applied
sciences
Article
Pattern Classification and Gear Design of Spatial Noncircular
Gear Continuously Variable Transmission
Yongquan Yu 1 , Chao Lin 1, *






Citation: Yu, Y.; Lin, C.; Xu, P. Pattern
Classification and Gear Design of
Spatial Noncircular Gear Continuously
Variable Transmission. Appl. Sci.
2022, 12, 2715. https://doi.org/
10.3390/app12052715
Academic Editor: César M. A.
Vasques
Received: 12 February 2022
Accepted: 3 March 2022
Published: 5 March 2022
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
published maps and institutional affil-
iations.
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 2715. https://doi.org/10.3390/app12052715
and Ping Xu 2
1 State Key Laboratory of Mechanical Transmission, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, China;
20160702017@cqu.edu.cn
2 Chongqing Panlian Transmission Technology Co., Ltd., Chongqing 400060, China; xuping_cq@126.com
* Correspondence: linchao@cqu.edu.cn; Tel.: +86-134-529-11958
Abstract: Noncircular gear and curve face gear are collectively referred to as spatial noncircular
gear. Combined with the transmission characteristics of spatial noncircular gear, a new classification
design method of spatial noncircular gear continuously variable transmission (CVT) pattern was
proposed, including two categories named addition type and multiplication type, with a total of
five subcategories. Through the combination of the transmission ratio changing mechanism and
transmission selection mechanism, it can realize the CVT. The overall transmission ratio depends
on the phase angle between the spatial noncircular gear pairs and is independent of the input
rotation angle. Firstly, the CVT principle and transmission ratio characteristics of each pattern were
analyzed. Then the tooth profile classification design of spatial noncircular gear was carried out,
and the general parametric design equations of the tooth surface with different tooth profiles were
obtained. Finally, through simulation, the overall transmission ratio of each pattern was compared
between theory and simulation, which verified the correctness of the CVT classification design
method. The advantages and disadvantages of the two categories were analyzed. Moreover, through
the transmission experiments of curve face gear pairs with different tooth profiles, the transmission
ratios were compared between theory and experiment. Considering the influencing factors such as
machining error, assembly error and measurement error, the experimental error is within a reasonable
error range, which verified the correctness of the tooth profile classification design method. This
study provides a new idea for the further research and application of spatial noncircular gear CVT.
Keywords: CVT pattern; general equation; simulation and experiment; spatial noncircular gear;
tooth profile classification design
1. Introduction
Noncircular gear is a mechanism that can realize the non-uniform speed ratio transmis-
sion between the driving gear and driven gear [1]. It is widely used in agriculture, textile,
instruments, and other fields because of its advantages of low economic cost, compact
structure, accurate transmission ratio, high efficiency, strong bearing capacity, and high
precision. In the 14th century, high precision noncircular gear mechanism began to be
used in astronomical clocks [2]. After the 20th century, many scholars have carried out
the research on noncircular gear and made great progress in related design theory and
engineering application.
Litvin et al. [1] carried out systematic research on the design and manufacture of
noncircular gear. Liu et al. [3] studied the application of a noncircular gear train in the
generation of specific trajectory curve. Mundo et al. [4,5] studied the tooth surface design
method, motion characteristics, and application occasions of noncircular gear planetary
transmission, as well as the noncircular gear five-link mechanism, and optimized the con-
necting rod curve of the traditional five-link mechanism based on the noncircular gear.
Ottaviano et al. [6] studied the kinematic characteristics of noncircular gear and cam func-
tion generator through numerical calculation and experimental analysis. Modler et al. [7]
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 2715 2 of 22

made a comprehensive analysis on the mechanism of noncircular gear linkage, including

the types and mechanical characteristics of noncircular gear linkage, which laid a theoretical
foundation for its application. Alexandru et al. [8] deeply studied the characteristics and
geometric design method of variable transmission ratio steering gear. Zheng et al. [9] com-
bined the principle of noncircular gear differential gear train and the motion requirements
of indexing device and proposed a new noncircular gear indexing device. This device
has the characteristics of large indexing of a planetary indexing cam mechanism, more
compact structure, and fewer parts. Yu et al. [10] carried out simulation and experimental
research on the surface topography and machining surface quality of noncircular gear in
ball end milling. Based on the research of plane noncircular gear, Lin and Gong et al. [11]
creatively proposed a new type of curve face gear pair, which can realize the variable
transmission ratio transmission between intersecting shafts, and analyzed its principle
and motion characteristics. Lin and Zeng et al. [12] analyzed the design and tooth width
characteristics of helical curve face gear pair. Lin and Yu et al. [13,14] studied the com-
posite motion characteristics and bending stress of high-speed curve face gear pair. Hu
et al. [15] studied the mathematical model of curve face gear and time-varying meshing
characteristics of compound transmission, and found that this gear pair can be used for the
focusing mechanism.
In the field of gear CVT, there have been a few studies. Dooner et al. [16] proposed
a noncircular gear CVT device based on the summation differential principle, and dealt
with its kinematic characteristics and circulating power. Sun et al. [17] proposed a heart-
shaped gear CVT device based on the principle of noncircular gear variable transmission
ratio, and introduced its mathematic model and kinematic characteristics. According to
the crank slider principle and eccentric cam principle, Zhu and Wang proposed a gear
infinitely variable transmission with control function [18,19] and a novel gear infinitely
variable transmission based on the scotch yoke systems [20]. They can be applied to
vehicle and wind turbine, and the simulation and experimental analysis were carried
out. Chen et al. [21] proposed a new rod gear pulse CVT and analyzed its transmission
characteristics and phase number optimization. Compared with the other traditional
CVT, it has a wider variable range of transmission ratio and smaller pulsation rate while
reducing volume.
The above mechanisms can realize CVT in a certain sense, but there is still some room
for improvement in the overall transmission characteristics and meshing performance,
like transmission type, mechanism volume, design difficulty, kinematic characteristics,
transmission efficiency and bearing capacity. In order to improve the above performance,
according to the transmission ratio integration method consisting of addition method and
multiplication method, the spatial noncircular gear CVT was proposed. Here, noncircular
gear pair and curve face gear pair are collectively referred to as spatial noncircular gear
pair. Firstly, in terms of transmission type and mechanism volume, the spatial noncircular
gear CVT contains multiple transmission patterns. According to the requirements of
different working conditions, different spatial noncircular gear CVT pattern can be selected.
In addition, for design difficulty and mechanism kinematic characteristics, the spatial
noncircular gear CVT mechanism combined the characteristics of a spatial noncircular
gear pair, a transmission ratio changing mechanism, a transmission selection mechanism,
and multiple branches. It can dynamically adjust the design parameters according to the
actual transmission ratio requirements to realize the CVT with the input rotation angle
in the whole range. Based on the tooth profile classification design method, the spatial
noncircular gear with different tooth profiles can be obtained. Finally, compared with other
transmission forms, spatial noncircular gear transmission, as a meshing transmission form,
has high bearing capacity and transmission efficiency. In summary, this study can provide
a new idea for vehicles and special vehicles with special transmission needs to realize CVT.
In this paper, the pattern classification and design, transmission principle, and simula-
tion of spatial noncircular gear CVT pattern were carried out. The pitch curve, tooth surface
classification design, and transmission experiment of curve face gear pairs with different
Appl. Sci. 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 23

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 2715 In this paper, the pattern classification and design, transmission principle, and3 sim‐ of 22
ulation of spatial noncircular gear CVT pattern were carried out. The pitch curve, tooth
surface classification design, and transmission experiment of curve face gear pairs with
different
tooth toothwere
profiles profiles were introduced
introduced in detail. in
Thedetail. The correctness
correctness of theclassification
of the pattern pattern classifica‐
and
tion and design of spatial noncircular gear CVT was verified, with the
design of spatial noncircular gear CVT was verified, with the hope of creating hope of creating
a certaina
certain foundation
foundation forresearch
for further further research and
and for the for the application
application of spatial noncircular
of spatial noncircular gear CVT. gear
The
CVT. The
research research
process wasprocess
shownwas shown1.in Figure 1.
in Figure

Figure1.1.Research
Figure Researchworkflow
workflowof
ofspatial
spatialnoncircular
noncirculargear
gearCVT.
CVT.

2.
2. Pattern
Pattern Classification
Classificationof ofSpatial
SpatialNoncircular
NoncircularGear
GearCVT
CVT
Spatial
Spatial noncircular gear CVT
noncircular gear CVTpattern
patterncan
canbebe divided
divided into
into twotwo categories,
categories, withwith a
a total
total of subcategories,
of five five subcategories, as shown
as shown in 1Table
in Table and 1Figure
and Figure
2. Type2.I isType I is the addition
the addition method,
method,
including including classes
classes A, B, andA,C,B,named
and C,NG‐PBGT,
named NG-PBGT,
NG‐PCGT,NG-PCGT, and CFG-BG-PCGT,
and CFG‐BG‐PCGT, respec‐
respectively.
tively. Type II is the multiplication method, including classes D and and
Type II is the multiplication method, including classes D E, named
E, named CFGCFGand
and
NG,NG, respectively.
respectively.

Table1.1.CVT
Table CVTpattern
patternofofspatial
spatialnoncircular
noncirculargear.
gear.

