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 SCHAUM’S ®
outlines

Mathematical Handbook of
Formulas and Tables

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 SCHAUM’S ®
outlines

Mathematical Handbook of
Formulas and Tables
Fifth Edition

Murray R. Spiegel, PhD

Former Professor and Chairman
Mathematics Department
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
Hartford Graduate Center

Seymour Lipschutz, PhD

Mathematics Department
Temple University

John Liu, PhD

Mathematics Department
University of Maryland

Schaum’s Outline Series

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Copyright © 2018 by McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of
1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval
system, without the prior written permission of the publisher.

ISBN: 978-1-26-001054-1
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SEYMOUR LIPSCHUTZ is on the faculty of Temple University and formally taught at the Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn.
He received his PhD in 1960 at Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences of New York University. He is one of Schaum’s most
prolific authors. In particular, he has written, among others, Linear Algebra, Probability, Discrete Mathematics, Set Theory, Finite
Mathematics, and General Topology.

JOHN LIU is presently a professor of mathematics at University of Maryland, and he formerly taught at Temple University. He
received his PhD from the University of California, and he has held visiting positions at New York University, Princeton Univer-
sity, and Berkeley. He has published many papers in applied mathematics, including the areas of partial differential equations and
numerical analysis.

The late MURRAY R. SPIEGEL received the MS degree in physics and the PhD degree in mathematics from Cornell University.
He had positions at Harvard University, Columbia University, Oak Ridge, and Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, and served as a
mathematical consultant at several large companies. His last position was Professor and Chairman of Mathematics at the Rens-
selaer Polytechnic Institute, Hartford Graduate Center. He was interested in most branches of mathematics, especially those that
involve applications to physics and engineering problems. He was the author of numerous journal articles and 14 books on various
topics in mathematics.

TERMS OF USE

This is a copyrighted work and McGraw-Hill Education and its licensors reserve all rights in and to the work. Use of this work
is subject to these terms. Except as permitted under the Copyright Act of 1976 and the right to store and retrieve one copy of the
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 Preface
This handbook supplies a collection of mathematical formulas and tables which will be valuable to students and
research workers in the fields of mathematics, physics, engineering, and other sciences. Care has been taken to
include only those formulas and tables which are most likely to be needed in practice, rather than highly spe-
cialized results which are rarely used. It is a “user-friendly” handbook with material mostly rooted in university
mathematics and scientific courses. In fact, the first edition can already be found in many libraries and offices,
and it most likely has moved with the owners from office to office since their college times. Thus, this handbook
has survived the test of time (while most other college texts have been thrown away).
This new edition maintains the same spirit as previous editions, with the following changes. First of all,
we have deleted some out-of-date tables which can now be easily obtained from a simple calculator, and we
have deleted some rarely used formulas. The main change is that sections on Probability and Random Variables
have been expanded with new material. These sections appear in both the physical and social sciences, including
education. There are also two new sections: Section XIII on Turing Machines and Section XIV on Mathematical
Finance.
Topics covered range from elementary to advanced. Elementary topics include those from algebra, geom-
etry, trigonometry, analytic geometry, probability and statistics, and calculus. Advanced topics include those
from differential equations, numerical analysis, and vector analysis, such as Fourier series, gamma and beta
functions, Bessel and Legendre functions, Fourier and Laplace transforms, and elliptic and other special func-
tions of importance. This wide coverage of topics has been adopted to provide, within a single volume, most of
the important mathematical results needed by student and research workers, regardless of their particular field
of interest or level of attainment.
The book is divided into two main parts. Part A presents mathematical formulas together with other mate-
rial, such as definitions, theorems, graphs, diagrams, etc., essential for proper understanding and application of
the formulas. Part B presents the numerical tables. These tables include basic statistical distributions (normal,
Student’s t, chi-square, etc.), advanced functions (Bessel, Legendre, elliptic, etc.), and financial functions (com-
pound and present value of an amount, and annuity).
McGraw-Hill Education wishes to thank the various authors and publishers—for example, the Literary
Executor of the late Sir Ronald A. Fisher, F.R.S., Dr. Frank Yates, F.R.S., and Oliver and Boyd Ltd., Edinburgh,
for Table III of their book Statistical Tables for Biological, Agricultural and Medical Research—who gave their
permission to adapt data from their books for use in several tables in this handbook. Appropriate references to
such sources are given below the corresponding tables.
Finally, I wish to thank the staff of McGraw-Hill Education Schaum’s Outline Series, especially Diane
Grayson, for their unfailing cooperation.

