Ss2 Agric - NOTE - 2022

ST. FINBARR’S COLLEGE, AKOKA-YABA, LAGOS.
SECOND TERM SCHEME OF WORK & CONTENTS
2022/2023 ACADEMIC SESSION
SS1
AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE
ST. FINBARR’S COLLEGE, LAGOS.
Citadel of Excellence [2022/2023 Session]
SS1 AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE SECOND TERM SCHEME OF WORK, 2022/2023

WEEKS TOPICS SUB-TOPICS/CONTENTS
1. Revision i. Previous Examination Questions
2. Agro-Allied Industries in i. Meaning of Agro-based Industries
Agriculture ii. Agro-based Industries and Raw Materials
iii. Relationship between Agriculture and Industries
3. Environmental Factors i. Climatic Factors i.e., Rainfall, Wind, Sunshine, etc
Affecting Agricultural ii. Biotic Factors i.e., Predators, Pests, Diseases, Parasites
Production iii. Edaphic Factors i.e., Soil Structure, Texture, Profile and
Acidity
A. Climatic Factor
iv. Interrelationship among Living Things
4. B. Edaphic Factor i. Soil Erosion and Types
ii. Soil Conservation Practices
5. Rock Formation i. Definition of Rock
ii. Types of Rocks i.e., Igneous, Sedimentary and Metamorphic
iii. Economic Importance of Rocks in Agriculture
6. Soil i. Definition of Soil
ii. Factors Affecting Soil Formation
iii. Rock Weathering
iv. Types of Rock Weathering i.e., Physical, Chemical and
Biological
7. Composition/Properties of i. Composition of Soil
Soil ii. Soil Types and Properties
iii. Soil Profile, Texture, Structure and Acidity
8. Simple Farm Tools i. Meaning and Identification of Simple Farm Tools
ii. Types of Farm Tools
iii. Functions and Maintenance of Farm Tools
9. Farm Machines and i. Definition of Farm Machine
Implements ii. Examples of Farm Machines i.e., Tractors, Incubators, Tree
Feller, Milking Machine
iii. Functions and Maintenance of Farm Machines
iv. Tractor Coupled Implements i.e., Plough, Harrow, Planter
10. Problems/Prospects of i. Meaning of Agricultural Mechanization
Agricultural ii. Problems of Agricultural Mechanization
Mechanization iii. Advantages of Farm Mechanization
iv. Disadvantages of Farm Mechanization
v. Limitations of Mechanization
vi. Ways of Improving Agriculture Through Mechanization
11. Revision and Examination Revision of all Topics in the Second Term and Examination
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AGRO-BASED INDUSTRIES IN AGRICULTURE
Objectives:
➢ State the meaning of agro-based industries.
➢ Explain the relationship between agriculture and industries.
Meaning of Agro-based Industries

Agro-based industries are also known as agro-allied industries. They are industries that rely or depend solely
on agriculture for their raw materials for production or operation.
Agro-Based Industries and Raw Materials

S/n Agro-based Industry Raw Materials
1. Plywood/Sawmill Wood
2. Flour mill Cereals/Grains
3. Oil mill Oil Seeds such as Coconut, Sesame, etc.
4. Fruit canning Fruits such as Citrus, Pineapple, Mango, etc.
5. Soap industry Oil Seed such as Palm kernel oil and Palm oil
6. Breweries Cereals such as Sorghum, Millet, Wheat
7. Feed mill Groundnut, Cotton, Maize, Soya bean
8. Starch Cassava, Maize, Wheat
9. Cigarette Tobacco leaves
10 Paper industry Pulpwood
11. Tyre industry Rubber latex
12. Sugar industry Sugarcane, Sugar beet
13. Beverage Cocoa, Tea and Coffee
14. Textile/Ginnery Cotton
Relationship between Agriculture and Industries

i. Competition for Labour: Industry and agriculture compete for labour.
ii. Provision of Raw Materials: Raw materials such as cotton, sorghum, barley, cocoa and groundnut are
produced by agriculture for industrial use.
iii. Provision of Food: Agriculture provides food for industrial workers.
iv. Provision of Market: Agriculture provides a market for industrial products such as farm machinery,
chemicals and fertilizer.
v. Provision of Agro-Chemicals: Agro-chemicals such as pesticides, fertilizers, herbicides and many more
are produced by industries for agricultural uses.
vi. Provision of Agricultural Tools and Machinery: Tools and machines such as tractors, ploughs,
cutlasses and wheelbarrows are produced by industries for agricultural use.
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vii. Provision of Storage Facilities: Industries provide storage facilities for agricultural produce e.g., milk,
meat, fish, vegetables and fruit.
viii. Provision of Processing Facilities: Industries also provide processing facilities such as grinders, millers
and many more for use in agriculture.
Evaluation
1. Define agro-allied industries.
2. Name six (6) agricultural products that are used by industries as sources of their raw materials.
3. Explain six (6) relationships between Agriculture and Industries.
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS AFFECTING AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION
Objectives:
➢ Define climate.
➢ State the importance of climate in agriculture.
➢ Discuss some elements of climate and their effects on agriculture.
➢ State the environmental factors that affect agricultural productivity.
➢ Explain inter-relationships among living things.
Definition of Climate: Climate is defined as the average weather condition of a place, measured over a long
period (over 35 years).
Factors of climate are rainfall, temperature, wind, relative humidity, pressure, light, etc.
Importance of Climate in Agriculture

i. Climate affects the duration of a cropping season.
ii. It determines the yield of crops.
iii. It affects the incidence of pests.
iv. It affects the incidence of diseases.
v. Climate determines the yield or productivity of animals.
vi. It also affects the type of soil formation in an area.
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Environmental Factors Affecting Agricultural Production

These factors can be grouped into three namely: (a) Climatic factors (b) Biotic factors (c) Edaphic/soil factors
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Climatic Factors: These are atmospheric conditions of an area which include; rainfall, temperature, humidity,
wind and sunlight.
Rainfall: This is defined as the release of excess condensed water vapour in the atmosphere into the earth.
i. It determines the time of planting, type of farming and farming system.
ii. It also determines the type of crop that is cultivated in an area. For example, while arable and perennial
crops are cultivated in the Southern part of Nigeria, arable crops mainly are cultivated in the North
because of the short duration of rainfall.
iii. It determines the type of vegetation which in turn determines the distribution of crops and animals.
iv. It is necessary for seed germination.
v. Excess rainfall leads to the leaching of nutrients and causes soil erosion.
Ways in which High Rainfall Affects Agricultural Production

i. It increases the incidence of erosion or flooding.
ii. It encourages the growth of disease-causing organisms.
iii. It increases the leaching of plant nutrients.
iv. It causes water logging in clay soil.
v. It promotes the growth of weeds.
Temperature: This is the degree of hotness or coldness of an area.

i. Temperature is necessary for the germination of seeds.
ii. High temperature affects evapotranspiration and reduces the performance of livestock.
iii. High temperature affects microbial activities within the soil.
iv. Temperature affects the wilting of crop plants, ripening and maturity of crops.
v. Unfavorable temperature result in seed dormancy.
vi. Temperature affects the distribution of crops and animals.
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Relative Humidity: This refers to the amount of moisture present in the atmosphere.
i. It results in the formation of rain.
ii. High humidity favors mouldiness of litter materials and feeds leading to disease occurrence.
iii. It determines the type of crops to be grown in an area.
iv. Low humidity leads to heat stress in animals. e.g., cattle, poultry and pig.
v. High relative humidity favours the growth of disease pathogens.
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vi. It determines the type of pests prevalent in an area.