I:I:Addition
Addition method
Method II:Multiplication
II: Multiplication method
Method
Type
Type
Class
ClassAA Class
Class BB Class
Class C C Class Class
D D Class
Class E E
Name
Name NG‐PBGT
NG-PBGT NG‐PCGT
NG-PCGT CFG‐BG‐PCGT
CFG-BG-PCGT CFG CFG NGNG
Noncircular gear Curve face gear
Curve face gear pair, pair,
Transmission ra‐ Noncircular gear pair Noncircular
Transmission ratio gearpair
Noncircular gear pair bevel gear pair and
pair
and and plane‐
planetary bevel and planetary bevel gear pair and Curve
Curve face gearface
pair gear Noncircular
Noncircular gear pair
tio changing
changing mechanism
gear train
andcylindrical
planetary cylindri‐planetary cylindrical
gear train
tary bevel gear planetary
gear traincylindrical pair gear pair
mechanism cal gear train
train gear train

In Figure 2, ω i and ω o are the input and output angular velocities, respectively. The
spatial noncircular gear CVT mechanism includes three parts. The first part is the phase
switching mechanism, which is responsible for adjusting the phase angle between the two
driving spatial noncircular gears and synchronizing their rotation speed at the same time.
The second part is the transmission ratio changing part, which is responsible for integrating
the transmitted variable transmission ratio to achieve a constant speed output within a
certain range of input rotation angle. The third part is the transmission selection mechanism,
which is responsible for selecting the transmission ratio transmitted in order to only output
a constant rotation speed during the transmission. Through the transmission selection
mechanisms of multiple branches, the transmission ratio of each branch at different input
rotation angles was integrated, and finally a constant rotation speed output with the input
rotation angle in the range of 0 to 360◦ was realized.
 Appl.
Appl. Sci. Sci. 11,
2022, 2022, 12, 2715
x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 224 of 23

(a)

(b)
Figure 2. 2.
Figure CVTCVTpattern
patternof
of spatial noncircular
spatial noncircular gear.
gear. (a) (a)
TypeType I: Addition
I: Addition method.
method. (b)II:Type
(b) Type II: Multi‐
Multipli-
plication method.
cation method.

In The structure
Figure 2, ωi of
andtheωphase
o are switching
the inputmechanism
and outputand the transmission
angular selection
velocities, mech- The
respectively.
anism of the five patterns are the same, but the transmission ratio changing part is
spatial noncircular gear CVT mechanism includes three parts. The first part is the phasedifferent.
For the three classes included in type I, the transmission ratio changing part is composed
switching mechanism, which is responsible for adjusting the phase angle between the two
driving spatial noncircular gears and synchronizing their rotation speed at the same time.
The second part is the transmission ratio changing part, which is responsible for integrat‐
ing the transmitted variable transmission ratio to achieve a constant speed output within
a certain range of input rotation angle. The third part is the transmission selection mech‐
 ferent input rotation angles was integrated, and finally a constant rotation speed output
with the input rotation angle in the range of 0 to 360° was realized.
The structure of the phase switching mechanism and the transmission selection
mechanism of the five patterns are the same, but the transmission ratio changing part is
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 2715 different. For the three classes included in type I, the transmission ratio changing part is
5 of 22
composed of different spatial noncircular gear mechanisms and differential mechanisms.
Through the addition method, the transmission ratios of gear pairs were integrated to
of different
achieve spatialspeed
a constant noncircular gearFor
output. mechanisms and differential
the two classes included mechanisms. Through
in type II, the the
transmission
addition method, the transmission ratios of gear pairs were integrated to
ratio changing part is composed of different spatial noncircular gear mechanisms.achieve a constant
speed output. For the two classes included in type II, the transmission ratio changing part
Through the multiplication method, the transmission ratios of gear pairs were integrated
is composed of different spatial noncircular gear mechanisms. Through the multiplication
to achieve a constant speed output. The structural composition of the transmission ratio
method, the transmission ratios of gear pairs were integrated to achieve a constant speed
changing
output. part of each pattern
The structural is shown
composition of theintransmission
Table 1. ratio changing part of each pattern
is shown in Table 1.
3. Principle and Classification Design of Spatial Noncircular Gear CVT
3. Principle and Classification Design of Spatial Noncircular Gear CVT
3.1. Principle of Each CVT Pattern
3.1. Principle of Each CVT Pattern
The principles of the five CVT patterns are described in detail later. The phase switch‐
The principles of the five CVT patterns are described in detail later. The phase switch-
inging
mechanism
mechanismand andtransmission selectionmechanism
transmission selection mechanism areare applicable
applicable to five
to the the five patterns,
patterns,
so only class
so only AAwas
class wastaken
taken as
as an exampletotoexplain
an example explain them.
them.
(1)(1)
Class A: NG‐PBGT
Class A: NG-PBGT
Figure
Figure 3 3shows
showsthe
thetransmission principleofof
transmission principle class
class A. A.

Figure 3. Transmission
Figure 3. Transmissionprinciple of class
principle of classA.
A.

This
This mechanismincludes
mechanism includes four
four parts.
parts.The
Thefirst
firstpart
partis is
thethe
phase
phaseswitching
switchingmechanism,
mechanism,
which is composed of a rotating end, a fixed end, an outer
which is composed of a rotating end, a fixed end, an outer shaft, and an inner shaft, and an inner shaft.shaft.
The The
outer shaft is connected with the fixed end and the noncircular gear 1 at the same time,
outer shaft is connected with the fixed end and the noncircular gear 1 at the same time,
and the inner shaft is connected with the rotating end and the noncircular gears 3 at the
andsame
the time.
innerStep
shaft1, isbyconnected
rotating the with the rotating
rotating end, there endis aand the noncircular
required phase angle gears 3 at the
between
same time. Step
noncircular 1, 1by
gears and rotating
3. Step 2,the rotating
connect end, there
the rotating is a required
end with phase
the fixed end angle between
to synchronize
noncircular gears 1 and 3. Step 2, connect the rotating end with
the rotation speed of noncircular gears 1 and 3. In steps 1 and 2, the phase angle the fixed end to was
synchro‐
nize the rotation
switched. speedpart
The second of noncircular gearsgear
is the noncircular 1 and 3. which
pair, In steps 1 and 2, theforphase
is responsible angle was
generating
the required variable transmission ratio. The third part is the differential
switched. The second part is the noncircular gear pair, which is responsible for generating mechanism, which
theisrequired
composedvariable
of a planetary bevel gear
transmission train.The
ratio. It is third
responsible
part isfortheintegrating the variable
differential mechanism,
transmission ratios of the driven noncircular gears 2 and 4 to
which is composed of a planetary bevel gear train. It is responsible for integrating achieve a constant speed the
output within a certain range of input rotation angle. The fourth part is the transmission
variable transmission ratios of the driven noncircular gears 2 and 4 to achieve a constant
selection mechanism, which is composed of a clutch and a ring gear. The outer ring of
the clutch is connected to the inside of the ring gear, and the outside of the ring gear is
connected to the output end. The clutch only transmits one-way rotational motion. When
the inner ring of the clutch rotates in one direction, the roller was driven to roll to the
narrow side of the wedge groove to be clamped with the outer ring of the clutch, thereby
 ring of the clutch is connected to the inside of the ring gear, and the outside of the ring
gear is connected to the output end. The clutch only transmits one‐way rotational motion.
When the inner ring of the clutch rotates in one direction, the roller was driven to roll to
the narrow side of the wedge groove to be clamped with the outer ring of the clutch,
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 2715 thereby driving the outer ring of the clutch to rotate. When the inner ring of 6the of 22clutch
rotates in reverse, the roller rolls to the wide edge of the wedge groove and is in a relaxed
state with the outer ring of the clutch, resulting in the outer ring of the clutch not rotating.
This branch
driving thedoes
outernotringtransfer rotation
of the clutch at this
to rotate. time.the
When Byinner
integrating theclutch
ring of the transmission
rotates inratios
of reverse,
multiplethe branches,
roller rollsthe
to constant speed
the wide edge of output
the wedge with the input
groove and isrotation angle
in a relaxed inwith
state the range
of the
0 toouter
360°ring
was of realized.
the clutch,Theresulting
CVTincanthe be
outer ring of by
realized the continuously
clutch not rotating. This branch
changing the phase
does not transfer rotation at this time. By integrating the transmission ratios of multiple
angle.
branches,
In brief,thetheconstant
rotation speed output
speed with the input
transmission rotation
process of angle
class in
A the range
is as 360◦ 1, the
of 0 toStep
follows.
was realized. The CVT can be realized by continuously changing the phase angle.
input rotation speed was transmitted to the noncircular gears 1 and 3 with a certain phase
In brief, the rotation speed transmission process of class A is as follows. Step 1,
angle. Step 2, the planetary bevel gear train composed of the bevel gears 5, 6, and 7 inte‐
the input rotation speed was transmitted to the noncircular gears 1 and 3 with a certain
grated
phasethe variable
angle. Step 2,rotation speeds
the planetary of noncircular
bevel gears 2 and
gear train composed of the4.bevel
Step gears
3, the5,bevel
6, andgear 7
outputted
7 integrated the variable rotation speeds of noncircular gears 2 and 4. Step 3, the bevelplanet
a constant rotation speed within a certain input rotation angle. The gear car‐
rier7 outputted
H is connected to the
a constant noncircular
rotation gear a2,certain
speed within and the bevel
input gear angle.
rotation 5 is connected
The planetto the
carrier H is
noncircular gear 4. connected to the noncircular gear 2, and the bevel gear 5 is connected to the
noncircular gear 4.
(2) Class B: NG‐PCGT
(2) Class
Figure 4 isB:the
NG-PCGT
transmission principle of class B, and the transmission process is as
Figure 4 is the transmission principle of class B, and the transmission process is as
follows. Step 1, the input rotation speed was transmitted to the noncircular gears 1 and 3
follows. Step 1, the input rotation speed was transmitted to the noncircular gears 1 and
with a certain phase angle. Step 2, the planetary cylindrical gear train composed of the
3 with a certain phase angle. Step 2, the planetary cylindrical gear train composed of the
ring
ring gear5,5,planetary
gear planetary gear
gear 6,6, and
andcenter
centergear
gear 7 integrated
7 integrated thethe variable
variable rotation
rotation speeds speeds
of of
noncircular
noncirculargears gears22 and
and 4.4. Step
Step 3,3,the
theplanetary
planetary carrier
carrier H outputted
H outputted a constant
a constant rotationrotation
speed
speed within
withinaacertain
certain input rotationangle.
input rotation angle.TheThe ring
ring gear
gear 5 is5connected
is connected tononcircular
to the the noncircular
gear
gear 4, 4, andthe
and thecenter
center gear
gear 77 is
is connected
connectedtoto the noncircular
the noncirculargeargear
2. 2.