Seymour Lipschutz
Temple University

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 Contents
Part A FORMULAS 1

Section I Elementary Constants, Products, Formulas 3

1. Greek Alphabet and Special Constants 3
2. Special Products and Factors 5
3. The Binomial Formula and Binomial Coefficients 7
4. Complex Numbers 10
5. Solutions of Algebraic Equations 13
6. Conversion Factors 15

Section II Geometry 16
7. Geometric Formulas 16
8. Formulas from Plane Analytic Geometry 22
9. Special Plane Curves 28
10. Formulas from Solid Analytic Geometry 34
11. Special Moments of Inertia 41

Section III Elementary Transcendental Functions 43

12. Trigonometric Functions 43
13. Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 53
14. Hyperbolic Functions 56

Section IV Calculus 62
15. Derivatives 62
16. Indefinite Integrals 67
17. Tables of Special Indefinite Integrals 71
18. Definite Integrals 108

Section V Differential Equations and Vector Analysis 116

19. Basic Differential Equations and Solutions 116
20. Formulas from Vector Analysis 119

Section VI Series 134

21. Series of Constants 134
22. Taylor Series 138
23. Bernoulli and Euler Numbers 142
24. Fourier Series 144

vii

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 vi i i C on t e n t s

Section VII Special Functions and Polynomials 149

25. The Gamma Function 149
26. The Beta Function 152
27. Bessel Functions 153
28. Legendre and Associated Legendre Functions 164
29. Hermite Polynomials 169
30. Laguerre and Associated Laguerre Polynomials 171
31. Chebyshev Polynomials 175
32. Hypergeometric Functions 178

Section VIII Laplace and Fourier Transforms 180

33. Laplace Transforms 180
34. Fourier Transforms 193

Section IX Elliptic and Miscellaneous Special Functions 198

35. Elliptic Functions 198
36. Miscellaneous and Riemann Zeta Functions 203

Section X Inequalities and Infinite Products 205

37. Inequalities 205
38. Infinite Products 207

Section XI Probability and Statistics 208

39. Descriptive Statistics 208
40. Probability 217
41. Random Variables 223

Section XII Numerical Methods 231

42. Interpolation 231
43. Quadrature 235
44. Solution of Nonlinear Equations 237
45. Numerical Methods for Ordinary Differential Equations 239
46. Numerical Methods for Partial Differential Equations 241
47. Iteration Methods for Linear Systems 244

Section XIII Turing Machines 246

48. Basic Definitions, Expressions 246
49. Pictures 247
50. Quintuple, Turing Machine 248
51. Computing with a Turing Machine 250
52. Examples 252

Section XIV Mathematical Finance 254

53. Basic Probability 254
54. Interest Rates 256
55. Arbitrage Theorem and Options 257

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 Conte n ts ix

56. Arbitrage Theorem 258

57. Black-Scholes Formula 259
58. The Delta Hedging Arbitrage Strategy 260

Part B TABLES 263

Section I Logarithmic, Trigonometric, Exponential Functions 265

1. Four Place Common Logarithms log10 N or log N 265
2. Sin x (x in Degrees and Minutes) 267
3. Cos x (x in Degrees and Minutes) 268
4. Tan x (x in Degrees and Minutes) 269
5. Conversion of Radians to Degrees, Minutes,
and Seconds or Fractions of Degrees 270
6. Conversion of Degrees, Minutes, and Seconds to Radians 271
7. Natural or Napierian Logarithms loge x or ln x 272
8. Exponential Functions ex 274
9. Exponential Functions e-x 275
10. Exponential, Sine, and Cosine Integrals 276

Section II Factorial and Gamma Function, Binomial Coefficients 277

11. Factorial n 277
12. Gamma Function 278
13. Binomial Coefficients 279

Section III Bessel Functions 281

14. Bessel Functions J0(x) 281
15. Bessel Functions J1(x) 281
16. Bessel Functions Y0(x) 282
17. Bessel Functions Y1(x) 282
18. Bessel Functions I0(x) 283
19. Bessel Functions I1(x) 283
20. Bessel Functions K0(x) 284
21. Bessel Functions K1(x) 284
22. Bessel Functions Ber(x) 285
23. Bessel Functions Bei(x) 285
24. Bessel Functions Ker(x) 286
25. Bessel Functions Kei(x) 286
26. Values for Approximate Zeros of Bessel Functions 287

Section IV Legendre Polynomials 288

27. Legendre Polynomials Pn(x) 288
28. Legendre Polynomials Pn(cos θ) 289

Section V Elliptic Integrals 290

29. Complete Elliptic Integrals of First and Second Kinds 290
30. Incomplete Elliptic Integral of the First Kind 291
31. Incomplete Elliptic Integral of the Second Kind 291

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 x C on t e n t s

Section VI Financial Tables 292

32. Compound Amount: (1 + r)n 292
33. Present Value of an Amount: (1 + r)-n 293
(1 + r )n − 1
34. Amount of an Annuity: 294
r
1 – (1 + r ) – n
35. Present Value of an Annuity: 295
r

Section VII Probability and Statistics 296

36. Areas Under the Standard Normal Curve from -∞ to x 296
37. Ordinates of the Standard Normal Curve 297
38. Percentile Values (tp) for Student’s t Distribution 298
39. Percentile Values (c2p) for c2 (Chi-Square) Distribution 299
40. 95th Percentile Values for the F Distribution 300
41. 99th Percentile Values for the F Distribution 301
42. Random Numbers 302

Index of Special Symbols and Notations 303

Index 305

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outlines

Mathematical Handbook of
Formulas and Tables

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 Part A

FORMULAS

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 Section I: Elementary Constants, Products, Formulas

1    GREEK ALPHABET and SPECIAL CONSTANTS

Greek Alphabet

Greek Greek letter Greek Greek letter

name name
Lower case Capital Lower case Capital

Alpha a A Nu n N
Beta b B Xi x X
Gamma g G Omicron o O
Delta d D Pi p P
Epsilon e E Rho r Ρ
Zeta z Z Sigma s S
Eta h H Tau t T
Theta q  Upsilon u Υ
Iota i I Phi f F
Kappa k K Chi c Χ
Lambda l L Psi y Ψ
Mu m M Omega w Ω
    

