, Martin. London Fields. Penguin, 1989.
Bradbury, Malcolm. The Modern British Novel. Secker and Warburg, 1993.
Gamble, Andrew. The Free Economy and the Strong State: the Politics of Thatcherism.
Basingstoke. Macmillan, 1988.
Book Chapter
Corner, John and Sylvia Harvey. "Mediating tradition and modernity: the heritage/enterprise
couplet." Enterprise and Heritage: Cross-Currents of National Culture. Ed. John
Corner and Sylvia Harvey. Routledge,1991,45–75.
Book with Corporate Author
Canadian Health Information Management Association. Fundamentals of Health Information
Management. Canadian Healthcare Association, 2013
Journal Article (Print)

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Conatser, Phillip, and Martin Block. "Aquatic Instructors' Beliefs Toward Inclusion."
Therapeutic Recreation Journal, vol. 35, no. 2, 2001, pp. 170-184.
Journal Article from a Database
Williams, George R. "What Can Consciousness Anomalies Tell Us about Quantum
Mechanics?" Journal of Scientific Exploration, vol. 30, no. 3, 2015, pp. 326-354.
Academic Search Complete, 0-search.ebscohost.com.orca.douglascollege.
ca/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=118525144&site=ehost-live&scope=site.
Accessed 6 Nov. 2016.
Magazine Article (Print)
Bolster, Mary. “Energize Your Life.” Natural Health, Mar. 2009, p. 10.
Magazine Article (Online)
Miller, Laura. “The Evolutionary Argument for Dr. Seuss.” Salon, 18 May 2009,
www.salon.com/2009/05/18/evocriticism/. Accessed 29 Nov. 2016.
For more details on the MLA style, please refer to the website of Modern Language
Association: https://www.mla.org/
Parenthetical Citation in APA Style
APA stands for American Psychological Association. An in-text citation usually
consists of the author’s last name and the year of publication. If a specific part of a source is
cited, it is necessary to give a page number. For example: (James, 2020, p. 170). If an author’s
name and book appear in the narration of the paper, only the year of publication needs to be
given in brackets. Here are examples of parenthetical entries for different type materials:
One author (John, 2021)
Two authors (John and Smith, 2021)
Three or more authors (Ghosh et al., 2020)
Organisation (Canadian Health Information Management
Association, 2021)

Sample Reference Entries in APA Style

Book with subtitle. Fraser, C. (2017). Prairie fires: The American dreams of Laura Ingalls
Wilder. Metropolitan Books.
Book with two editors instead of author.
Melendy, R., & Kincaid, C. (Eds.). (2018). Birth order and personality. Doubleday.
Essay, chapter, or section in edited work.
Gale, D. (2008). Innocence abroad. In L.F. Baum (Ed.), The way home (pp. 27-43). Cyclone
Press.

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Journal article with DOI.
Slethaug, G. E. (1986). The paradoxical double in Le Guin’s A Wizard of Earthsea.
Extrapolation, 27(4), 326-333. https://doi.org/10.3828/extr.1986.27.4.326
Magazine article, online, no volume issue or pages.
Beck, J. (2015, May 3). Science’s love affair with The Lord of the Rings. The Atlantic.
https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2015/05/sciences-love-affair-with-the-
lord-of-the-rings/392216/
Wikipedia entry.
Stonehenge. (2020, January 16). In Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stonehenge
Website article with author.
Spritzler, F. (2017, January 29). 13 ways to prevent type 2 diabetes. Healthline.
https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/prevent-diabetes
(Source: https://www.isu.edu/media/libraries/student-success/tutoring/handouts-
writing/using-sources/APA7-Style.pdf)
For more details on APA style of citation, visit: https://apastyle.apa.org

Best Wishes!

Prepared by:
Dr. V.P. Anvar Sadhath
Associate Professor of English & Director, IQAC
The New College, Chennai - 14.
anvarsadhath@thenewcollege.edu.in

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