Figure 4. 4.
Figure Transmission
Transmission principle ofclass
principle of classB.B.

(3)(3) ClassC:
Class C:CFG‐BG‐PCGT
CFG-BG-PCGT
Figure 5 is the transmission
Figure 5 is the transmission principle of class
principle C. The
of class C.transmission process process
The transmission is as follows.
is as fol‐
Step 1, the input rotation speed was transmitted to the curve face gears 1 and 3 with a
lows. Step 1, the input rotation speed was transmitted to the curve face gears 1 and 3 with
certain phase angle. Step 2, two pairs of bevel gear pairs adjusted the variable rotation speed
a certain phase angle. Step 2, two pairs of bevel gear pairs adjusted the variable rotation
of noncircular gears 2 and 4 and changed their directions, respectively. Step 3, the planetary
speed
cylindrical gear train gears
of noncircular 2 and
consisting 4 and
of the changed
cylindrical their
gears directions,
9, 11, respectively.
and 13 and the bilateral Step
gears 3, the
planetary
10 and 12cylindrical gear
integrated the train consisting
rotational of the
speeds of the cylindrical
bevel gears 6 andgears 9, 4,11,
8. Step theand 13 and the
planetary
bilateral
carrier H outputted a constant rotation speed within a certain input rotation angle. The gear 8.
gears 10 and 12 integrated the rotational speeds of the bevel gears 6 and 9 Step
is connected to the bevel gear 6, and the gear 13 is connected to the bevel gear 8.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 23

Appl. Sci. 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 23

4, the planetary carrier H outputted a constant rotation speed within a certain input rota‐
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 2715 7 of 22
tion angle. The gear 9 is connected to the bevel gear 6, and the gear 13 is connected to the
4, the planetary
bevel gear 8. carrier H outputted a constant rotation speed within a certain input rota‐
tion angle. The gear 9 is connected to the bevel gear 6, and the gear 13 is connected to the
bevel gear 8.

Figure
Figure 5. Transmissionprinciple
5. 5.
Transmission principleof
of class
class C.
Figure Transmission principle of class C.C.

(4) Class D: CFG and class E: NG

(4)(4) ClassD:D:CFG
Class CFGandand class
class E: E:NG NG
Forclasses
For classesDDandandE, E,the
thetransmission
transmissionprinciple
principleisisthe
thesame,
same,but
butthe
the differenceliesliesin
in
For
the
classes
different
D and
types of
E,
gear
the transmission
pairs. Figure 6 is
principle
the
is the
transmission
same, butofdifference
principle
the difference
classes D and
lies in
E.
the different types of gear pairs. Figure 6 is the transmission principle of classes D and E.
the In
different
Figure6a, types
6a, bothof gearpairs
gear pairs. areFigure 6 is the
curveface
face geartransmission
pairs. InInFigure principle
Figure bothof
6b,both classes
gear pairsD and E.
are
In Figure both gear pairs are curve gear pairs. 6b, gear pairs are
In noncircular
Figure 6a, both
noncirculargear gear
gearpairs. pairs
pairs. The are
Thetransmissioncurve face
transmission process gear pairs.
process isisas In
asfollows. Figure
follows. Step 6b,
Step1,1,theboth
theinput gear
rotation are
pairs
inputrotation
noncircular
speedwas
speed wasgear pairs. The
transmitted
transmitted to transmission
togear
gear 2.2. Step process
Step2,2,gears
gears 11and
andis33as follows.
with
with aaphaseStep
phase 1, integrated
angle
angle the input the
integrated rotation
the
speed
variable rotation speed. Step 3, gear 4 outputted a constant rotation speed within a certain the
was
variable transmitted
rotation speed.to gear
Step 3, 2.
gear Step
4 2, gears
outputted 1
a and
constant3 with a phase
rotation speed angle
within integrated
a certain
inputrotation
variable
input rotationangle.
rotation angle.
speed. Step 3, gear 4 outputted a constant rotation speed within a certain
input rotation angle.

Figure6.6.Transmission
Figure Transmissionprinciple
principleofofclasses
classesDDand
andE.E.

Figure 6. Transmission principle of classes D and E.

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 2715 8 of 22

3.2. Transmission Ratio Parameter Equation

According to the analysis in Section 3.1, the transmission ratio parameter equations of
spatial noncircular gear pairs were designed, respectively, and the intermediate transmis-
sion ratio and overall transmission ratio of each pattern were calculated. See Table 2 for
each parameter equation.

Table 2. Transmission ratio parameter equation of each CVT pattern.

Type Class Transmission Ratio Characteristic Parameter


i = −( a1 θ1 + b1 )
 21


i43 = −( a2 θ3 + b2 )
A K = − zz67 × zz65

 i7i = Ki43 + (1 −  K )i21
ioi = i7i io7 = − [Ka2 + (1 − K ) a1 ]θ1 + Ka2 θ p + Kb2 + (1 − K )b1 io7



 i21 = −( a1 θ1 + b1 )
 i43 = −( a2 θ3 + b2 )

I B i Hi = KiK43−−1i21 K = zz6i7 × zz6o5

(Ka − a )θ +Ka θ +Kb2 −b1

ioi = i Hi ioH = − 2 1 1 K −12 p

ioH



 i21 = a1 θ1 + b1
 i43 = a2 θ3 + b2

z11 z10i z9
K = zz12i
C  i Hi = KiK21−−1i43 13 z12o z11 z10o

(Ka1 − a2 )θ1 − a2 θ p +Kb1 −b2



ioi = i Hi ioH = ioH

K −1
 θ
 i21 = a 1
D i = a θ3
 43
ioi = i42 io4 = − aθ p io4
II  /
 i21 = − aθ1
E i = − a θ3
 43
ioi = i42 io4 = aθ p io4

In Table 2, θ 1 and θ 3 = θ 1 + θ p are the rotation angles of gears 1 and 3 under each
pattern, respectively. θ p is the phase angle. i21 and i43 are the transmission ratios of the
corresponding gear pairs, respectively. Ioi is the overall transmission ratio between the
output shaft and input shaft. a1 , b1 , a2, and b2 are the parameters of the transmission ratios
i21 and i43 of type I. K is the characteristic parameter of the differential mechanism of type I.
a is the parameter of the transmission ratios i21 and i43 of type II.
For class A, z5 , z6 , and z7 are the teeth number of bevel gears 5, 6, and 7, respectively.
i7i is the transmission ratio between the bevel gear 7 and the input shaft. Constant io7 is
the transmission ratio between the output shaft and the bevel gear 7. For class B, z5 and
z7 are the teeth number of the ring gear 5 and center gear 7, respectively. z6i and z6o are
the number of internal teeth and external teeth of planetary gear 6, respectively. IHi is
the transmission ratio between the planet carrier H and input shaft. Constant ioH is the
transmission ratio between the output shaft and the planet carrier H. For class C, z9 , z11 ,
and z13 are the teeth number of the corresponding gears, respectively. z10i , z10o , z12i , and
z12o are the teeth number of the inner and outer rings of the corresponding bilateral gears.
iHi is the transmission ratio between the planet carrier H and input shaft. Constant ioH is
the transmission ratio between the output shaft and the planet carrier H. For classes D and
E, i42 is the transmission ratio between gear 4 and gear 2. Constant io4 is the transmission
ratio between the output shaft and gear 4.
As can be seen from Table 2, when the coefficient related to the rotation angle θ 1 is 0,
the overall transmission ratio ioi of each pattern is a function related only to the variable
phase angle θ p . By continuously changing θ p , combined with the transmission selection
mechanisms of multiple branches, the CVT with an input rotation angle in the range of 0 to
360◦ can be realized. The parameter conditions that each pattern need to meet were shown
in Table 3.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 2715 9 of 22

Table 3. Parameter conditions for each pattern.