Special Constants
1.1. p = 3.14159 26535 89793 …
n
1
1.2. e = 2.71828 18284 59045 … = lim  1 + 
n→∞  n
= natural base of logarithms
 

1.3. g = 0.57721 56649 01532 86060 6512 … = Euler’s constant

1 1 1
= lim  1 + + +  + − ln n 
n→∞  
  2 3 n

1.4. eγ = 1.78107 24179 90197 9852 … [see 1.3]

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 4 G R EEK A L P H A BET a nd S P EC IA L C ON S TA NT S

1.5. e = 1.64872 12707 00128 1468 …

1.6. π = Γ ( 12 ) = 1.77245 38509 05516 02729 8167 …

where Γ is the gamma function [see 25.1].

1.7. Γ ( 13 ) = 2.67893 85347 07748 …

1.8. Γ ( 14 ) = 3.62560 99082 21908 …

1.9. 1 radian = 180°/p = 57.29577 95130 8232 …°

1.10. 1° = p /180 radians = 0.01745 32925 19943 29576 92 … radians

01_Spiegel_section I_001-015.indd 4 30/08/17 12:09 pm

 Section II: Geometry

7 GEOMETRIC FORMUL AS

Rectangle of Length b and Width a

7.1. Area = ab

7.2. Perimeter = 2a + 2b

Fig. 7-1

Parallelogram of Altitude h and Base b

7.3. Area = bh = ab sin q

7.4. Perimeter = 2a + 2b

Fig. 7-2

Triangle of Altitude h and Base b

7.5. Area = 12 bh = 12 ab sin θ

= s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)

where s = 12 (a + b + c) = semiperimeter

7.6. Perimeter = a + b + c Fig. 7-3

Trapezoid of Altitude h and Parallel Sides a and b

7.7. Area = 12 h (a + b)

 1 1 
7.8. Perimeter = a + b + h  +
 sinθ sin φ 

= a + b + h (csc θ + csc φ )
Fig. 7-4

16

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 “February 28, Wednesday.—February closes: thank God for the
lapse of its twenty-eight days! Should the thirty-one of the coming
March not drag us further downward, we may hope for a successful
close to this dreary drama. By the 10th of April we should have seal;
and when they come, if we remain to welcome them, we can call
ourselves saved.
“But a fair review of our prospects tells me that I must look the
lion in the face. The scurvy is steadily gaining on us. I do my best to
sustain the more desperate cases; but as fast as I partially build up
one, another is stricken down. The disease is perhaps less
malignant than it was, but it is more diffused throughout our party.
Except William Morton, who is disabled by a frozen heel, not one of
our eighteen is exempt. Of the six workers of our party, as I counted
them a month ago, two are unable to do out-door work, and the
remaining four divide the duties of the ship among them. Hans
musters his remaining energies to conduct the hunt. Petersen is his
disheartened, moping assistant. The other two, Bonsall and myself,
have all the daily offices of household and hospital. We chop five
large sacks of ice, cut six fathoms of eight-inch hawser into junks of
a foot each (for fuel), serve out the meat when we have it, hack at
the molasses, and hew out with crowbar and axe the pork and dried
apples, pass up the foul slops and cleansings of our dormitory; and,
in a word, cook, scullionize, and attend the sick. Added to this, for
five nights running I have kept watch from 8 p.m. to 4 a.m., catching
cat-naps as I could in the day without changing my clothes, but
carefully waking every hour to note thermometers.
“Such is the condition in which February leaves us, with forty-one
days more ahead of just the same character in prospect as the
twenty-eight which, thank God! are numbered now with the past. It is
saddening to think how much those twenty-eight days have impaired
our capacities of endurance. If Hans and myself can only hold on, we
may work our way through. All rests upon destiny, or the Power
which controls it.”
 It is useless, however, to dwell longer on this melancholy record.
Kane saw that to abandon the brig was now the only resource: the
ice held it fast, there was no probability of its being released, and a
third winter in Rensselaer Bay would have been death to the whole
party. As soon, therefore, as the return of spring in some measure
recruited the health of his followers, he made the necessary
preparations for departure; and on the 20th of May the entire ship’s
company bade farewell to the Advance, and set out on their
homeward route. With considerable difficulty and arduous labour
they hauled their boats across the rough, hummocky ice, and
reached the open sea. On the 17th of June they embarked, and
steered for Upernavik, which port they calculated upon reaching in
fifty-six days. When they got fairly clear of the land, and in the course
of the great ice-drift southward, they found their boats so frail and
leaky that they could be kept afloat only by constant bailing; a labour
which told heavily on men already weakened with disease and want.
Starvation stared them in the face, when happily they fell in with and
captured a large seal, which they devoured voraciously; and this
opportune help recruited their failing energies. Thenceforth they
were in no lack of food, as seals were plentiful; and early in August,
after living for eighty-four days in the open air, they found themselves
under the comfortable roofs of Upernavik, enjoying the hospitable
welcome of the generous Danes.
Dr. Kane returned to New York on the 11th of October 1855, after
an absence of thirty months. His discoveries had been important, his
heroism worthy of the race from which he sprung, and none can
deny that he had well merited the honours he received.
Unfortunately, a frame never very robust had been broken down by
the trials of two Arctic winters; and this gallant explorer passed away
on the 16th of February 1857, in the thirty-seventh year of his age.