Wind: Wind is defined as air in motion.

i. It aids the dispersal of seeds and fruits.
ii. It affects evapotranspiration.
iii. It aids pollination.
iv. High wind velocity can cause damage to crops.
v. It helps in the distribution of rainfall and changes in seasons, e.g., rainy and dry seasons.
vi. It determines seasons in Nigeria. For example, South West Trade wind brings rain while North East
Trade wind brings harmattan or dry season.
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Sunlight: This is the amount of heat and the period the sun rays are received at a place.
i. It is necessary for photosynthesis and other metabolic activities in plants.
ii. It affects the rate of production in poultry.
iii. It affects the productivity of crops due to the length of days. i.e., photoperiodism. (Long-day plants
require longer daylight of between 13-15 hours of sunlight e.g., millet, sorghum (guinea corn); Short
day plants require shorter daylight periods between 8-10 hours of sunlight e.g., cocoa, kola and oil
palm; Day-neutral plants require an equal period of day and night; about 12 hours of sunlight and 12
hours of darkness e.g., tomato)
iv. It affects evapotranspiration.
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Biotic Factors
Predators: These are animals that lay an ambush against other animals and use them as prey.
a. Tigers and lions pose risk to other animals in the forest.
b. Kites and hawks prey on chicks (poultry birds).
c. Snakes swallow poultry eggs and endanger the life of the birds.
d. Some are used to control harmful pests of crops and animals.
Pests
a. Pests reduce the yield of crops and animals.
b. Pests transmit disease organisms.
c. Pests render the crops susceptible to secondary disease infections.
d. Pests control methods create additional costs to the farmers.
e. Some pests are used to control some harmful pests of crops and animals.
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Parasites
a. They are vectors of livestock diseases e.g., tsetse fly, tick, liver fluke, lice, mistletoe, etc.
b. They reduce the quantity or yield of farm produce.
c. They reduce the quality of farm produce.
d. They may be external or internal (i.e., ectoparasite or endo parasites)
e. Their control adds to production costs.
f. They reduce the production capacity of livestock or crops.
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Soil Organisms
a. These include bacteria, fungi, earthworms, rodents and termites.
b. Rhizobia bacteria fix nitrogen to the root nodules of legumes thereby enriching the soil.
c. They destroy farm produce e.g., yam beetle.
d. They promote organic matter decomposition.
e. Some aid aeration, percolation, and fertility.
f. Some open up wounds on plants or animals for other pathogens to enter.
Weeds
a. They compete with crops for moisture, light, nutrients and space.
b. Weeds harbor crop pests and disease organisms.
c. They reduce the market value of crops.
d. Weed control increases the cost of production of crops.
e. Some stubborn weeds make farmland unsuitable for crop production.
f. Some weeds are poisonous to man and farm animals.
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Interrelationship among Living Things
Competition
Competition involves the interactions among two organisms of the same or different species in which one
outgrows the other and survives while the other can neither grow nor survive.
When competition is between members of the same species, it is called intra-specific competition, while it is
called inter-specific competition if it is between members of different species.
Examples of competitive associations are flowering plants and grasses, domestic fowls and young chicks, etc.
Symbiosis
This is a close association between two organisms in which both of them benefit from each other. It is a
beneficial association and each member is called a symbiont.
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Examples of Symbiotic Associations are:

Algae and Fungi in Lichen. A lichen is made up of two organisms namely, a fungus and a green alga which
live in close association. The alga benefits in the association by receiving protection while the fungi benefit by
utilizing food produced by the alga.
Nitrogen-fixing Bacteria in the Root Nodes of Leguminous Plants: Bacterium (rhizobium

leguminosarium) living in the root nodules of leguminous plants obtains nutrients from the cells of the host
plant, grows and multiplies or reproduces there. In return, the bacterium fixes nitrogen directly into the plant
from the atmosphere, thereby increasing the nitrogen requirement of leguminous plants.
Bacteria in the Rumen of Ruminants: Bacteria and other protozoa in the rumen of ruminant animals like
cattle, sheep and goats help the ruminant to digest cellulose and other materials while the ruminant in turn
provides food and shelter for the bacteria.
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Parasitism
This is the feeding relationship between two organisms, in which the parasite lives in or on the body of the
host, deriving benefit from and causing harm to it while the host loses in the process.
Examples of the parasitic associations are: (i) Man and tapeworm. The tapeworm lives in the small intestine
of the host. The host suffers from the hand of the parasite which feeds on the digested food from the host. The
parasite benefits from this association. (ii) Mistletoe and flowering plant. The mistletoe benefits because the
host gives it support and raises it to a position from which it can receive sunlight.
Commensalism
Commensalism is a relationship or an association between two organisms of different species, in which one
organism called the commensal benefits while the other, the host neither benefits nor loses from the
association.
Examples of commensalism associations are (i) Shark and Remora Fish. Remora fish is a small fish that
attaches itself to the body of a shark. It feeds on the food particles left over by the shark and is also protected
by the shark, whereas the shark is neither harmed nor benefitting as a result of the presence of the remora fish.
(ii) Oyster and Crab. The habitation of a crab is in the oyster shell in which case the crab is protected yet no
harm is done to the oyster.
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Predation
Predation is a type of association between two organisms in which the predator kills the other, called the
prey, and directly feeds on it.
An example of predation is the lion and the goat. The lion is the predator that catches, kills and eats the prey
which is the goat. The lion is stronger and bigger than the goat. The lion benefits while the goat is eliminated.
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Edaphic Factors
Soil Structure
a. It determines the fertility of the soil.
b. It determines the pore spaces and aeration.
c. It determines drainage.
d. It determines the level of moisture.
e. It determines the leaching of soil minerals.
f. It determines the level of soil organisms.
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Soil Texture
a. It determines drainage. For example, coarse-textured soil has good drainage while fine-textured soil is
prone to water logging.
b. It determines porosity and soil aeration.
c. It determines the leaching of soils. Soils with coarse texture are prone to leaching.
d. It helps the farmer to adopt the best tillage operation of the soil.
e. It determines the type of crop that is suitable in an area.
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Soil pH
a. Soil acidity leads to loss of cations such as calcium, magnesium and potassium leaving aluminum and
iron available at toxic levels. Thus, soil acidity creates an imbalance in soil nutrients.
b. Nodulation in legumes by rhizobia bacteria is hampered due to deficiency of molybdenum, boron and
calcium under acidic conditions.
c. The activities of nitrobacteria which converts nitrites to nitrate are reduced.
d. It reduces the activities of soil organisms.
e. Some crops do not thrive well under acid soils e.g., maize, cowpea, groundnut and soya bean.
Topography
a. A hilly area is prone to soil erosion and is therefore not suitable for crop production.
b. Flat land is preferred for farming.
c. Sloppy land calls for erosion control which increases the cost of production.
d. Steep and gentle slopes may also aid the weathering of rocks.
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Soil Fertility
a. Fertile soil leads to the production of forage crops and plants for grazing.
b. Fertile soil helps in the production of food and cash crops.
c. It leads to the multiplication of beneficial soil organisms.
d. It minimizes the use of fertilizers and manures.
Soil Types
a. Loamy soil is rich in soil nutrients, thus the best soil for crop production.
b. Sandy soil does not contain enough nutrients.
c. Sandy soil encourages leaching and prevents soil erosion.
d. Clay soil encourages water-logging and erosion but prevents the leaching of plants.
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Soil Erosion
Soil erosion is the washing away of soil by agents of denudation such as water, ice, wind and glacier. Erosion
is influenced by climate, soil properties, vegetation, human activities and topography.
Types of Erosion
a. Splash Erosion: Splash erosion is the removal of topsoil from a small area due to the forceful fall of
rain. The soil particles scattered by the raindrops will succeed in blocking soil pore spaces against
percolation, resulting in sheet erosion.
b. Sheet Erosion: When raindrops cause particles to block soil pores against percolation, flood follows.
When the flood water flows uniformly over a piece of land, the fertile soil over the whole piece of land
is washed away.
c. Gully Erosion: This erosion takes place when rainwater does not fully sink into the soil and part of it
runs off over the soil surface, removing soil particles along its way. This is the continuous removal of
soil particles along a particular course resulting in the cutting of a narrow ditch which will continue to
deepen and widen as water flows along it until deep trenches on the land surface called gullies are
formed.
Soil Conservation Practices