Class Parameter Condition

A Ka2 + (1−K)a1 = 0, Ka2 6=0
B Ka2 −a1 = 0, Ka2 6= 0, K 6= 1
C Ka1 −a2 = 0, a2 6= 0, K 6= 1
D
a > 0, a 6= 1
E

3.3. Classification Design and Analysis of Transmission Ratio

The transmission ratio of spatial noncircular gear pair in Table 2 is the transmission
ratio of the working area where motion and power are transmitted. In order to obtain a
complete transmission ratio, a polynomial method can be used to construct the transmission
ratio function of the transition area where only motion is transmitted but no power is trans-
mitted, and the periodic transmission ratio was obtained. Taking noncircular gears 1 and 2
as examples, the transmission ratio equation is shown in Equation (1), and the transmission
ratios of other spatial noncircular gear pairs can be obtained in the same way.

 i01 (θ1 ), θ1 ∈ [0, Φ]

i21 (θ1 ) = 6  j

, (1)
 i 02 ( θ 1 ) = ∑ m j θ 1 , θ1 ∈ [ Φ, U ]
j =0


where, i01 (θ 1 ) is the transmission ratio in the working area. i02 (θ 1 ) is the transmission ratio
in the transition area. mj is the polynomial coefficient. Φ is the maximum rotation angle of
noncircular gear 1 in the working area. U = 2π/n1 is the period of the transmission ratio,
and the positive integer n1 is the order of noncircular gear 1.
According to Equation (2), the unknown parameters in i21 (θ 1 ) can be solved.

2π
RΦ RU
n2 = 0 i01 ( θ1 )dθ1 + Φ i02 ( θ1 )dθ1


i01 (Φ) = i02 (Φ)





 i0 01 (Φ) = i0 02 (Φ)



 i00 01 (Φ) = i00 02 (Φ) , (2)



 i01 (0) = i02 (U )
0 ( 0 ) = i 0 (U )

i

02
 0001



i 01 (0) = i00 02 (U )

where the positive integer n2 is the order of noncircular gear 2. i0 01(θ 1), i00 01(θ 1), i0 02(θ 1), and
i00 02(θ 1) are the first and second derivatives of i01(θ 1) and i02(θ 1) with respect to θ 1, respectively.
According to the above analysis, take the parameters in Table 4 and analyze the
transmission ratio of each pattern, as shown in Figures 7 and 8. ni is the number of cycles
of the input gear and nl is the number of branches.

Table 4. Structural parameters of each pattern.

Parameters Φ/Rad a1 b1 a2 b2 θp /rad K ni nl a n1 n2

Class A 0.09 0.9 0.24 0.45 −0.6 1 3 1 1
11π/9 π/6
Class B 0.24 0.46 0.12 0.23 2 1 3 / 1 1
Class C 5π/9 0.30 1.7 0.48 0.8 π/18 1.6 2 2 2 1
Class D 11π/18 2 3 1.03 2 2
/ π/6 /
Class E 10π/9 1 3 1.04 1 1
 length of the effective working area, that is, the area where each branch outputs a constan
rotation speed. To achieve a constant rotation speed output with an input rotation angle
in the range of 0 to 360°, Equation (3) must be satisfied.
 e   e min , (3
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 2715 10 of 22

where θemin = 2π/(ni∙nl) is the minimum length of the effective working area.

Appl. Sci. 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 23

Figure7.7.Transmission
Figure Transmissionratio variation
ratio law of
variation lawclass A. A.
of class

In Figure 7, i21‐1, and i43‐1 are the transmission ratios of the corresponding gear pair
in the first branch, respectively. i7i‐1, i7i‐2, and i7i‐3 are the transmission ratios between the
bevel gear 7 and the input shaft in the three branches, respectively. Here, Φ is 220°, θp i
30° and θe is 190°. As can be seen, by integrating the transmission ratios i21 and i43 in the
three branches, respectively, i7i‐1, i7i‐2, and i7i‐3 are constant in a certain area. Specifically
i7i ‐1 is constant when θ1 varies from 0 to 190°. i7i‐2 is constant when θ1 varies in the range
0~70° and 240~360°. i7i‐3 is constant when θ1 varies in the range 120~310°. Finally, by inte
grating the transmission ratios i7‐1, i7i‐2, and i7i‐3, the overall transmission ratio ioi is alway
constant when θ1 varies from 0 to 360°.
Figure 8 shows the variation law of the transmission ratios of classes B~E.

Figure 8. Transmission
Figure 8. Transmissionratio
ratiovariation lawofof
variation law class
class B~E.
B~E.

Figure 78,isi21the
In Figure ‐1, variation
and i43‐1law
areof thetransmission
the transmission ratio
ratiosofof
class
theA. θ e = Φ − θ p is the
corresponding gear pairs
length of the effective working area, that is, the area where each branch outputs a constant
in the first branch, respectively. ioi is the overall transmission ratio between the output
rotation speed. To achieve a constant rotation speed output with an input rotation angle in
shaftthe
and input
range of 0 shaft.
to 360◦In Figure (3)
, Equation 8a,b, thebeinput
must rotation angle is θ1. iHi‐1, iHi‐2, and iHi‐3 are
satisfied.
the transmission ratios between the planet carrier H and input shaft in each branch, re‐
spectively. In Figure 8c,d, the input rotation θe ≥ θemin ,
angle is θ2. i42‐1, i42‐2, and i42‐3 are (3) the trans‐
mission ratios between gear 4 and gear 2 in the three branches, respectively. Similarly, the
where θ emin = 2π/(ni ·nl ) is the minimum length of the effective working area.
maximum working
In Figure 7, i21angle
-1, andΦi43of
-1 class
are theB~E are 220°,ratios
transmission 100°,of110°, and 200°. The
the corresponding phase
gear pairsangle θp
of class
in theB~E
firstare 30°, respectively.
branch, 10°, 30°, and 30°.
i7i -1, The
i7i -2, andlength
i7i -3 areofthe
the effective working
transmission area the
ratios between θe of class
Φ ◦ , θ is
B~E are 190°, 90°, 80°, and 170°. By integrating the transmission ratios i21 and pi43 of each
bevel gear 7 and the input shaft in the three branches, respectively. Here, is 220
30◦ and
branch, θ e is 190◦ . AsiHi
respectively, can be seen,
and i42 ofbyeachintegrating
branch theare
transmission in a i21
constantratios and i43area.
certain in the Finally
three branches, respectively, i7i -1, i7i -2, and i7i -3 are constant in a certain area. Specifically,
through the integration of the transmission ratios of multiple branches, each pattern can
achieve a constant rotation speed output throughout the area. CVT can be realized by
continuously changing the phase angle.
 Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 2715 11 of 22

i7i -1 is constant when θ 1 varies from 0 to 190◦ . i7i -2 is constant when θ 1 varies in the range
0~70◦ and 240~360◦ . i7i -3 is constant when θ 1 varies in the range 120~310◦ . Finally, by
integrating the transmission ratios i7 -1, i7i -2, and i7i -3, the overall transmission ratio ioi is
always constant when θ 1 varies from 0 to 360◦ .
Figure 8 shows the variation law of the transmission ratios of classes B~E.
In Figure 8, i21 -1, and i43 -1 are the transmission ratios of the corresponding gear pairs
in the first branch, respectively. ioi is the overall transmission ratio between the output
shaft and input shaft. In Figure 8a,b, the input rotation angle is θ 1 . iHi -1, iHi -2, and iHi -3
are the transmission ratios between the planet carrier H and input shaft in each branch,
respectively. In Figure 8c,d, the input rotation angle is θ 2 . i42 -1, i42 -2, and i42 -3 are the
transmission ratios between gear 4 and gear 2 in the three branches, respectively. Similarly,
the maximum working angle Φ of class B~E are 220◦ , 100◦ , 110◦ , and 200◦ . The phase angle
θ p of class B~E are 30◦ , 10◦ , 30◦ , and 30◦ . The length of the effective working area θ e of
class B~E are 190◦ , 90◦ , 80◦ , and 170◦ . By integrating the transmission ratios i21 and i43 of
each branch, respectively, iHi and i42 of each branch are constant in a certain area. Finally,
through the integration of the transmission ratios of multiple branches, each pattern can
achieve a constant rotation speed output throughout the area. CVT can be realized by
continuously changing the phase angle.

4. Tooth Profile Classification Design of Spatial Noncircular Gear

The design of the noncircular gear pair has been relatively mature, and the tooth
profile design can be referred to [1]. However, the tooth surfaces of curve face gear pairs
with different tooth profiles are more complicated and need to be analyzed in detail. The
tooth profile of the curve face gear pair includes straight tooth, helical tooth, and curvilinear
tooth, as shown in Figure 9. Compared with the straight tooth curve face gear pairs, the
helical tooth and curvilinear tooth curve face gear pairs have a more complicated design
Appl. Sci. 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW
process, but have a larger contact ratio and load-bearing capacity, which can meet the needs 12 of 23
of different working conditions. Therefore, it is necessary to carry out the tooth profile
classification design of curve face gear pair.

Figure 9. Tooth
Figure 9. Toothprofile
profileclassification ofcurve
classification of curveface
face gear
gear pair.
pair.