In 1860, Dr. Hayes, the companion of Dr. Kane, took the

command of an expedition intended to complete the survey of
Kennedy Channel, and to reach, if it were possible, the North Pole.
His schooner, the United States, was brought up for the winter at
Port Foulke, about twenty miles south of Rensselaer Harbour; and
early in the following April, Dr. Hayes set out on a sledge and boat
journey across the sound, and along the shores of Grinnell Land.
From the eloquent record of his adventures, which does so much
credit to his literary skill, “An Arctic Boat Journey,” we have already
quoted some stirring passages; but the following extract we may be
allowed to repeat, on account of the clear light it throws upon the
nature of the difficulties Hayes encountered on his northward
advance:—
“The track,” he says, “was rough, past description. I can compare
it to nothing but a promiscuous accumulation of rocks closely packed
together, and piled up over a vast plain in great heaps and endless
ridges, leaving scarcely a foot of level surface. The interstices
between these closely accumulated ice-masses are filled up, to
some extent, with drifted snow. The reader will easily imagine the
rest. He will see the sledges winding through the tangled wilderness
of broken ice-tables, the men and dogs pulling and pushing up their
respective loads. He will see them clambering over the very summit
of lofty ridges, through which there is no opening, and again
descending on the other side—the sledge often plunging over a
precipice, sometimes capsizing, and frequently breaking. Again he
will see the party, baffled in their attempt to cross or find a pass,
breaking a track with shovel and handspike; or, again, unable even
with these appliances to accomplish their end, they retreat to seek a
better track: and they may be lucky enough to find a sort of gap or
gateway, upon the winding and uneven surface of which they will
make a mile or so with comparative ease. The snow-drifts are
sometimes a help and sometimes a hindrance. Their surface is
uniformly hard, but not always firm to the foot. The crust frequently
gives way, and in a most tiresome and provoking manner. It will not
quite bear the weight, and the foot sinks at the very moment when
the other is lifted. But, worse than this, the chasms between the
hummocks are frequently bridged over with snow in such a manner
as to leave a considerable space at the bottom quite unfilled; and at
the very moment when all looks promising, down sinks one man to
his middle, another to the neck, another is buried out of sight; the
sledge gives way,—and to extricate the whole from this unhappy
predicament is probably the labour of hours. It would be difficult to
imagine any kind of labour more disheartening, or which would
sooner sap the energies of both men and animals.”