a. Contour Ploughing: The slope is first surveyed to locate contour points. Ploughing is done along the
contours joining all areas along each contour. Then plants are established along the contours and not
across.
b. Ridging Across the Slope: Flood water will normally run down along the slope of the land. Ridges
constructed should be across the slope to block the run-off water. Such ridges will also help to trap the
water in small reservoirs which will sink into the soil.
c. Cover Cropping/Afforestation/Planting: The principle is not to allow the surface to be exposed to
agents of erosion. The slope is planted with cover crops to trap run-off water. It also involves the planting
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of forest trees to trap and intercept water/dust from wind and thus protect the soil surface.
d. Mulching: This is the act of covering the soil surface with such materials as dry grasses, crop residues
and polyethylene sheets. It reduces the impact of raindrops on soil, reduces the speed of run-off and
improves soil structure.
Evaluation
1. Define climate and state three of its importance in agriculture.
2. Explain five ways in which high rainfall affects agricultural production.
3. Discuss briefly four biotic factors that affect agricultural production.
4. Briefly explain how the following factors affect agricultural production: (a) Soil pH (b) Soil texture (c)
Pests.
ROCK FORMATION
Objectives:
➢ State the definition of rock.
➢ List and explain types of rocks.
➢ Explain the economic importance of rocks in agriculture.
Definition of Rock
Rock is defined as the mineral part of the earth’s surface. A rock may be a combination of different mineral
elements such as silica which contains silicon and oxygen.
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Types of Rocks
a. Igneous rocks b. Sedimentary rocks c. Metamorphic rocks
Igneous Rocks
These are formed by the cooling and solidification of molten rocks called magma ejected from beneath the
earth’s crust. The magma, which results from high temperature and pressure beneath the earth, forces itself
towards the earth’s surface through cracks. As the magma moves towards the surface, it comes in contact with
lower temperatures; hence, it cools and solidifies to form igneous rocks.
There are two types of igneous rocks:
Plutonic (Intrusive) Igneous Rocks are rocks formed when the molten magma cools and solidifies slowly
before it gets to the surface of the earth to form large crystals. After prolonged erosion, the plutonic rock
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becomes exposed to the surface. Examples are granite, gabbro and diorite.
Volcanic (Extrusive) Igneous Rocks are rocks formed when the molten magma cools and solidifies rapidly
on getting to the surface of the earth to form small crystals. An example is basalt.
Characteristics of Igneous Rock

a. They are resistant to erosion and other elements of climate.
b. They are glassy in appearance.
c. They are non-stratified i.e. they do not occur in layers.
d. They are usually hard.
e. They are crystalline in nature.
Sedimentary Rock
The deposits of organic materials and existing weathering rocks accumulate and consolidate over time. They
are affected by agents such as rain, wind, ice, etc. The sediments after a long time are cemented to form
sedimentary rocks. The remarkable features are layers called strata or beds. Examples of sedimentary rocks
are sandstone, limestone, shale and dolomite.
Characteristics of Sedimentary Rocks
a. They occur in layers, strata or sheets.
b. They contain fossils of plants and animals.
c. The rocks are coarse in texture.
d. They are not resistant to erosion.
e. They are non-crystalline in structure.
Types of Sedimentary Rocks

a. Mechanically-formed Sedimentary Rocks: These are formed from sediments of other rocks that have
accumulated and cemented together over a long time. Examples include sandstone, shale, clay breccia
and conglomerate.
b. Organically-formed Sedimentary Rocks: These are formed from the remains of living organisms.
When rocks are formed from the remains of animals like corals or fish shells, such rocks are called
calcareous rocks e.g., limestone and chalk but when they are formed from the remains of vegetable
matter such as swamps and forest, they are called carbonaceous rocks. An example is peat, coal, lignite
and petroleum.
c. Chemically-formed Sedimentary Rocks: These rocks are precipitated chemically from rock solutions.
Examples include potash, nitrate, gypsum and dolomite.
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Metamorphic Rocks
These rocks result from pre-existing igneous and sedimentary rocks due to the combined effect of pressure and
heat. Examples are marble, quartzite, gneiss, schist and slate. Slate is formed from clay; marble is formed from
limestone; quartzite is formed from sandstone; gneiss is formed from granite; schist is formed from shale while
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graphite is formed from coal.

Characteristics of Metamorphic Rocks

a. Some may occur in layers or strata.
b. They exist in different colors and textures.
c. They may contain fossils.
d. The rocks may be hard and massive.
e. They are non-crystalline in nature.
Economic Importance of Rocks in Agriculture

a. Formation of soil: Soil is formed from the disintegration of rocks.
b. Sources of plant nutrients: Calcium, potassium, iron, etc are derived from rocks.
c. Erosion control: Rocks are used to make a pile-up across sloppy lands to prevent soil erosion.
d. Construction purposes: Some rocks like granite and sandstone are quarried and used for road and farm
building construction.
e. Sharpening of farm tools: Some rocks are used for sharpening farm tools like knives and cutlasses.
f. Liming materials: Rocks contains calcium and magnesium which are useful as a liming agent.
g. Source of food: Rock- salt such as sodium chloride from sedimentary rocks, provides minerals used in
cooking food.
Evaluation
1. Write a short note on the mode of formation and characteristics of (a) granite (b) limestone (c) schist.
2. State four (4) characteristics of each igneous rock and sedimentary rock.
3. State four (4) economic importance of rocks in agriculture.
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TYPES OF SOIL COMPOSITION/PROPERTIES

Objectives:
➢ State the definition of soil.
➢ Explain the factors of soil formation.
➢ State the definition of rock weathering.
➢ Explain the types of rock weathering.
➢ Explain the composition of the soil.
Definition of Soil
Soil can be defined as the topmost layer of the earth’s crust from which plants derive their nutrients such as
water, air and minerals.
Factors of Soil Formation