4.1.4.1. TransmissionPrinciple
Transmission Principle and
and Pitch
PitchCurve
Curve
According to the gear meshing principle, the pitch curve of the curve face gear pair is
According to the gear meshing principle, the pitch curve of the curve face gear pair
independent of the tooth profile. Figure 10 is the meshing coordinate system of the pitch
is independent
curve of the curved of theface
tooth
gearprofile.
pair. σ1Figureand σ2 are 10 isthethe meshing coordinate
corresponding pitch curves, system of the pitch
respectively.
curve of the curved face gear pair. σ
ω 1 and ω 2 are the corresponding angular velocities, respectively. The coordinate system respec‐
1 and σ 2 are the corresponding pitch curves, Sf
tively.
(Of –X ωf1Yand
Z
f f ), ω 2 are the as
abbreviated corresponding
S f , is the fixed angular
coordinate velocities,
system of respectively.
the noncircular The
gear coordinate
frame.
system Sf (Of –XfYsystem
The coordinate fZf), abbreviated
S1 (O1 –X1 Yas 1 ZS f, is
1 ), the fixed coordinate
abbreviated as S1 , is the system
follow-up of the noncircular
coordinate
system of the noncircular gear. The coordinate
gear frame. The coordinate system S1 (O1–X1Y1Z1), abbreviated system S m (O m –X Y
m as Z
m Sm ), abbreviated
1, is the follow‐upas co‐
Sm , is the
ordinate fixed of
system coordinate system ofgear.
the noncircular the curve face gear frame.
The coordinate systemTheScoordinate
m (Om–XmYsystem S2
mZm), abbrevi‐
(O 2 –X 2 Y 2 Z 2 ), abbreviated as S 2 , is the follow-up coordinate
ated as Sm, is the fixed coordinate system of the curve face gear frame. The coordinate system of the curve face gear.
system S2 (O2–X2Y2Z2), abbreviated as S2, is the follow‐up coordinate system of the curve
face gear. When the gear pair is in the initial meshing situation A, S1 and Sf coincide and
S2 and Sm coincide. When the gear pair changes from situation A to situation B, the rotation
axes Z1 and Z2 of the two gears are fixed, and the meshing point of the pitch curve changes
 is independent of the tooth profile. Figure 10 is the meshing coordinate system of the pitch
curve of the curved face gear pair. σ1 and σ2 are the corresponding pitch curves, respec‐
tively. ω1 and ω2 are the corresponding angular velocities, respectively. The coordinate
system Sf (Of –XfYfZf), abbreviated as Sf, is the fixed coordinate system of the noncircular
gear frame. The coordinate system S1 (O1–X1Y1Z1), abbreviated as S1, is the follow‐up co‐
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 2715 ordinate system of the noncircular gear. The coordinate system Sm (Om–XmYmZm), abbrevi‐ 12 of 22
ated as Sm, is the fixed coordinate system of the curve face gear frame. The coordinate
system S2 (O2–X2Y2Z2), abbreviated as S2, is the follow‐up coordinate system of the curve
face
When gear.
the When
gear pair the isgear pairinitial
in the is in the initial situation
meshing meshing A, situation
S1 andA, Sf Scoincide
1 and Sf coincide
and S2 andandSm
S and S coincide. When the gear pair changes from situation A
coincide. When the gear pair changes from situation A to situation B, the rotation axes
2 m to situation B, the rotation
axes
Z1 andZ1 and
Z2 ofZ2the of thetwo two gears
gears areare fixed,and
fixed, andthe
themeshing
meshing pointpoint ofof the
thepitch
pitchcurve
curvechanges
changes
from
from P P11 to
toPP22. .θθ1 1and
andθθ2 2are
arethe
therotation
rotationangles
anglesofofthethenoncircular
noncirculargear gear and
andcurve
curveface gear
face gear
respectively.
respectively. rr11(θ (θ11) )and
andrr2(θ 2) )are
(θ
2 2 are the
thepitch
pitch curve
curve parameter
parameter equation
equation of the
of thenoncircular
noncircular
gear
gear and
and curve
curve face facegear,
gear, respectively.
respectively. RRisisthethedistance
distancefromfromthe theprojection
projectionofofpoint
pointP1Pon
1 on
the pitch curve of curve face gear in plane X O Y to O . V and V
the pitch curve of curve face gear in plane Xm Om Ym to O2 . V 1 and V 2 are the speeds at the
m m m 2 1 2 are the speeds at the
meshing
meshing points
points of of the
the two
twocurves,
curves,respectively.
respectively.

Figure
Figure 10.
10. Pitch
Pitchcurve
curvecoordinate
coordinatesystem
systemofofthe
thecurve
curveface
facegear
gearpair.
pair.

According to the principle of spatial coordinate transformation, the homogeneous

transformation matrix from the coordinate system S1 to Sf is
 
cos θ1 sin θ1 0 0
 − sin θ1 cos θ1 0 0 
Mf1 = . (4)
 0 0 1 0 
0 0 0 1

The homogeneous transformation matrix from the coordinate system Sf to Sm is

−R
 
0 0 1
 0 1 0 0 
Mm f =
 −1 0 0
. (5)
E 
0 0 0 1

The homogeneous transformation matrix from the coordinate system Sm to S2 is

 
cos θ2 sin θ2 0 0
 − sin θ2 cos θ2 0 0 
M2m = . (6)
 0 0 1 0 
0 0 0 1
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 2715 13 of 22

Then, the homogeneous transformation matrix from the coordinate system S1 to S2

can be expressed as

− sin θ1 sin θ2 − R cos θ2

 
cos θ1 sin θ2 cos θ2
 − cos θ2 sin θ1 cos θ1 cos θ2 − sin θ2 R sin θ2 
M21 = M2m Mm f M f 1 = . (7)
 − cos θ1 − sin θ1 0 E 
0 0 0 1

The coordinates of point P2 in S1 are [r1 (θ 1 )cos(θ 1 ), r1 (θ 1 )sin(θ 1 ),0,1]T, then the coordi-
nates of point P2 in S2 can be expressed as

− R cos θ2
     
x2 r1 (θ1 ) cos θ1
 y2   r1 (θ1 ) sin θ1   R sin θ2 
 z2  = M21 
=
  E − r1 ( θ1 ) . (8)
   
0
1 1 1

Therefore, the pitch curve equation of the curve face gear can be obtained as

 x2 = − R cos θ2
y = R sin θ2 . (9)
 2
z2 = E − r1 ( θ1 )

It can be seen from Equation (9) that the pitch curve of the curve face gear is a
cylindrical curve with R as the radius.
The speeds V 1 and V 2 satisfy Equation (10).

 V1 = r1 (θ1 )ω1
V = Rω2 . (10)
 2
Appl. Sci. 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW V1 = V2 14 of 23

Then, the transmission ratio of this gear pair is

 1 
21 
rω r1 ( θ1 )
i21 i21
1 (θ1 )2 =
 =. . (11) (11)
1 ωR1 R

4.2. Tooth Surface Equation

4.2. Tooth Surface Equation
The accurate tooth surface model of the curve face gear pair was obtained by the
The accurate tooth surface model of the curve face gear pair was obtained by the
method shown
method shown in in Figure
Figure 11. Firstly,
11. Firstly, thesurface
the tooth tooth surface
equation equation of the rack
of the generating generating
was rack was
derived, then
derived, then thethe tooth
tooth surface
surface equation
equation of the generating
of the generating gear wasand
gear was obtained, obtained,
finally and finally
the toothsurface
the tooth surface equations
equations ofnoncircular
of the the noncircular
gear andgear and
curve facecurve face obtained.
gear were gear were obtained.

Figure 11.
Figure 11.The
Thetooth surface
tooth generating
surface processprocess
generating of curveof
face gear face
curve pair. gear pair.

(1) Tooth surface equation of the generating rack

The tooth surface Σr of the generating rack includes straight tooth, helical tooth, and
curvilinear tooth. Figure 12 is the tooth surface coordinate system when the tooth profile
is a helical tooth or curvilinear tooth. When the helix angle βr is 0, it is a straight tooth
generating rack.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 2715 14 of 22
Figure 11. The tooth surface generating process of curve face gear pair.

(1) Tooth surface equation of the generating rack

(1) Tooth surface equation of the generating rack
The tooth surface Σr of the generating rack includes straight tooth, helical tooth, and
The tooth surface Σr of the generating rack includes straight tooth, helical tooth, and
curvilinear
curvilineartooth. Figure
tooth. Figure12
12 is thetooth
is the toothsurface
surface coordinate
coordinate system
system whenwhen the tooththeprofile
tooth profile
is a ishelical tooth
a helical toothororcurvilinear tooth.When
curvilinear tooth. When thethe helix
helix angle
angle βr is β is is0,a itstraight
0,r it is a straight
tooth tooth
generating
generating rack.
rack.

Figure 12. 12.

Figure TheThe
tooth surface
tooth surfacecoordinate system
coordinate system of of generating
generating rack.rack.