After encountering difficulties like these, which wore out the

strength of most of his party, so that they were compelled to return to
the schooner, Dr. Hayes succeeded in crossing the sound, and
began his journey along the coast. But the difficulties did not abate,
and made such demands on the powers of endurance of the
travellers, that the strongest among them broke down, and had to be
left behind in charge of another of the party. The resolute Hayes then
pushed on, accompanied by Knorr, and on the 18th of May reached
the margin of a deep gulf, where further progress was rendered
impossible by the rotten ice and broad water-ways. From this point,
however, he could see, on the other side of the channel, and
immediately opposite to him, the lofty peak of Mount Parry,
discovered in 1854 by the gallant Morton; and more to the north, a
bold conspicuous headland, which he named Cape Union, the most
northern known land upon the globe. Beyond it, he thought he saw
the open sea of the Pole, which, from Cape Union, is not distant five
hundred miles; but the voyage of the Polaris, at a later date, has
shown that what he saw was only a land-locked bay.
On the 12th of July, the schooner was set free from the ice, but
she proved to be too much damaged to continue her dangerous
voyage; and satisfied with having proved that a direct and not
impracticable route to the Pole lies up Smith Sound and Kennedy
Channel, Dr. Hayes returned to Boston.
 It is the opinion, however, of some geographers, though scarcely
warranted by ascertained facts, that the Pole may more easily be
reached by what is known as the Spitzbergen route. They argue that
to the east of this snow-crowned archipelago the influence of the
Gulf Stream makes itself felt; and they conclude that this great warm
current possibly strikes as far as the Pole itself. It is known that
Parry, to the north of Spitzbergen, attained the latitude of 82° 45’;
and it is recorded that a Hull whaler, the True-Love, in 1837,
navigated an open sea in lat. 82° 30’ N., and long. 15° E.; so that
she might probably have solved the problem and have gained the
Pole, had she continued on her northerly course.
Holding this belief, the illustrious German geographer, Dr.
Petermann, succeeded in raising funds for a German expedition in
1868; and the Germania, a brig of eighty tons, under the command
of Captain Koldewey, sailed from Bergen on the 24th of May, for
Shannon Island, in lat. 75° 14’ N., the furthest point on the
Greenland coast reached by Sabine in 1823. She was accompanied
by the Hansa, Captain Hegemann; and both ships were equipped in
the most careful manner, and liberally supplied with appliances and
stores.
On the 9th of July the expedition was off the island of Jan Mayen,
and at midnight on that day was sailing direct to the northward. A
heavy fog came on, and the two ships, even when sailing side by
side, could not see one another, and communication could be
maintained only by the use of the speaking-trumpet. Their crews
might then conceive an idea of that impenetrable chaos which,
according to Pythias, terminated the world beyond Thule, and which
is neither air, nor earth, nor sea. It is impossible to imagine anything
more melancholy than this gray, uniform, infinite veil or canopy;
ocean itself, far as the eye can reach, is gray and gloomy.
For five successive days the weather remained in this condition,
the fog alone varying in intensity, and growing thicker and thicker. On
the 14th a calm prevailed, and the Germania lowered a boat to pick
up drift-wood and hunt the sea-gulls. The ice-blink on the horizon
showed that the ships were drawing near the great ice-fields of the
Polar Ocean; and another sign of their proximity was the appearance
of the ivory gull (Larus eburneus), which never wanders far from the
ice. Occasionally the ships fell in with a rorqual, or nord-caper, as the
seamen call it,—a species of whale distinguished by the presence of
a dorsal fin.
On the morning of the 15th of July a light breeze blew up from the
south, and the two ships sailed steadily on their north-western
course through a sea covered with floating ice. An accustomed ear
could already distinguish a distant murmur, which seemed to draw
nearer and yet nearer; it was the swell of the sea breaking on the far-
off ice-field. Nearer and yet nearer! Everybody gathered upon deck;
and, suddenly, as if in virtue of some spell, the mists cleared away,
and the adventurers saw before them, within a few hundred yards,
the ice! It formed a long line, like a cliff-wall of broken and rugged
rocks, whose azure-tinted precipices glittered in the sun, and
repelled, unmoved, the rush of the foamy waves. The summit was
covered with a deep layer of blinding snow.
They gazed on the splendid panorama in silence. It was a solemn
moment, and in every mind new thoughts and new impressions were
awakened, in which both hope and doubt were blended.
The point where the Germania had struck the ice was lat. 74° 47’
N. and long. 11° 50’ E., and the icy barrier stretched almost directly
from north to south. The Hansa touched the ice on the same day, but
in lat. 74° 57’ N., and long. 9° 41’ E.
The two ships, which had separated in the fog, effected a union
on the 18th, and the Germania taking the Hansa in tow, they made
towards Sabine Island. After awhile, the towing-rope was thrown off,
the Germania finding it necessary to extinguish her fires and proceed
under canvas. They then followed up, in a southerly direction, the
great icy barrier, seeking for an opening which might afford them a
chance of steering westward.
On the 20th, the Germania found the ice so thick in the south-
west that she adopted a westerly Course, and hoisted a signal for
the captain of the Hansa to come on board to a conference. The
latter, however, misinterpreted it, and instead of reading the signal as
“Come within hail,” read it as “Long stay a peak;” crowded on all sail,
and speedily disappeared in the fog, which grew wonderfully intense
before the Germania could follow her. Through this curious error the
two ships were separated, and for fourteen months the crew of the
Germania remained in ignorance of the fate of their comrades’.

Before following the Germania on her voyage of discovery, we

propose to see what befell the Hansa among the Arctic ice.
Captain Hegemann had understood the signal of his senior
officer to mean that the ships were to push on as far as possible to
the westward, and, as we have seen, he crowded on all sail. But
when the fog closed in, and he found himself out of sight of the
Germania, he lay-to, in the hope that the latter might rejoin him.
Disappointed in this, he kept on his way, and on the 28th of July
sighted the rocky and gloomy coast of East Greenland, from Cape
Bröer-Ruys to Cape James.
The weather continued fine. By the light of the midnight sun,
which illuminated the fantastic outlines of the bergs, the adventurers
engaged in a narwhal-hunt. Nothing is more extraordinary than the
effect of the rays of the midnight sun penetrating into an ocean
covered with floating ice. The warm and cold tones strike against
each other in all directions; the sea is orange, leaden-gray, or dark
green; the reefs of ice are tinged with a delicate rose-bloom; broad
shadows spread over the snow, and the most varied effects of
mirage are produced everywhere in the tranquil waters.
THE CREW OF THE “HANSA” TRYING TO LASSO A BEAR.

THE MIDNIGHT SUN, GREENLAND.

 A BEAR AT ANCHOR.
On the 9th of September, the Hansa found the channel of free
water in which she had been navigating closed by a huge mass of
ice, and to protect her against the drift of the floating bergs she was
moored to it with stout hawsers. A few days later, the ice was broken
up by a gale of wind from the north-east, and the hawsers snapped.
The ice accumulating behind the ship raised it a foot and a half. On a
contiguous sheet of ice, the explorers discovered a she-bear with her
cub, and a boat was despatched in pursuit. The couple soon caught
sight of it, and began to trot along the edge of the ice beside the
boat, the mother grinding her teeth and licking her beard. Her
enemies landed, and fired, and the bear fell in the snow, mortally
wounded. While the cub was engaged in tenderly licking and
caressing her, several attempts were made to capture it with a lasso;
but it always contrived to extricate itself, and at last took to flight,
crying and moaning bitterly. Though struck with a bullet, it succeeded
in effecting its escape.