a. Parent Material: Parent material of predominantly quartz minerals will give rise to sandy soil.
Similarly, parent material that is dominated by micas and feldspars minerals will give rise to clayey soil.
b. Climate: Temperature, rainfall and wind are important climatic factors in soil formation. The rainwater
physically or mechanically breaks rocks into smaller particles.
c. Topography: Soil erosion is more pronounced in sloppy areas than flat land. Topography, therefore,
determines the formation of shallow or deep soils depending on the degree of slope and extent of erosion.
d. Biotic Factors (Living Organisms): The activities of microorganisms, plants, animals and man on rocks
influence soil formation. The microorganisms decompose organic matter and mix it up with the soil. The
burrowing activities of earthworms, crickets and termites permit the movement of air and water in the
soil.
e. Time: The time it takes rocks to form soil depends on the type of rock, mineral composition, age of rock
and interplay of the weathering agents.
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Weathering
Weathering is a process through which rocks break down into particles which eventually give rise to the soil.
It can also be defined as the breaking down of rock masses (rock minerals) into simpler forms through the
agents of physical, chemical and biological processes.
The processes of soil formation include: (i) Physical process (ii) Chemical process (iii) Biological process
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Physical or Mechanical Process: This is simply the breakdown of rocks into smaller particles by agents of
physical weathering such as temperature, ice, wind, water and pressure.
a. Temperature: The alternating heating and cooling of the rocks produce pressure within the rocks and
cause them to break into pieces.
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b. Ice: The conversion of water, inside cracks in rocks, into ice results in an increase in volume. The force
of expansion of ice acts on the rocks thereby breaking them into particles.
c. Rainfall: The splash of rainfall exerts a force on the rock surface. The running water too moves and hits
rock particles against one another reducing them to fragments.
d. Wind: Severe winds carry particles of rock, hitting them against one another or against hard surfaces to
form smaller fragments.
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Chemical Process: This is a process that involves the reaction of rock minerals with elements or compounds
to form other minerals entirely.
a. Hydrolysis: It is a process whereby water reacts chemically with rock minerals to give rise to other
minerals entirely e.g.
CaSiO3 + 2H2O----------H2SiO3 + Ca (OH)2
Calcium water silica calcium silicate hydroxide
b. Hydration: This is simply the addition of water to minerals. Some rock minerals absorb water and
change to other minerals which become weak and liable to weathering e.g.
Fe2O3+3H2O------------- Fe2O2.3H2O
Haematite Limonite/-Hydrated haematite
c. Solution: Some minerals such as feldspars and micas dissolve in water and are carried away by the
moving water. Along the line, the rock breaks into particles.
d. Oxidation: Oxygen combines with some minerals leading to the formation of other minerals
Iron (ii) oxide + Oxygen-------------Iron (iii) oxide (Haematite)
e. Carbonation: Carbon (iv) oxide combines with water to form trioxocarbonate (iv) acid (Carbonic acid),
a weak acid that weakens and dissolves rock minerals.
Biological Process: This involves the influence of plants and animals on rocks. The roots of plants growing
in the cracks of rocks and the activities of burrowing soil organisms (earthworm, termite, cricket) and grazing
animals (cattle, sheep and goat) all gradually but steadily exert pressure on rocks, reducing them to particles.
Composition (Components) of Soil

(i) Organic matter (ii) Inorganic (Mineral) matter (45%) (iii) Soil water (25%) (iv)
Soil air (25%) (v) Soil organisms (5%)
Organic Matter
This is made up of plant and animal remains to undergo the process of decomposition. Leaves, roots, the
residue of crops and animal dung when deposited on the soil, decay to form a dark color on the upper part of
the soil known as organic matter or humus.
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Importance/Effects of Organic Matter

a. It is a source of nutrients to plants and therefore increases crop productivity.
b. It improves soil aeration, water holding capacity and aggregation of soil particles.
c. It harbors soil organisms which are important for decomposition and burrowing activities.
d. It prevents soil erosion.
e. It prevents the evaporation of moisture from the surface.
Mineral (Inorganic) Matter

Soil contains plant nutrients that are grouped into macro and micronutrients according to the quantity required
by plants. It consists of gravel, stones, sand, silt and clay.
Importance/ Effects of Mineral Matter

a. It forms the solid part of the soil and provides support for plants.
b. Minerals such as calcium and magnesium help to neutralize soil acidity.
c. Minerals contribute to the fertility of the soil.
d. It represents the home of all living organisms.
e. It also affects soil porosity.
Soil Water
The soil gets moisture from rainfall, irrigation and underground water. Water is held by the soil in various
forms and the availability of water for plant use depends on the form in which soil water exists.
a. Gravitational Water: This refers to water that occupies macro-pores and which drains through the pores
due to the force of gravity.
b. Capillary Water: This is the water available for plant use.
c. Hygroscopic Water: It moves in vapour form and is not available for plant use.
Importance/Effects of Soil Water

a. Soil water is necessary for the chemical weathering of rocks.
b. It dissolves plant nutrients for easy absorption by plants.
c. It conditions soil temperature.
d. It makes soil easy for cultivation.
e. It is necessary for seed germination.
f. It also promotes the activities of soil organisms.
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Soil Air
Soil air consists of oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, ammonia and rare gases. The amount of soil air varies,
depending on the amount of soil water, the sizes of the pore spaces, the type of soil and the number of living
organisms in the soil. The ability of air to circulate freely in the soil is called aeration.
Importance of Soil Air

a. Soil oxygen is necessary for seed germination.
b. Soil oxygen is also necessary for the respiration of soil organisms.
c. Carbon dioxide is necessary for rock weathering.
d. Nitrogen is important for plant protein synthesis.
e. Excess carbon dioxide in the soil, when combined with water can cause acidity and aid weathering of
rocks.
Soil Organisms
Soil contains large and small organisms some of which are microorganisms. They include rodents, termites,
crickets, earthworms, millipedes, snails, centipedes, nematodes, bacteria, viruses and fungi. Some of them are
beneficial while others are harmful.
Importance of Soil Organisms
a. They decompose organic matter and release nutrients.
b. They create openings in the soil thereby facilitating aeration and drainage.
c. They improve soil structure.
d. The bacteria group fixes nitrogen to the soil.
e. The activities of soil organisms lead to the weathering of rock.
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Soil Types and their Properties

Sandy Soil
Sandy soil contains about 76% sand, 14% silt and 10% clay. It has the following properties
a. It is coarse-grained and gritty in nature.
b. It has poor water holding capacity.
c. It is prone to leaching and therefore poor in fertility.
d. It does not support water logging and erosion.
e. Its particle size measure from 0.02 to 2.0mm in diameter.
Ways to improve sandy soil include; Application of compost manure, application of farm yard manure,
Mulching, Avoidance of bush burning, etc.
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Clayey Soil
Clayey soil contains about 50% clay, 20% sand and 30% silt. It is characterized by the following:
a. It is fine, powdery and smooth when dry.
b. It allows water logging and therefore retains soil nutrients.
c. It has a high-water holding capacity thereby making it poorly aerated.
d. It does not support leaching.
e. It is sticky and moldy when wet.
f. It can easily form a ribbon or cast when moulded.
Clay soil can be improved through liming and the addition of organic manure.
[
Loamy Soil
Loamy soil is a mixture of sand and clay particles with a high proportion of organic matter. It contains about
40% sand, 35% clay and 25% silt. It has moderate properties between sandy and clayey soils.
a. It has a non-powdery and non-sticky texture.
b. It can easily be worked on or cultivated.
c. It is dark brown or black in color.
d. It contains a high level of organic matter.
Simple Soil Calculation

If 60cm3 of water is poured equally into the different funnels containing sand, loam and clay soil, 50cm 3 of
water drains out of sandy soil, 40cm3 drains out of loamy soil and 30cm3 drains out of clay soil. Calculate the
water holding capacity.
a. Sandy soil= (60-50) cm3=10cm3 c. Clay soil= (60-30) cm3=30cm3

b. Loamy soil= (60-40) cm3=20cm3
Therefore, the percentages of water retained in each of the soil samples are:
a. Sandy soil=10/60×100=16.7%
b. Loamy soil =20/60×100=33.3%
c. Clay soil=30/60×100=50%
From this calculation, water drains out from sandy soil fast, followed by loamy soil and lastly by clay soil.
[
Properties of Soil
The properties can be grouped into two:
(i) Physical Properties (Soil texture, soil structure, soil profile, etc)
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(ii) Chemical Properties (Soil pH and cation exchange capacity)