The global coordinate systems of both the helical and curvilinear tooth generating rack
are expressed as Sr (Or –Xr Yr Zr ), abbreviated as Sr , as shown in Figure 12a,d. In Figure 12b,
St (Ot –Xt Yt Zt ), abbreviated as St , is the cross-section coordinate system of helical rack in
the tooth width direction. Ot Xt coincides with the rack pitch line and Ot Yt coincides with
the cogging symmetry line. Ha and Hb are the addendum and dedendum, respectively.
M is the module, αr is the profile angle and ur is the tooth height direction parameter. In
Figure 12e, Sn (On –Xn Yn Zn ), abbreviated as Sn , is the normal section coordinate system of
curvilinear rack. The normal section tooth profile of the curvilinear rack is the same as the
cross-section tooth profile of the helical rack in the tooth width direction. Figure 12c,f show
the transformation process from coordinate systems St and Sn to Sr , respectively. βr and
br are the helical angle and tooth width parameter of the helical rack respectively. θ r and
ρr are the arc angle and arc radius of the curvilinear rack, respectively. m is the module
of the rack.
The tooth profile equations in St and Sn can be expressed as

±ur sin αr ±
 πm 
4
 ur cos αr 
rt ( u r ) = rn ( u r ) =  , (12)
 0 
1

where, the positive and negative signs, respectively, represent the left and right tooth
surfaces of the rack.
 Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 2715 15 of 22

The transformation matrices from St and Sn to Sr are

1 0 0 −br tan β r
  


 Mrt (br ) =  0 1 0 0

  
 




 0 0 1 br

0 0 0 1

 . (13)
−


 sin θ r 0 cos θr ρr sin θr

  0 1 0 0 
Mrn (θr ) = 

 
  cos θr 0



 sin θ r ρ r cos θr 
0 0 0 1

Then, the tooth surface equations of the three kinds of tooth profiles in Sr can be
expressed by rr (ur , br , θ r ).


 rr1 (ur , br ) = Mrt (br )rt (ur )
  T

= ±ur sin αr ± πm 4 − br tan β r ur cos αr br 1
rr (ur , br , θr ) = (14)

 rr2 (ur , θr ) = Mrn (θr )rt (ur )
 

T
= ±ur sin αr ± πm sin θr + ρr sin θr ur cos αr ±ur sin αr ± πm
cos θr + ρr cos θr 1

4 4

where rr1 (ur , br ) and rr2 (ur , θ r ) are the tooth surface equation of the helical rack and
curvilinear rack, respectively. When βr = 0, the tooth surface equation of the straight rack
can be obtained by rr1 (ur , br ).
The three kinds of cylindrical generating gears have the same generation process.
Through the envelope principle, the tooth surface of the generating gear can be obtained
by the generating rack, as shown in Figure 13. The coordinate system Sr is fixed with the
generating rack. The coordinate system Sg (Og –Xg Yg Zg ), abbreviated as Sg , is the fixed
coordinate system of the generating gear frame. The coordinate system Sc (Oc –Xc Yc Zc ),
Appl. Sci. 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW
abbreviated as Sc , is the follow-up coordinate system of the generating gear. rc is the radius 16 of 2
of the generating gear. When the rotation angle of the generating gear is ϕ, the displacement
distance of the generating rack is rc ϕ.

Figure
Figure The
13.13. generating
The process
generating fromfrom
process the generating rack torack
the generating cylindrical gear.
to cylindrical gear.
Based on the principle of spatial coordinate transformation, the transformation matrix
Based
from the on thesystem
coordinate principle
Sr toof
Sgspatial
is coordinate transformation, the transformation ma
trix from the coordinate system Sr to Sg is
1 0 0 −r c ϕ
 
 0 1 0 −rc rc 
1 0 0
Mgr  0 0 10 1 0 0 . rc 
= (15)

M gr   
0 0 00 0 1 1 0  (15
 
0 0 0 1 
.

The transformation matrix from Sg to Sc is

 cos   sin  0 0
 Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 2715 16 of 22

The transformation matrix from Sg to Sc is

−sinϕ
 
cos ϕ 0 0
 sinϕ cos ϕ 0 0 
Mcg =
 0
. (16)
0 1 0 
0 0 0 1

Then, the transformation matrix from Sr to Sc can be expressed as

−sinϕ −rc ( ϕ cos ϕ − sinϕ)

 
cos ϕ 0
 sinϕ cos ϕ 0 −rc ( ϕ sin ϕ + cos ϕ) 
Mcr = Mcg Mgr =
 0
. (17)
0 1 0 
0 0 0 1

The tooth surface equation of the generating gear in Sc can be expressed by rc (ur , br , θ r ).

rc (ur , br , θr ) = Mcr rr (ur , br , θr ). (18)

Figure 14 is the generating process from the generating gear to the curve face gear
pair. σc , σ1 , and σ2 are the pitch curve of the generating gear, noncircular gear, and curve
Appl. Sci. 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW face gear, respectively. When σ1 is purely rolling around σ2 , σc is purely rolling inside 17 of 2
σ1 . According to the relative motion relationship between σ1 and σ2 , the relative motion
relationship between σc and σ2 can be obtained.

Figure 14.14.
Figure The generating
The generating process fromthe
process from the generating
generating geargear
to thetocurve
the curve face
face gear gear pair.
pair.

TheThe transformation matrix

transformation matrix from
fromthe coordinate
the system
coordinate Sc to SS1c is
system to S1 is

 − sin θc ccos θc 0c Lc sin(cθ1 − ξ 11) 1  


sin θc 0 Lc cos(θ1 − ξ 1 )
 
cos θc
 cos  sin  0 L cos  
  
M1c =  sin  c 0 cos 1c 0 Lc0sin 1 ,1   (19)
M1c  0 ,

(19
0 0 0 00 1 1 0 
 
0
 generating
where θ c is the rotation angle of the 0gear 0around its 1own axis.

where θc is the rotation angle of the generating gear around its own axis.
The expressions of the related parameters are as follows
 r12 1   L2c  rc2
1  arccos , Lc  r12 1   rc2  2rc r1 1  sin 
 2 r1 1  Lc
 Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 2715 17 of 22

The expressions of the related parameters are as follows

r2 (θ )+ L2 −r2
 q
 ξ 1 = arccos 1 2r11 (θ1 )cLc c , Lc = r12 (θ1 ) + rc2 − 2rc r1 (θ1 ) sin µ

R θ1 q . (20)
0 r12 (θ1 )+(dr1 (θ1 )/dθ1 )2 dθ1 r (θ )
 θ = π/2 + ξ − θ − µ, ξ = arctan dr (1θ )1/dθ

c 2 1 2 rc ,µ =
1 1 1

The transformation matrix from Sc to S2 is

− sin θ2 sin(θc + θ1 ) sin θ2 cos(θc + θ1 ) cos θ2 − R cos θ2 − Lc sin θ2 sin ξ 1

 
 − cos θ2 sin(θc + θ1 ) cos θ2 cos(θc + θ1 ) − sin θ2 R sin θ2 − Lc cos θ2 sin ξ 1 
M2c = M21 M1c = . (21)
 − cos(θc + θ1 ) − sin(θc + θ1 ) 1 E − Lc cos ξ 1 
0 0 0 1
Then, the tooth surface equation of the noncircular gear in S1 can be expressed as

r1 (ur , br , θr , θ1 ) = M1c (θ1 )rc (ur , br , θr ). (22)

The tooth surface equation of the curve face gear in S2 can be expressed as

r2 (ur , br , θr , θ1 ) = M2c (θ1 )rc (ur , br , θr ). (23)

Appl. Sci. 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW By selecting the corresponding parameters, the tooth surfaces of the curve face gear 18 of 23
pair with a straight, helical, and curvilinear tooth can be obtained, respectively. Combined
with the transmission ratio equation in Section 3 and the tooth surface classification design,
the 3D model of the curve face gear pair can be obtained.
5. Simulation and Experiment
Since the main
5. Simulation difference between the five patterns is the transmission ratio changing
and Experiment
part, and
Sinceitsthe
complex key components
main difference arefive
between the thepatterns
curve face
is thegear pair, the ratio
transmission overall transmis‐
changing
sion
part,ratio
and of
its each pattern
complex was verified
key components areby
thesimulation, andpair,
curve face gear thethe
transmission ratio of the
overall transmission
ratioface
curve of each
gearpattern wasverified
pair was verifiedby
byexperiment.
simulation, and the transmission ratio of the curve
face gear pair was verified by experiment.
5.1. Overall Transmission Ratio Simulation of CVT Mechanism
5.1. Overall Transmission Ratio Simulation of CVT Mechanism
The mechanism models of five patterns were imported into the software ADAMS,
The mechanism models of five patterns were imported into the software ADAMS, and
and then
then the the overall
overall transmission
transmission ratiosratios with different
with different phasewere
phase angles angles were simulated.
simulated. Taking theTak‐
ing the phase angle in the range of
◦ 0 to 60° as an example, the comparison between the
phase angle in the range of 0 to 60 as an example, the comparison between the theoretical
theoretical and simulation
and simulation results wasresults
shown was shown
in Figure 15. in Figure 15.

Figure
Figure15.
15.Comparison
Comparisonbetween theoreticaland
between theoretical andsimulation
simulation results
results of overall
of overall transmission
transmission ratio.ratio.

InInFigure
Figure15,
15,A
Att,,BBtt,,C
Ctt,,D
Dtt,,and
and E
Ett are
are the
the theoretical
theoreticalresults
resultsof of
thethe
overall transmission
overall transmission
ratio of each pattern, respectively. As, Bs, Cs, Ds, and Es are the simulation results of
ratio of each pattern, respectively. A s , Bs , Cs , Ds , and Es are the simulation results of the
the overall transmission ratio. As can be seen, the overall transmission ratio values of
overall transmission ratio. As can be seen, the overall transmission ratio values of classes
classes A, B, and D are no less than 0, which means that the output shaft turns in the
A, B, and D are no less than 0, which means that the output shaft turns in the same direc‐
tion as the input shaft. The overall transmission ratio values of classes C and E are less
than 0, which means that the output shaft turns in the opposite direction as the input shaft.
Moreover, for classes A and C, the absolute values of ioi gradually decrease with the in‐
crease of phase angle θp. For classes B, D, and E, the absolute values of ioi gradually in‐
 Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 2715 18 of 22

same direction as the input shaft. The overall transmission ratio values of classes C and
E are less than 0, which means that the output shaft turns in the opposite direction as the
input shaft. Moreover, for classes A and C, the absolute values of ioi gradually decrease
with the increase of phase angle θ p . For classes B, D, and E, the absolute values of ioi
gradually increase with the increase of phase angle θ p . Further, for classes A, B, and C,
the overall transmission ratio ioi can be zero by selecting the appropriate parameters. At
this time, no matter what the input rotation speed is, the output rotation speed is zero.
However, for classes D and E, due to the limitation of transmission ratio principle, the
overall transmission ratio ioi cannot be zero. On the whole, the simulation results are in
good agreement with the theoretical results, and the overall transmission ratio changes
continuously with the continuous change of the phase angle, that is, the CVT was realized.
Figure 16 shows the maximum relative error of overall transmission ratio simulation
for each pattern. For classes A~E, the maximum relative errors are 6.2%, 6.9%, 7.6%, 4.9%,
Appl. Sci. 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEWand 5.4%. The reason why the error of type I is greater than that of type II is19thatof 23the
structure of type I mechanism is more complex, and the transmission chain is longer,
resulting in greater transmission ratio loss and transmission ratio error.