On the 12th they again saw a couple of bears coming from the
east, and returning from the sea towards the land. The mother fell a
victim to their guns, but the cub was captured, and chained to an
anchor which they had driven into the ice. It appeared exceedingly
restless and disturbed, but not the less did it greedily devour a slice
of its mother’s flesh which the sailors threw to it. A snow wigwam
was hastily constructed for its accommodation, and the floor covered
with a layer of shavings; but the cub despised these luxuries of
civilization, and preferred to encamp on the snow, like a true
inhabitant of the Polar Regions. A few days afterwards it
disappeared with its chain, which it had contrived to detach from the
anchor; and the weight of the iron, in all probability, had dragged the
poor beast to the bottom of the water.

SKATING—OFF THE COAST OF GREENLAND.

The Hansa was now set fast in the ice, and no hope was
entertained of her release until the coming of the spring. Her crew
amused themselves with skating, and, when the weather permitted,
with all kinds of gymnastic exercises. It became necessary, however,
to consider what preparations should be made for encountering the
Arctic winter, one of the bitterest enemies with which man is called
upon to contend. The Hansa was strongly built, but her commander
feared she might not be able to endure the more and more frequent
pressure of the ice. At first, it was proposed to cover the boats with
sail-cloth and convert them into winter-quarters; but it was felt that
they would not afford a sufficient protection against the rigour of the
Polar climate, its furious winds, its excess of cold, its wild whirlwinds
of snow. And therefore it was resolved to erect on the ice-floe a
suitable winter-hut, constructed of blocks of coal. Bricks made of this
material have the double advantage of absorbing humidity, and
reflecting the heat which they receive. Water and snow would serve
for mortar; and a roof could be made with the covering which
protected the deck of the Hansa from the snow.
The ground-plan of the house was designed by Captain
Hegemann; it measured twenty feet in length, and fourteen feet in
width; the ridge of the roof was eight feet and a half, and the side
walls four feet eight inches in elevation. These walls were composed
of a double row of bricks nine inches wide up to a height of two feet,
after which a single row was used. They were cemented in a
peculiarly novel fashion. The joints and fissures were filled up with
dry snow, on which water was poured, and in ten minutes it
hardened into a compact mass, from which it would have been
exceedingly difficult to extract a solitary brick. The roof consisted of
sails and mats, covered with a layer of snow. The door was two and
a half feet wide, and the floor was paved with slabs of coal. Into this
house, which was completed in seven days, provisions for two
months were carried, including four hundred pounds of bread, two
dozen boxes of preserved meat, a flitch of bacon, some coffee and
brandy, besides a supply of firing-wood, and some tons of coal.

On the 8th of October, after the completion of the house, a violent

snow-storm broke out, which would assuredly have rendered its
construction impossible, and which, in five days, completely buried
both the ship and the hut. Such immense piles of snow accumulated
on the deck of the Hansa, that it was with the greatest difficulty the
seamen could reach their berths.
From the 5th to the 14th of October the drift of the current was so
strong, that the ice-bound ship was carried no fewer than seventy-
two miles towards the south-south-east.
Meantime, the pressure of the ice continued to increase, and the
Hansa seemed held in the tightening grasp of an invincible giant.
Huge masses rose in front, and behind, and on both sides, and
underneath, until she was raised seventeen feet higher than her
original position. Affairs seemed so critical, that Captain Hegemann
hastened to disembark the stores of clothing, the scientific
instruments, charts, log-book, and diaries. It was found that through
the constant strain on her timbers the ship had begun to leak badly,
and on sounding, two feet of water were found in the pumps. All
hands to work! But after half an hour’s vigorous exertions, the water
continued to rise, slowly but surely; and the most careful search
failed to indicate the locality of the leak. It was painfully evident that
the good ship could not be saved.
“Though much affected,” says the chronicler of the expedition,
“by this sad catastrophe, we endured it with firmness. Resignation
was indispensable. The coal hut, constructed on the shifting ice-floe,
was thenceforward our sole refuge in the long nights of an Arctic
winter, and was destined, perhaps, to become our tomb.
“But we had not a minute to lose, and we set to work. At nine
o’clock p.m. the snow-fall ceased; the sky glittered with stars, the
moon illuminated with her radiance the immense wilderness of ice,
and the rays of the Aurora Borealis here and there lighted up the
firmament with their coloured coruscations. The frost was severe;
during the night the thermometer sank to -20° R. One half the crew
continued to work at the pumps; the other was actively engaged in
disembarking on the ice the most necessary articles. There could be
no thought of sleep, for in our frightful situation the mind was beset
by the most conflicting apprehensions. What would become of us at
the very outset of a season which threatened to be one of excessive
rigour? In vain we endeavoured to imagine some means of saving
ourselves. It was not possible to think seriously of an attempt to gain
the land. Perhaps we might have succeeded, in the midst of the
greatest dangers, in reaching the coast by opening up a way across
the ice-floes, but we had no means of transporting thither our
provisions; and it appeared, from the reports of Scoresby, that we
could not count on finding any Eskimo establishments,—so that our
only prospect then would have been to die of hunger.”
The sole resource remaining to the explorers was to drift to the
south on their moving ice-floe, and confine themselves, meantime, to
their coal hut. If their ice-raft proved of sufficient strength, they might
hope to reach in the spring the Eskimo settlement in the south of
Greenland, or come to gain the coast of Iceland by traversing its
cincture of ice.