Soil Profile
This is the vertical section of the soil showing a series of horizontal layers of different types of soil. These
horizontal layers are called horizons.
Horizons of Soil Profile

a. Horizon A: This is also called topsoil. The topsoil is the feeding zone of the plant roots. The presence
of humus confers dark color on the topsoil. Most food crops, especially shallow-rooted crops derive their
nutrients from the topsoil, e.g., vegetables and legumes.
b. Horizon B: This is the sub-soil layer. It scarcely contains humus. It rather borrows its color from the
mineral content. The well-drained subsoil is reddish or reddish brown in color due to the presence of an
iron (iii) compound called haematite (Fe2O3). This zone is suitable for deep-rooted crops like rubber,
cocoa, oil palm and orange.
c. Horizon C: This is called the parent materials from which soils are formed. Its color depends largely
on the mineral composition.
d. Horizon D: This is called the bedrock. It represents the unweathered rock materials. They are usually
of large soil particles.
Importance of Soil Profile

a. It helps to know the drainage condition of the soil.
b. It helps to determine the level of soil aeration.
c. It can be used to determine the presence of soil nutrients and soil fertility.
d. It shows the type of minerals that is present in the soil.
e. It helps to know the type of crop to grow.
Soil Texture: This refers to the relative quantity of sand, silt and clay in a soil sample. Sandy soil has coarse
particles while clayey soil has fine particles.
Classification of Soil Particles
S/N Name of Particles Diameter of Particles (mm)
1 Gravel Above 2.0
2 Coarse sand 0.2-2.0
3 Fine sand 0.02-0.2
4 Silt 0.002-0.02
5 Clay Below 0.002
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Methods of Determining Soil Texture

a. Feel Method: By rubbing a soil sample between fingers. Sandy soil is coarse or gritty while clayey soil
is fine and powdery in dry form.
b. Moulding Method: If in moist conditions, a soil sample is moulded into a ribbon and circle, it is clayey
soil but if it can be moulded into a ribbon only it is loamy soil. If it can neither be moulded into a ribbon
nor a circle, it is sandy soil.
Others are Sedimentation Method and Sieve Method.
Importance of Soil Texture

a. It is useful in the evaluation of soil’s ability to supply mineral nutrients.
b. It determines porosity and soil aeration.
c. It determines leaching.
d. It helps the farmer to adopt the best tillage operation of the soil.
e. It determines the type of crop that is suitable in an area.
[
Soil Structure: This refers to the arrangement of soil particles into aggregates. The aggregation of soil particles
is influenced by organic matter. Soil porosity and water retention are determined by the type of soil structure.
The types of soil structure include:
a. Crumb structure b. Plate-like structure c. Prismatic structure
d. Block-like structure. f. Spheroidal structure
[
Importance of Soil Structure

a. It helps to know the soil that is liable to erosion. e. It determines the leaching of soil minerals.
b. It determines the pore spaces and aeration.
c. It determines drainage.
d. It also supports the growth of crops.
Soil PH: This measures the relative concentration of hydrogen and hydroxyl ions in the soil. More hydrogen
ions than hydroxyl ions give acidity and vice versa. However, equal concentrations of the two give neutral
soil. The PH value ranges from 1-14. The value of 7 measures neutral soil and as the value decreases from 7
towards the left, acidity increases while as it increases from 7 towards the right, alkalinity increases.
[ Causes of Soil Acidity

a. Application of acid fertilizers e.g., Ammonium sulphate.
b. Organic matter decomposition and mineralization increases Sulphur in the soil and may lead to acidity.
c. Crop Removal: When crops are harvested, the nutrients including cations absorbed by plants are taken
away from the soil
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d. Leaching: This brings about loss of cations such as calcium, magnesium and potassium.
[
Effects of Soil Acidity

a. Soil acidity leads to loss of cations such as calcium, magnesium and potassium leaving aluminium and
iron available at toxic levels
b. Nodulation in legumes by rhizobia bacteria is hampered due to deficiency of molybdenum, boron and
calcium under acidic conditions.
c. The activities of Nitrobacter which converts nitrites to nitrates are reduced
d. Generally, it reduces the activities of soil organisms
[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[
Correction of Soil Acidity

Application of limes such as calcium carbonate, calcium oxide, calcium hydroxide, magnesium carbonate and
dolomite.
Types of soil and the crops that performed well in each of the soil types are:
a. Acidic soil: It contains iron and Aluminum in large quantities. Examples of crops include swamp rice,
sugar cane, oil palm, maize, banana, cocoa and rubber.
b. Alkaline soil: Examples of crops that do well under this condition are sorghum, millet, groundnut,
cowpea, onion, cotton, and coconut.
c. Neutral soil: Examples include cassava, yam, potato, and maize, orange.
Evaluation
1. Enumerate three (3) processes involved in rock weathering.
2. List and discuss the processes of soil formation.
3. Write short notes on the following: (i) soil pH (ii) soil profile (iii) soil texture.
Page 20
SIMPLE FARM TOOLS

Objectives:
➢ Explain the meaning of simple farm tools.
➢ Identify various types of simple farm tools and their uses.
➢ State the general maintenance of simple farm tools.
Definition of Simple Farm Tools

These are simple, handy tools used mainly by peasants or poor farmers. They are designed to help the hands
to apply force in farm operations.
[
Types of Simple Farm Tools

1. Hoe: It is made of a metal blade that may either be round or slightly rectangular in shape with a wooden
handle that can be long or short.
Functions/uses
a. It is used for making ridges and heaps.
b. It is used for planting or transplanting some crops.
c. It is used for harvesting some crops.
d. It is used for land preparation.
e. It is used for weeding.
[
2. Cutlass: There are two types- One has a slightly curved blade with a short wooden handle, while the
other has a straight metal blade and a short wooden handle.
Functions/Uses
a. It is used for weeding farmland.
b. It is used for transplanting seedlings.
c. It is used for cutting and clearing bushes and trees.
d. It is used for harvesting crops.
[
3. Spade: Spade has a long wooden handle and a broad metal blade. The edge of the metal blade is sharp
so that it can easily be driven into the soil.
Functions/Uses
a. It is used for leveling the soil.
b. It is used for lifting the soil and completely turning it over.
c. It is used for digging holes during transplanting.
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d. It is used for mixing cement/concrete for farm structures.

4. Garden Fork: Garden fork has four prongs or teeth which taper to a point. The prongs, made of hard
metal are about 20cm long and mounted on a long wooden handle of about 70-80cm long.
Functions/Uses
a. It is used for turning manure during compost making.
b. It is used for loading hay.
c. It is used for loading manure.
d. It is used for loosening the soil before transplanting.
[
5. Shovel: The shovel looks like a spade. It has a long wooden handle but the blade of a shovel is hollow
and broad with a rectangular or round edge.
Functions/Uses
a. It is used for lifting or transferring soil from one place to another.
b. It is used for leveling the ground and removing stones.
c. It is used to load materials from ground level into the wheelbarrow.
[[[[[
6. Hand Trowel: A hand trowel is a small hand tool consisting of a short metal handle and a scoop-shaped
blade. It is mainly used in squatting positions because of its small size. The curved metal blade makes it
possible for a small ball of earth to be carried with the seedling during transplanting.
Functions/uses
a. It is used for transplanting seedlings.
b. It is used for digging holes for planting.
c. It is used for the application of fertilizer and manure.
[
7. Axe: It is made of a strong wooden or metal handle into which a solid, flat and heavy metal blade with a
sharpened edge is inserted.
Functions/Uses
a. It is used for cutting firewood and logs.
b. It is used for felling trees.
c. It is used for uprooting stumps.
[
8. Rake: The rake consists of a long, wooden handle and a strong metal head with several stout prongs.
Function/Uses
a. It is used for leveling or spreading soil surface.
b. It is used for removing stones and weeds from seed beds.
c. It is used for breaking up soil lumps into finer particles.
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d. It is used for covering vegetable seeds when they are broadcast.