Figure
Figure 16.16. Maximum
Maximum relative
relative error
error of overall
of overall transmission
transmission ratio
ratio simulation.
simulation.

In In summary,
summary, thethe
CVTCVT mechanism
mechanism characteristics
characteristics of types
of types I andIIIand II shown
were were shown
in Ta‐ in
bleTable
5. 5.
Table 5. CVT mechanism characteristics of types I and II.
Table 5. CVT mechanism characteristics of types I and II.

TypeType I: Addition
I: Addition Method
Method TypeType II: Multiplication
II: Multiplication Method
Method
Class
Class
A: NG‐PBGT
A: NG-PBGT B: NG‐PCGT
B: NG-PCGTC: CFG‐BG‐PCGT
C: CFG-BG-PCGT D: D:
CFGCFG E: E:
NGNG
Simple design;
Simple design; Complex design;
Complex design;
Larger transmission ratio range;
Larger transmission ratio range; Smaller transmission
Smaller transmissionratio range;
ratio range;
LessLess
parameter restrictions;
parameter restrictions;
More parameter restrictions;
More parameter restrictions;
Characteristics
Characteristics Complex structure; Simple structure;
Complex structure; Simple structure;
Large volume Small volume；
Large volume Small volume;
Longer transmission chain Shorter transmission chain
Longer transmission chain Shorter transmission chain
The type I mechanism has the advantages of simple design, larger transmission ratio
range, and
Theless
typeparameter restrictions,
I mechanism while the type
has the advantages II mechanism
of simple has thetransmission
design, larger advantages ratio
of
simple structure, small volume, and shorter transmission chain.
range, and less parameter restrictions, while the type II mechanism has the advantages of
simple structure, small volume, and shorter transmission chain.
5.2. Transmission Experiment of the Curve Face Gear Pair
5.2.InTransmission Experiment
order to verify of the Curve
the correctness of theFace Gear
tooth Pair classification design of the curve
profile
face gearInpair,
ordera to
transmission experimentofisthe
verify the correctness needed. Takingclassification
tooth profile the first pair design
of the curve
of theface
curve
gear pairs
face gearinpair,
class C as an example,
a transmission the parameters
experiment is needed.inTaking
Tablesthe4 and 6 were
first pair selected
of the curvetoface
gear the
obtain pairs in class
curve faceCgear
as an example,
pairs the parameters
with three in Tables
different tooth 4 andby6 5‐axis
profiles were selected to obtain
CNC milling.
the curve face gear pairs with three different tooth profiles by 5-axis CNC milling.
Table 6. Specific properties of the curve face gear pair.

Generating rack Curve face gear pair

Cutting Coefficient of Gears accu‐
Material Mod‐ Addendum Pressure Number of Circumferen‐
method bottom clear‐ racy class
ule coefficient angle teeth z1/z2 tial clearance
ance (ISO)
 Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 2715 19 of 22

Table 6. Specific properties of the curve face gear pair.

Generating Rack Curve Face Gear Pair

Cutting Coefficient of Gears
Material Addendum Pressure Number of Circumferential
Method Module Bottom Accuracy
Coefficient Angle Teeth z1 /z2 Clearance
Clearance Class (ISO)
5-axis CNC
20CrMnTi 4 mm 1 0.25 20◦ 36/18 8 0.1 mm
milling

Appl. Sci. 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 20 of 23

Figure 17 shows the transmission experiment of the curve face gear pair. The input
rotation speed is 200 rpm, and the load is 50 N·m. The rotation speeds of the input shaft and
output shaft were measured by torque-speed sensor JN338 (produced by Beijing Sanjing
Creation Science and Technology Group Co., Ltd., Beijing, China) and torque-speed sensor
Appl. Sci. 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 20 of 23
DRFL-VI-500-A-K (produced by ETH-MESSTECHNIK), respectively, and the transmission
ratios of three kinds of curve face gear pairs were calculated.

Figure 17. Transmission experiment of the curve face gear pairs with different tooth profiles.

The 17.
Figure
Figure
experimental
Transmissiontransmission
17.Transmission experiment
ratios
experimentofofthe
the were
curveface
curve
compared
facegear
gear pairswith
pairs
with the
withdifferent
different theoretical
tooth
tooth profiles.
profiles.
transmis‐
sion ratios, as shown in Figure 18. it is the theoretical curve of transmission ratio. is, ih and
ic are the The
The experimental
experimental
measured curves transmission
transmission
of transmission ratios
ratios were
were compared
compared
ratios with
of curve withthe the
face theoretical
theoretical
gear transmis‐
transmission
pairs with straight
sion
ratios,ratios,
as as
shown shown
in in
Figure Figure
18. i 18.
is it istheoretical
the the theoretical
curve
tooth, helical tooth, and curvilinear tooth, respectively. As can be seen, when
t curve
of of transmission
transmission ratio.
ratio. i s , i his,and
ih and
ic rota‐
the
ic are
are thethe measured
measured curves
curves of of transmission
transmission ratios
ratios of of curve
curve face facepairs
gear gear with
pairsstraight
with straight tooth,
tional angle θ2 varies from 0 to 360°, the transmission ratio i21 varies in the range of 1.6~2.4,
tooth, tooth,
helical helicalandtooth, and curvilinear
curvilinear tooth, respectively.
tooth, respectively. As can be As seen, canwhenbe seen, when theangle
the rotational rota‐
and the number of cycles of i21 is 2. Moreover, as can be seen from the total comparison
◦ , the
2 varies
θtional from
angle θ 2 0 to
varies360 from 0 transmission
to 360°, the ratio i
transmission
21 varies
ratioini the
21 range
varies in of
the 1.6~2.4,
range of and the
1.6~2.4,
andnumber
single
and theof comparison,
cycles of the
of icycles three measurement curves of the transmission and single are in
ratio
number 21 is 2. ofMoreover, as can be seen
i21 is 2. Moreover, as canfrom
be the
seentotal
from comparison
the total comparison
good andagreement
comparison, thewith
threethe
single comparison, theoretical
measurement curve,ofwhich
curves
the three measurement indicated
the transmission
curves of the the
ratio correctness
are in goodratio
transmission of the
agreement are theoret‐
in
icalwith
method.
goodthe theoretical
agreement curve,
with which indicated
the theoretical curve,the correctness
which indicated ofthethecorrectness
theoretical ofmethod.
the theoret‐
ical method.

Figure 18. Comparison between the theoretical and experimental transmission ratios of the curve
Figure
Figure 18. Comparisonbetween
between the
the theoretical
theoreticaland experimental transmission ratiosratios
of the of
curve
face18.
gearComparison
pair. and experimental transmission the curve
face gear
face gear pair.pair.
Figure 19 shows the maximum relative error of the transmission ratio experiment.
Figure 19 shows the maximum relative error of the transmission ratio experiment.
 Figure 18. Comparison between the theoretical and experimental transmission ratios of the curve
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 2715 face gear pair. 20 of 22

Figure 19 shows the maximum relative error of the transmission ratio experiment.
Figure 19 shows the maximum relative error of the transmission ratio experiment.

FigureFigure 19. Maximum

19. Maximum relative
relative error
error of the of the transmission
transmission ratio experiment.
ratio experiment.

The experimental curves of the transmission ratios of the three curve face gear pairs are
close to the theoretical curve, and the matching degree from low to high is the transmission
ratio curve of the straight tooth, helical tooth, and curvilinear tooth curve face gear pair,
respectively. The maximum relative errors of the corresponding transmission ratios are
5.5%, 4.6%, and 3.9%, respectively. The main reason for this difference is that the tooth
profile has an important influence on the transmission stability of the curve face gear pair.
The curvilinear tooth transmission is the most stable, followed by the helical tooth, and
finally the straight tooth.
Besides, the causes of experimental errors mainly include machining errors, instal-
lation errors, and measurement errors. Considering the influence of the above errors,
the experimental errors were within a reasonable range. The correctness of tooth profile
classification design method was verified by the transmission experiment of curve face
gear pair, which laid a foundation for the further research of CVT mechanism.