It was on the 22nd of October, in lat. 70° 50’ N., and long. 21° W.,
that the Hansa sank beneath the ice. Dr. Laube writes: “We made
ourselves as snug as possible, and, once our little house was
completely embanked with snow, we had not to complain of the cold.
We enjoyed perfect health, and occupied the time with long walks
and with our books, of which we had many. We made a Christmas-
tree of birch-twigs, and embellished it with fragments of wax taper.”
To prevent attacks of disease, and to maintain the cheerfulness
of the men, the officers of the expedition stimulated them to every
kind of active employment, and laid down strict rules for the due
division of the day.
At seven in the morning, they were aroused by the watch. They
rose, attired themselves in their warm thick woollen clothing, washed
in water procured by melting snow, and then took their morning cup
of coffee, with a piece of hard bread. Various occupations
succeeded: the construction of such useful utensils as proved to be
necessary; stitching sail-cloth, mending clothes, writing up the day’s
journal, and reading. When the weather permitted, astronomical
observations and calculations were not forgotten. At noon, all hands
were summoned to dinner, at which a good rich soup formed the
principal dish; and as they had an abundance of preserved
vegetables, the bill of fare was frequently changed. In the use of
alcoholic liquors the most rigid economy was observed, and it was
on Sunday only that each person received a glass of port.
The ice-floe on which their cabin stood was assiduously and
carefully explored in all directions. It was about seven miles in circuit,
and its average diameter measured nearly two miles.
The out-of-door amusements consisted chiefly of skating, and
building up huge images of snow—Egyptian sphynxes and the like.
The borders of the ice-floe, especially to the west and south-
west, presented a curious aspect; the attrition and pressure of the
floating ice had built up about it high glittering walls, upwards of ten
feet in elevation. The snow-crystals flashed and radiated in the sun
like myriads of diamonds. The red gleam of morning and evening
cast a strange emerald tint on the white surface of the landscape.
The nights were magnificent. The glowing firmament, and the snow
which reflected its lustre, produced so intense a brightness, that it
was possible to read without fatigue the finest handwriting, and to
distinguish remote objects. The phenomenon of the Aurora Borealis
was of constant occurrence, and on one occasion was so
wonderfully luminous that it paled the radiance of the stars, and
everything upon the ice-floe cast a shadow, as if it had been the sun
shining.
Near the coal-cabin stood two small huts, one of which served for
ablutions, the other as a shed. Round this nucleus of the little
shipwrecked colony were situated at convenient points the piles of
wood for fuel, the boats, and the barrels of patent fuel and pork. To
prevent the wind and snow from entering the dwelling-hut, a
vestibule was constructed, with a winding entrance.
The greatest cold experienced was -29° 30’ F., and this was in
December. After Christmas the little settlement was visited by
several severe storms, and their ice-raft drifted close along the
shore, sometimes within eight or nine miles, amidst much ice-
crushing,—which so reduced it on all sides, that by the 4th of
January 1870 it did not measure more than one-eighth of its original
dimensions.
On the 6th of January, when they had descended as far south as
66° 45’ N. lat., the sun reappeared, and was joyfully welcomed.
On the night of the 15th of January, the colony was stricken by a
sudden and terrible alarm. The ice yawned asunder, immediately
beneath the hut, and its occupants had but just time to take refuge in
their boats. Here they lay in a miserable condition, unable to clear
out the snow, and sheltered very imperfectly from the driving, furious
tempest. But on the 17th the gale moderated, and as soon as the
weather permitted they set to work to reconstruct out of the ruins of
the old hut a new but much smaller one. It was not large enough to
accommodate more than half the colony; and the other half took up
their residence in the boats.
February was calm and fine, and the floe still continued to drift
southward along the land. The nights were gorgeous with auroral
displays. Luminous sheaves expanded themselves on the deep blue
firmament like the folds of a fan, or the petals of a flower.
March was very snowy, and mostly dull. On the 4th, the ice-raft
passed within twenty-five miles of the glacier Kolberger-Heide. A day
or two later, it nearly came into collision with a large grounded
iceberg. The portion nearest to the drifting colony formed an
immense overhanging mass; its principal body had been wrought by
the action of the sun and the waves into the most capricious forms,
and seemed an aggregate of rocks and pinnacles, towers and
gateways. The castaways could have seized its projecting angles as
they floated past. They thought their destruction certain, but the
fragments of ice which surrounded the raft served as “buffers,” and
saved it from a fatal collision.
On the 29th of March, they found themselves in the latitude of
Nukarbik, the island where Graab, the explorer, wintered, from
September 3rd, 1827, to April 5th, 1830. They had cherished the
hope that from this spot they might be able to take to their boats, and
start for Friedrichstal, a Moravian missionary station on the south
coast of Greenland. However, the ice was as yet too compact for any
such venture to be attempted.
For four weeks they were detained in the bay of Nukarbik, only
two or three miles from the shore, and yet unable to reach it. Their
raft was caught in a kind of eddy, and sometimes tacked to the
south, sometimes to the north. The rising tide carried it towards the
shore, the ebbing tide floated it out again to sea. During this
detention they were visited by small troops of birds, snow linnets and
snow buntings. The seamen threw them a small quantity of oats,
which they greedily devoured. They were so tame that they allowed
themselves to be caught by the hand.