9. Pick Axe or Digger: Pick axe or digger is made of a long wooden handle and a metal head with double
blades.
Functions/Uses
a. It is used for tilling very hard soils and for making ridges.
b. It is used for the removal of the roots of trees.
c. It is used for tilling soil for farm building erection.
10. Watering Can: This is a metal with a spout that has a perforated metal sheet called rose, over its mouth.
Functions/Uses
a. It is used for the application of water to seedlings in the nursery or vegetable beds.
b. It is used for light irrigation. c. It is used for the application of liquid fertilizer.
11. Head pan: It is a metal container with a small circumference at the bottom but a larger one at the top. It
has two handle hatches that are opposite to each other.
Functions/Uses
a. It is used for the collection of harvested crops.
b. It is used for transplanting seedlings.
c. It is used for carrying farm inputs and outputs.
d. It is used for carrying and mixing manure/fertilizers.
12. Sickle: The sickle has a curved blade fitted to a short handle. The inner edge of the metal blade is sharp
while the outer edge is blunt.
Functions/Uses
a. It can be used for light weeding vegetable plants.
b. It is used for cutting grass for animals.
c. It is used for harvesting fruits/cereal crops.
13. Harvesting knife: This tool has a very long wooden pole or handle with a small, curved metal blade at
one end. It also has a short, strong blade close to the curved end.
Functions/Uses
a. It is used for light pruning.
b. It is used for harvesting crops like oil palm, cocoa, orange and kola nut.
14. Wheelbarrow: The wheelbarrow is a large metal or wooden container with one wheel at the front, two
handles at the rear and below these, are two legs that support the container. It is pushed by raising the
rear end slightly so that the main weight is taken up by the front wheel.
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Functions/Uses
a. It is used for transplanting seedlings.
b. It is used for carrying farm inputs e.g., seeds, fertilizers and chemicals.
c. It is used for carrying farm outputs e.g., harvested crops.
[
15. Emasculator: This is used for the castration of some set of farm animals. It consists of a powerful pincer
with plastic or metal handles. The pincers press the neck of the scrotum to crush the spermatic cord which
supplies blood to the testes.
Function/Use
a. This tool is used to castrate some male farm animals e.g., ram, goat and bull.
16. Pliers: A pair of pliers is a small metal tool with jaws that normally have parallel-toothed surfaces, used
for gripping.
Functions/Uses
a. It is used for gripping firmly and twisting wires. c. It is used for handling bolts and nuts.
b. It is used for handling small objects. d. It is used for cutting wires and cables.
General Maintenance of Simple Farm Tools

a. Sharpen blunt edges or blade where necessary.
b. Tools should be washed after use.
c. Replace worn-out parts.
d. Store in a cool and dry place.
e. Oil or grease movable parts to reduce friction.
f. Paint, oil or grease metallic parts against rusting.
g. Check and tighten loose nuts and bolts daily.
h. Follow the manufacturer’s instructions.
Evaluation
1. List ten (10) simple farm tools and state two uses for each.
2. State five (5) general maintenance of simple farm tools.
Page 24
FARM MACHINES/ IMPLEMENTS

Objectives:
➢ Recognize the different types of farm machines.
➢ State the uses of different types of farm machines.
Farm Machines
These are modern farm machines that supply the mechanical power needed to facilitate various operations on
the farm. Examples are tractors, dryers, incubators, ridgers, sprayers and many more.
[
Tractors
a. The tractor is a powerful and expensive multi-purpose motor vehicle used for lifting or pulling farm
implements.
b. It consists of an internal combustion engine that uses diesel or petrol without spark plugs.
c. It has a power take-off (PTO) shaft used in drawing farm implements like ploughs, harrows, harvesters,
planters and many more.
d. It has a hydraulic control system that lifts mounted implements under the control of the operator.
e. It has four wheels with rubber tyres.
Functions/ Uses of Tractor
a. It operates water pumps for irrigation or other farm purposes.
b. It is used for lifting coupled implements through the hydraulic system.
c. It is used for transporting farm inputs, materials and farm produce.
d. It is used for planting seeds when coupled with planters.
e. It is used for pulling farm implements like ploughs, planters, harvesters and many more.
f. It is used for spraying seedlings when coupled with sprayers.
g. It is used for harvesting crops when coupled with a harvester.
h. It can be used for mowing lawns with mowers.
Daily Maintenance of Tractor

a. Check oil levels daily and top it when necessary.
b. Check water levels daily and top them when necessary.
c. Check the electrolyte of the battery daily and top up when necessary.
d. Check tyre pressures daily before starting.
e. Adhere strictly to the manufacturer’s instructions.
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Periodic Maintenance of Tractor

a. The tractor should be serviced at regular intervals.
b. Replace worn-out parts of the tractor.
c. Ensure that nuts and screws are checked and tightened at regular intervals.
d. Worn-out tyres should be replaced and tyre pressure gauged regularly.
Bulldozers
a. Bulldozers are powerful tractors and expensive machines with a broad steel blade at the front.
b. It consists of an internal combustion engine that uses diesel or petrol.
c. It has tract-type metal chains used for its movement.
Functions/Uses
a. It is used for leveling the soil.
b. It is used for the construction of farm roads.
c. It is used for land clearing, tree felling and stumping.
d. It is used for bush clearing.
Disadvantages of Bulldozer
a. They compact the soil thereby destroying soil structure. e. It leads to soil erosion.
b. They remove the rich topsoil away from the farm.
c. It causes air and noise pollution.
d. It is an expensive machine that cannot be afforded by peasant farmers.
[
Tree pullers
The puller can move on the soil surface with minimal disturbances on the topsoil. It can pull up trees from
their stands with minimal disturbances of the rich topsoil.
Advantages of using the Tree Puller
a. It falls trees easily without much disturbance to the soil.
b. It does not affect soil fertility.
c. Tree puller does not compress the soil.
d. Land is not prone to erosion.
e. The organic content of the soil is retained.
Dryer
Drying farm produce before storage is necessary to minimize spoilage. Dryers dry the product to the desired
moisture level e.g., 10-12% for cereals.
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Functions of Dryer
a. It is used for drying animal products such as meat.
b. It is used for drying plant materials e.g., beans, maize and groundnut.
c. It generates heat which dries and reduces the moisture content of stored produce.
Sheller
It can be operated electrically, mechanically or manually. It is made up of a hopper, bucket, winder and a drum
with rubber or metal spikes. It is a processing machine used to separate dry grains at 10% moisture content
from the cob of maize.
Function of Sheller
It is used to separate the seeds from the husk or cob.
Incubator
Incubator provides the necessary conditions required for the development of the embryos in fertilized poultry
eggs. Incubators have made it possible to hatch thousands of chicks in a given batch thereby satisfying the
need of commercial farmers for day-old chicks.
The function of an Incubator

An incubator can be used for hatching fertilized eggs artificially. It takes 21 days for fertilized eggs of domestic
fowl to develop and hatch in incubators.
Conditions for Incubator to Function

a. Temperature range (370C-390C).
b. Adequate ventilation.
c. Relative humidity of 50-70%; an optimum level is 60%.
Components of an Incubator: An incubator is made up of a setter and a hatcher. The fertilized eggs are kept
in the setter for 18 days while for the remaining three days before the hatching of the eggs, they are placed in
the hatcher. The components of an incubator are:
a. Heater e.g., lantern, heater or electric heater, supplies heat to the incubator.
b. Control unit, damper or thermostat. It regulates the temperature of the incubator.
c. Heat distribution unit.
d. Hygrometer: It regulates the relative humidity of the incubator.
e. Felt tray: It is used to hold eggs and reduce cracking.
f. Thermometer: It is used to detect the degree of hotness or coldness of the machine.
g. Fan or air circulation unit or vent for ventilation.
h. Egg turning device for regular turning of eggs.
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i. Insulator to prevent heat loss.