6. Conclusions
Through the study of pattern classification and gear design of spatial noncircular gear
CVT, the following conclusions can be drawn.
(1) Under the condition of choosing appropriate parameters, all the five patterns can
realize the CVT. Compared with type I, type II has the advantages of a simpler structure,
smaller volume, shorter transmission chain, and higher transmission efficiency. However,
it is more complex in design, relatively limited by parameters and has a smaller range of
transmission ratio. According to the actual working situation and requirements, different
patterns can be selected to realize the required CVT;
(2) The curve gear face pair can realize variable transmission ratios between intersect-
ing shafts. Through the tooth profile classification design method, the curve face gear pairs
with straight tooth, helical tooth, and curvilinear tooth can be obtained. Compared with
the straight tooth curve face gear pair, the helical tooth and curvilinear tooth curve face
gear pair have a more complex design, but a greater contact ratio and load capacity, which
can meet the requirements of different working situations;
(3) The overall transmission ratio of each pattern was simulated, and the simulation
errors were within a reasonable range, which verified the correctness of the theoretical
analysis of each pattern. Through transmission experiments, the correctness of the tooth
profile classification design method of the curve face gear pair was verified, which provided
a strong proof for the correctness of the whole design method to a certain extent;
(4) The CVT principle and transmission ratio characteristics of each pattern were
analyzed only from the aspect of kinematics here. However, the dynamic characteristics
and performance of each pattern should be further studied in the follow-up work, such as
vibration, noise, carrying capacity, and transmission efficiency, which have an important
impact on the working performance of the spatial noncircular gear CVT system.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 2715 21 of 22

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, Y.Y. and C.L.; data curation, P.X.; formal analysis, Y.Y.; funding
acquisition, C.L.; investigation, Y.Y.; methodology, Y.Y.; project administration, C.L.; resources, C.L.;
software, Y.Y.; supervision, C.L.; validation, Y.Y.; visualization, Y.Y. and P.X.; writing—original draft, Y.Y.;
writing—review and editing, Y.Y. and C.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version
of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by National Natural Science Foundation of China, grant
number 51675060.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Nomenclature

θ 1 and θ 3 Rotation angle of gears 1 and 3 respectively θp , Phase angle

Transmission ratios of the correspond-
i21 and i43 ,
ing gear pairs respectively
Transmission ratio between the bevel
i7i ,
gear 7 and the input shaft.
Transmission ratio between the planet
iHi ,
carrier H and input shaft.
Transmission ratio between the output
io4 ,
shaft and gear 4.
Parameters of the transmission ratios i21
a1 and b1 ,
of type I.
Characteristic parameter of the differen-
K,
tial mechanism of type I
Maximum rotation angle of noncircular
Φ,
gear 1 in the working area
order of noncircular gears 1 and 2 re-
n1 and n2 ,
spectively.
The first derivatives of i01 (θ 1 ) and i02 (θ 1 )
I 0 01 (θ 1 ) and i0 02 (θ 1 ),
with respect to θ 1 respectively.
θe , Length of the effective working area.
Pitch curve parameter equation of the noncir-
r1 (θ 1 ) and r2 (θ 2 ),
cular gear and curve face gear respectively.
Speeds at the meshing points of the two
V 1 and V 2 ,
curves respectively
The helical angle and tooth width pa-
βr and br ,
rameter of the helical rack respectively
Tooth surface equations of the generat-
rr (ur , br , θ r ), ing rack with three kinds of tooth pro-
files in Sr
Pitch curve of the generating gear, noncir-
σc , σ1 and σ2 ,
cular gear, and curve face gear respectively
Tooth surface equation of noncircular gear
r1 (ur , br , θ r , θ 1 ),
with three kinds of tooth profiles in S1
Overall transmission ratio between the
ioi ,
output shaft and input shaft
Constant transmission ratio between the
io7 ,
output shaft and the bevel gear 7.
Constant transmission ratio between the
ioH ,
output shaft and the planet carrier H.
zi , Teeth number of the corresponding gears
Parameters of the transmission ratios i43
a2 and b2 ,
of type I.
Parameter of the transmission ratios i21
a,
and i43 of type II.
U, The period of the transmission ratio i21
Number of the input gear cycles and
ni and nl ,
branches.
The second derivatives of i01 (θ 1 ) and
i”01 (θ 1 ) and i”02 (θ 1 ),
i02 (θ 1 ) with respect to θ 1 respectively.
Minimum length of the effective work-
θ emin ,
ing area.
Projection radius of the pitch curve of
R,
curve face gear
ω 1 and ω 2 , Angular speeds of the two gears, respectively
The arc angle and arc radius of the curvi-
θ r and ρr ,
linear rack respectively.
Tooth surface equations of the generat-
rc (ur , br , θ r ), ing gear with three kinds of tooth pro-
files in Sc
Rotation angle of the generating gear
θc ,
around its own axis.
Tooth surface equation of curve face gear
r2 (ur , br , θ r , θ 1 ),
with three kinds of tooth profiles in S2

References
1. Litvin, F.L.; Fuentes, A. Gear Geometry and Applied Theory; Cambridge University Press (CUP): Cambridge, UK, 2004; pp. 318–348.
2. Addomine, M.; Figliolini, G.; Pennestrì, E. A landmark in the history of non-circular gears design: The mechanical masterpiece of
Dondi’s astrarium. Mech. Mach. Theory 2018, 122, 219–232. [CrossRef]
3. Liu, J.-Y.; Chang, S.-L.; Mundo, D. Study on the use of a non-circular gear train for the generation of Figure-8 patterns. Proc. Inst.
Mech. Eng. Part C J. Mech. Eng. Sci. 2006, 220, 1229–1236. [CrossRef]
4. Mundo, D. Geometric design of a planetary gear train with non-circular gears. Mech. Mach. Theory 2006, 41, 456–472. [CrossRef]
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 2715 22 of 22

5. Mundo, D.; Gatti, G.; Dooner, D. Optimized five-bar linkages with non-circular gears for exact path generation. Mech. Mach.
Theory 2009, 44, 751–760. [CrossRef]
6. Ottaviano, E.; Mundo, D.; Danieli, G.; Ceccarelli, M. Numerical and experimental analysis of non-circular gears and cam-follower
systems as function generators. Mech. Mach. Theory 2008, 43, 996–1008. [CrossRef]
7. Modler, K.-H.; Lovasz, E.-C.; Bär, G.; Neumann, R.; Perju, D.; Perner, M.; Mărgineanu, D. General method for the synthesis of
geared linkages with non-circular gears. Mech. Mach. Theory 2009, 44, 726–738. [CrossRef]
8. Alexandru, P.; Macaveiu, D.; Alexandru, C. A gear with translational wheel for a variable transmission ratio and applications to
steering box. Mech. Mach. Theory 2012, 52, 267–276. [CrossRef]
9. Zheng, F.; Hua, L.; Han, X.; Li, B.; Chen, D. Synthesis of indexing mechanisms with non-circular gears. Mech. Mach. Theory 2016,
105, 108–128. [CrossRef]
10. Yu, Y.; Lin, C.; Hu, Y. Study on simulation and experiment of non-circular gear surface topography in ball end milling. Int. J. Adv.
Manuf. Technol. 2021, 114, 1913–1923. [CrossRef]
11. Lin, C.; Gong, H.; Nie, N.; Zen, Q.; Zhang, L. Geometry design, three-dimensional modeling and kinematic analysis of orthogonal
fluctuating gear ratio face gear drive. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part C J. Mech. Eng. Sci. 2012, 227, 779–793. [CrossRef]
12. Lin, C.; Zeng, D. Design, generation and tooth width analysis of helical curve-face gear. J. Adv. Mech. Des. Syst. Manuf. 2015,
9, JAMDSM0066. [CrossRef]
13. Lin, C.; Yu, Y.; Hu, Y. Analysis of composite motion law and force of high speed curve-face gear. J. Adv. Mech. Des. Syst. Manuf.
2017, 11, JAMDSM0070. [CrossRef]
14. Yu, Y.; Lin, C.; Hu, Y. Tooth bending stress analysis of high speed curve face gear of composite transmission. Mech. Ind. 2021,
22, 20. [CrossRef]
15. Hu, Y.; Lin, C.; Li, S.; Yu, Y.; He, C.; Cai, Z. The Mathematical Model of Curve-Face Gear and Time-Varying Meshing Characteristics
of Compound Transmission. Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 8706. [CrossRef]
16. Dooner, D.; Yoon, H.-D.; Seireg, A. Kinematic considerations for reducing the circulating power effects in gear-type continuously
variable transmissions. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part D J. Automob. Eng. 1998, 212, 463–478. [CrossRef]
17. Sun, C.Q.; Sun, G.X.; Ren, A.H.; De Liu, Y. The Kinematic Analysis of Heart-Shaped Gear Continuously Variable Transmission.
Appl. Mech. Mater. 2010, 37, 1489–1492. [CrossRef]
18. Wang, X.F.; Zhu, W.D. Design, Modeling, and Simulation of a Geared Infinitely Variable Transmission. J. Mech. Des. 2014,
136, 071011. [CrossRef]
19. Zhu, W.D.; Wang, X.F. Modeling and Control of an Infinitely Variable Speed Converter. J. Dyn. Syst. Meas. Control 2014,
136, 031015. [CrossRef]
20. Wang, X.F.; Zhu, W.D. Design, Modeling, and Experimental Validation of a Novel Infinitely Variable Transmission Based on
Scotch Yoke Systems. J. Mech. Des. 2016, 138, 015001. [CrossRef]
21. Chen, S.; Dong, Z. Transmission characteristics and phase number optimization on the transmission mechanism of rod gear pulse
continuously variable transmission. Adv. Mech. Eng. 2018, 10, 1687814017751966. [CrossRef]