SNOW LINNETS AND BUNTINGS VISITING THE CREW OF THE “HANSA.”

From the end of March to the 17th of April, the voyagers
continued their dreary vacillation between Skieldunge Island and
Cape Moltke; a storm then drove them rapidly to the south. The
coast, with its bold littoral mountain-chain, its deep bays, its inlets, its
islands, and its romantic headlands, offered a succession of novel
and impressive scenes; and specially imposing was the great glacier
of Puisortok, a mighty ice-river which skirts the shore for upwards of
thirty miles.
Early in May they had reached lat. 61° 12’.
On the 7th, some water-lanes opened for them a way to the
shore; and abandoning the ice-raft, they took to their boats, with the
intention of progressing southward along the coast. At first they met
with considerable difficulty, being frequently compelled to haul up the
boats on an ice-floe, and so pass the night, or wait until the wind was
favourable. As this necessitated a continual unloading and reloading
of the boats, the work was very severe. At one time they were
detained for six days on the ice, owing to bad weather, violent gales,
and heavy snow-showers. The temperature varied from +2° during
the day to -5° R. during the night.
 THE CREW OF THE “HANSA” BIVOUACKING ON THE ICE.
Their rations at this period were thus distributed:—In the morning,
a cup of coffee, with a piece of dry bread. At noon, for dinner, soup
and broth; in the evening, a few mouthfuls of cocoa, of course
without milk and sugar.
They were compelled to observe the most rigid economy in the
use of their provisions, lest, before reaching any settlement, they
should be reduced to the extremities of famine. Yet their appetite
was very keen; a circumstance easily explained, for they were
necessarily very sparing in their allowance of meat and fat, which in
the rigorous Arctic climate are indispensable as nourishment.

As no change took place in the position of the masses of ice

which surrounded them, they resolved to drag their boats towards
the island of Illiudlek, about three marine miles distant. They began
this enterprise on the evening of the 20th, making use of some stout
cables which they had manufactured during the winter, and
harnessing themselves by means of a brace passed across the
shoulders. That evening they accomplished three hundred paces.
Snow fell heavily, and melted as fast as it fell, so that during their
night-bivouac they suffered much from damp.
The next day they found before them such a labyrinth of blocks
and fragments of ice, floating ice-fields, and water-channels, that
they were constrained to give up the idea of hauling their boats
across it, and resolved to wait for the spring tide—which, they knew,
would occur in a few days. The delay was very wearisome. To
beguile the time, some of the seamen set to work at wood-carving,
while the officers and scientific gentlemen manufactured the pieces
for a game of chess. Others prepared some fishing-lines, eighty
fathoms long, in the hope of catching a desirable addition to their
scanty bill of fare.
On the 24th, the weather was splendid. The sun shone in a
cloudless sky, and wherever its genial radiance fell the thermometer
marked + 28° 5’ R. This was an excellent opportunity for drying their
clothes, which, as well as their linen, had been thoroughly soaked
innumerable times. The coverings were removed from the boats,
which, in the warm sunshine, exhaled great clouds of vapour. The
cook endeavoured to add to his stores of provisions; but the seals
churlishly refused to make their appearance, the fish disdained to
nibble at the fat-baited hooks, and the stupid guillemots were
cunning enough to escape the best directed shots.
M. Hildebrandt, with two seamen, made an attempt—in which
they succeeded—to reach the island of Illiudlek, which lay about
three miles off, and is from 450 to 500 feet in height. They found it a
desert; not a trace of vegetation; its shores very steep, and at some
points precipitous; its surface torn with crevasses and ravines. The
only accessible part seemed on the north; but as the evening was
drawing in, they had no time for exploration, and made haste to
return to the boats.
 The castaways now came to a resolution to seek a temporary
refuge on this desolate isle. As the heat of the sun was sufficient to
render their labour very painful, and they suffered much from the
effects of the snow upon their eyes, they went to work at night,
dragging their boats forward with many a weary effort, and rested
during the daytime. In this way they reached the island on the 4th of
June.
Here they moored their boats in a small bay sheltered by a wall of
rocks from the north wind, which they named Hansa-Hafen. Next day
they shot two-and-twenty divers, which provided them with a couple
of good dinners. The supply was very valuable, as the stock of
provisions on hand would not last above a fortnight.
After a brief rest, the adventurers resumed their voyage, keeping
close in-shore, and struggling perseveringly amidst ice and stones—
and further checked by an inaccurate chart, which led them into a
deep fiord, instead of King Christian IV. Sound. On the 13th of June,
however, they arrived at the Moravian missionary station of
Friedrichstal, where their countrymen received them with a hearty
welcome. For two hundred days they had sojourned upon a drifting
ice-field, experiencing all the hardships of an Arctic winter,
aggravated by an insufficiency of food.
They reached Julianshaab on the 21st of June; embarked on
board the Danish brig Constance; and were landed at Copenhagen
on the 1st of September.

We must now return to the Germania.

Captain Koldewey made several bold attempts to penetrate the
pack-ice, but proved unsuccessful in all until, on the 1st of August,
he reached lat. 74°, where he contrived to effect a passage; and
though much delayed by a succession of fogs and calms, he made
his way to Sabine Island,—and dropped anchor on its southern side,
in lat. 74° 30’ N., and long. 29° W., on the 5th of August.