Efforts to ensure Uniformity of Hatching of Eggs in Incubator

a. Setting eggs uniformly in the tray.
b. Ensure suitable environmental conditions such as ventilation and relative humidity.
c. Timely and regular turning of eggs.
d. Proper handling of eggs.
e. Select eggs of the same sizes.
f. Setting eggs at the same time.
g. Holding period for eggs before setting should not be more than 14 days.
Milking Machine: The manual operation of milking the dairy cow is both unhygienic and time-wasting.
Milking machines, therefore, are improvements over the traditional method. It is faster and more efficient in
milking operations.
The function of the Milking Machine

It is used for milking or extracting fresh milk mechanically from the udder of cattle.
Mode of Operation of Milking Machine

The milk is removed from the teat when the vacuum is applied to the outside of the teat cup liner. When the
teat cup liner collapses, the teat is massaged and this action helps to prevent congestion in the teat walls and
ensures a regular flow of milk from the udder into the teat cups.
The main substance that is extracted by the milking machine from farm animals is milk. The process by which
the milk is made fit for consumption is called pasteurization.
Harmful Contaminants of Milk in a Diary farm

a. Stones/pebbles b. Urine c. Bacteria d. Droplets from sick animals
e. Excreta d. Body hair e. Insects f. Dust
Precaution to be taken during Milking

a. Thorough cleaning of animals before milking.
b. Handle milking with care.
c. Avoid smoking during the milking process.
d. Milk animals in a clean environment.
e. Observe hygienic or sanitary rules.
Page 28
Tractor-Coupled Implements
Plough
Ploughs are of various types such as mould-board, disc and chisel ploughs. These are implements used in
primary tillage operations. They break the topsoil into clods and invert them thereby burying weeds, organic
matter and other debris. This permits the penetration of water and air into the soil.
Types of Plough
Disc Plough: The disc plough is a strong implement adapted to a tropical environment where the soil contains
stones, hard pans, and roots of plants.
[
Parts of a Disc Plough and Function

a. Beam or Frame: It holds the disc in position and also bears additional weight for greater depth.
b. Coupling Point: This provides a point of attachment to the tractor or work animal.
c. Concave Disc: It rotates and makes vertical and horizontal cuts as the tractor moves forward.
d. Scrapper: It helps to remove soil or mud that clings to the disc.
e. Disc Bearing: It holds the disc and allows rotation.
f. Standard: It holds the disc firmly to the beam.
g. Spring: It acts as a shock absorber for the plough during movement.
Advantages of using Disc Plough

a. It is more adaptable to different soils and ecological areas.
b. It is more efficient than a mouldboard plough.
c. The rolling nature of the discs gives them a relative advantage in working in stony or stumpy areas.
d. Weeds are easily buried.
Disadvantages of using Disc Plough

a. It compacts the soil.
b. It leads to soil erosion.
c. It leads to the destruction of soil structure.
Mouldboard Plough: This is a primary tillage implement used for land preparation. It is used in the temperate
zone with light soil where there are no rocks, stumps and hard pans.
Parts of a Mouldboard Plough and Functions
a. Beam or Frame: It carries the plough and other components and provides additional weight for greater
depth.
b. Vertical Disc: It makes vertical cuts/furrows.
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c. SharePoint: This makes horizontal cuts and uproots weeds.

d. Mouldboard: It carries the soil and exposes the roots of weeds.

e. Standard: It bears the mouldboard.
[[[[
Advantages of using Mouldboard Plough

a. It can be drawn by an animal.
b. It does not compact the soil.
c. It can be used in soil free from pebbles, stones, and stumps.
Disadvantages of using Mouldboard Plough

a. It is not suitable in some soils.
b. It cannot function where stones, stumps and other obstacles are available.
c. It may lead to soil erosion.
[[[
General Functions of Plough

a. The plough bites the soil and turns it over to form soil clods.
b. Their activities help to improve soil aeration.
c. It can be used to control weeds.
d. They bury plants and crop residues thus improving soil fertility.
e. They help to mix soil.
[
Reasons why Disc Ploughs are Preferred to Mouldboard Ploughs in West Africa Soil
a. The soil contains many obstacles which disc plough can easily work on.
b. Soil surfaces are generally hard in West Africa, which can be more easily worked on by disc plough.
c. Disc plough cuts deeper than mouldboard plough.
d. Disc plough works better on heavy or clay soil than mouldboard.
e. Disc plough buries weed more effectively than mouldboard plough.
Harrows
Essentially, harrows can be used to level the soil and reduce the crumb to finer forms ready for planting or
ridging as the case may be. The discs are more spaced than those of the plough.
Functions of Harrow
a. It pulverizes the soil and breaks it into fine particles.
b. It helps to break up soil lumps created by the plough.
c. It is used to remove weeds.
d. It helps to spread organic manure on the field and mixes them with soil.
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e. It is used to cover seeds and fertilizers with soil.

Cultivators: Cultivators have finger-like projections called tines. They are next to plough in a systematic order
of land preparation. Examples are Spring-tine and Rotary cultivators.
Functions of Cultivator
a. It breaks the soil clods into smaller forms.
b. It gathers weeds out of the farm.
c. It makes the soil conducive for infiltration and aeration.
d. It helps to stir the soil without turning it over.
Ridgers
After harrowing the farm, the farmer is left with the option of making ridges or not. The option to make ridges
depends on the type of crop and drainage conditions of the land. Disc and mouldboard ridgers are common
examples.
Functions/Uses of Ridger
a. It is used to make ridges.
b. It helps to control erosion and improve aeration.
c. It eases the penetration of roots and tubers.
d. It eases the percolation of water after use.
e. It prevents the growth of weeds.
Maintenance of Ploughs, Cultivators, Harrows and Ridgers

a. Lubricate the greasing points with grease to prevent friction.
b. Replace worn-out parts.
c. Sharpen the blunt edges.
d. Adhere strictly to the manufacturer’s manual.
Other Simple Farm Machines

Planter
The planter has a large container or hopper. It also has a ratchet and an agitator inside the container. They are
used to plant seeds of crops.
[
Types of Planters
a. Broadcast Crop Planter: This is used to plant seeds by random scattering of seeds.
b. Row Crop Planter: This is used to plant seeds along the rows in a ridge.
c. Precision Planter: This is designed to place the correct number of seeds into a hole with regular spacing
within and between rows.
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d. Grain Drill Planters: This is used to place the correct number of seeds into the soil and space between
rows, but not within rows.
Parts of a Planter and Functions
a. Handles: They aid the operator to direct the planter.
b. Hole digger: It digs holes in front into which the seeds drop.
c. Seed Hose: It conducts the seeds from the base of the hopper into the hole dug.
d. Seed hopper: It contains the seeds to be planted.
e. Roller: It presses the soil to cover the seeds dropped into the hole.
f. Marker: This traces the next furrow.
g. Coupling point: This is the point of attachment to the tractor or work animal.
h. Wheels: They aid the movement of the planter.
Maintenance of Planter
a. It should be used for what is meant for.
b. It should be stored in a cool and dry environment.
c. It should be dismantled and washed after use.
d. Metal parts should be oiled or greased to prevent rusting.
e. Bolts and nuts should be inspected and tightened regularly.
f. Replace worn-out parts.
Harvesters
These are machines used for harvesting various crops. Examples include a combine harvester, forage harvester
and mower.
a. Combine Harvester: It is a complex and multi-functional machine performing multiple operations in a
single process. It cuts, threshes and bags grains in the field at the same time.
b. Forage Harvester: This is used to cut and chop forage crops which are fed to ruminant farm animals. It
makes harvesting easy and timely.
c. Mower: It is used to harvest forage grasses for hay and silage making.
Sprayers
On a large-scale farm, tractor-drawn sprayers (boom sprayers) are used to spray chemicals such as pesticides
and liquid fertilizers. Knapsack sprayers are not suitable for this scale of operation.
Examples of Sprayers are the knapsack (pneumatic) sprayer, tractor-mounted sprayer, helicopter mounted
sprayer.
Description of Knapsack Sprayer: This sprayer is made of plastic, steel or galvanized iron. It is made up of
Page 32
a tank, a pump and a spray nozzle. It uses compressed air to drive the spray.
Functions of Sprayer
a. It is used to control insects through the use of insecticides.
b. Sprayers can be used to control the growth of weeds through the application of herbicides.
c. It is used to spray disinfectants on livestock, houses and structures.
d. It can be used for light irrigation or watering vegetable beds.
e. It can be used to spray liquid fertilizers and pesticides.
Precautions to be Taken when Spraying Chemicals

a. Do not spray on a rainy day.
b. Do not spray on a windy day.
c. The operator should wear a protective covering.
d. Do not spray in hot weather, especially in the afternoon.
e. Blow the blocked nozzle with the mouth when spraying.
[
Maintenance of sprayer
a. It should be properly rinsed with water after use to get rid of leftover chemicals.
b. Keep in a cool and dry place.
c. Clean the nozzle and rinse with water to remove left-over chemicals.
d. Operate according to manufacturer’s instructions.
Evaluation
1. Briefly state the uses of the following machinery on the farm: (a) Sheller (b) Dryer (c) Milking machine
(d) Incubator.
2. State four (4) tractor-coupled implements and discuss the uses of two (2) of the implements.
3. Discuss five (5) maintenance practices including precautions you would take to keep the tractor operating
safely and ensure its durability. Page 33
PROBLEMS/PROSPECTS OF AGRICULTURAL MECHANIZATION

Objectives:
➢ State the meaning of agricultural mechanization.
➢ List the advantages and disadvantages of agricultural mechanization.
➢ State limitations of agricultural mechanization.
➢ Identify possible ways of improving agriculture through mechanization.
Meaning of Agricultural Mechanization

Farm mechanization is the application of modern farm machinery and implements on the farm for large-scale
agricultural production.
Problems of Agricultural mechanization

a. Scattered Farm Holdings: Scattered farm holdings are not conducive to mechanization in West Africa.
b. Bad Topography: The landscape is too rough and not conducive for farm mechanization.
c. Land Tenure System: The type of land tenure system especially communal does not allow for large
farm buildings suitable for mechanization.
d. Inadequate Spare Parts: Availability is a major problem as these parts are still being exported.
e. Poverty of Farmers: Most farmers are very poor and cannot afford the cost of sophisticated farm
machines.
f. Inadequate Technical Manpower: Available technical manpower to operate or service the implements
and machines is not adequate.
g. Inadequate Facilities: The facilities or machinery for fabricating and repairing farm implements are
insufficient.
Advantages of Farm Mechanization

a. It encourages large-scale farming.
b. It reduces the cost of production.
c. It leads to enhanced productivity.
d. It relieves drudgery.
e. It takes relatively little time to perform operations.
f. It saves labour as only a few people are required to operate machines.
g. It promotes the image and dignity of farming as an occupation.
[
Page 34
Disadvantages of Farm Mechanization

a. It creates unemployment as only a few people are required in mechanized farming.
b. Mechanized farming is uneconomical for small farm holdings which characterize subsistence farming in
Nigeria.
c. Machines used in land preparation such as bulldozers compact the soil thereby destroying soil structure.
d. Machines discharge poisonous gases such as carbon monoxide and pollute the environment.
e. Machines require skilled and experienced operators.
f. At times, machines perform shoddy and haphazard operations.
Limitations of Mechanization
a. Economic Limitations: The cost of purchasing machines is high and above the reach of ordinary
farmers. Also, spare parts are scarce and costly while the maintenance cost is also high.
b. Technical Know-how: The farmers lack the technical skills required to operate the machines.
c. Social Problems: There is an inherent fear of displacing existing farmers which will compound
unemployment problems.
d. Road: Many farm locations do not have motorable roads, thereby making the movement of machines
difficult.
e. Seasonality of Farming: With the traditional dependence on rainfall, year-round crop cultivation is not
possible.
[
Reasons why Agriculture has not been fully mechanized in West Africa
a. Small farm holding or land fragmentation of land tenure system does not permit mechanization.
b. There are no access roads for machines
c. The farming systems currently practiced do not encourage mechanization
d. High running costs for machinery discourage mechanization
e. Machines are expensive to purchase
f. Machines are costly to maintain
g. Machine spare parts are not readily available.
Possible Ways of Improving Agriculture through Mechanization

a. The machines must be adaptable to local conditions such as soils and vegetation.
b. The change from traditional to mechanized farming should be gradual to avoid mass displacement of the
existing farmers.
c. Effective land reforms are necessary to enable farmers to acquire large land suitable for mechanization.
d. Storage facilities should be provided to accommodate the anticipated increased productivity and
Page 35
minimize loss of productivity.

e. Farmers should be educated to accept modern systems of farming, especially in the area of
mechanization.
f. Simple and less expensive machines should be developed.
Evaluation
1. Discuss briefly eight (8) disadvantages of agricultural mechanization in Nigeria.
2. Explain the term agricultural mechanization.
3. State five (5) possible ways of improving agriculture through mechanization.
Page 36
REFERENCES
Aremu, B. A. et al. (2007): “Basics of Agricultural Science for Schools and Colleges in West Africa”,
Seagrove Global Ventures.
Iwena O. A (2017): “Essential Agricultural Science” Tonad Publisher Limited.
Oluyemi, O. and Olajire, D. (2008): “De- Initiative Agriculture textbook”, Second edition, De Initiative
Publications.
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ST. FINBARR’S COLLEGE, AKOKA-YABA, LAGOS.

SECOND TERM SCHEME OF WORK & CONTENTS

2022/2023 ACADEMIC SESSION

SS1 AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE SECOND TERM SCHEME OF WORK, 2022/2023

AGRO-BASED INDUSTRIES IN AGRICULTURE

Meaning of Agro-based Industries

Agro-Based Industries and Raw Materials

Relationship between Agriculture and Industries

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS AFFECTING AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION

Importance of Climate in Agriculture

Environmental Factors Affecting Agricultural Production

Ways in which High Rainfall Affects Agricultural Production

Temperature: This is the degree of hotness or coldness of an area.

vi. It determines the type of pests prevalent in an area.

Wind: Wind is defined as air in motion.

Interrelationship among Living Things

Examples of Symbiotic Associations are:

Nitrogen-fixing Bacteria in the Root Nodes of Leguminous Plants: Bacterium (rhizobium

Soil Conservation Practices

Characteristics of Igneous Rock

Types of Sedimentary Rocks

graphite is formed from coal.

Characteristics of Metamorphic Rocks

Economic Importance of Rocks in Agriculture

TYPES OF SOIL COMPOSITION/PROPERTIES

Factors of Soil Formation

Composition (Components) of Soil

Importance/Effects of Organic Matter

Mineral (Inorganic) Matter

Importance/ Effects of Mineral Matter

Importance/Effects of Soil Water

Importance of Soil Air

Soil Types and their Properties

Simple Soil Calculation

a. Sandy soil= (60-50) cm3=10cm3 c. Clay soil= (60-30) cm3=30cm3

(ii) Chemical Properties (Soil pH and cation exchange capacity)

Horizons of Soil Profile

Importance of Soil Profile

Methods of Determining Soil Texture

Importance of Soil Texture

Importance of Soil Structure

[ Causes of Soil Acidity

Effects of Soil Acidity

Correction of Soil Acidity

SIMPLE FARM TOOLS

Definition of Simple Farm Tools

Types of Simple Farm Tools

d. It is used for mixing cement/concrete for farm structures.

d. It is used for covering vegetable seeds when they are broadcast.

General Maintenance of Simple Farm Tools

FARM MACHINES/ IMPLEMENTS

Daily Maintenance of Tractor

Periodic Maintenance of Tractor

The function of an Incubator

Conditions for Incubator to Function

i. Insulator to prevent heat loss.

Efforts to ensure Uniformity of Hatching of Eggs in Incubator

The function of the Milking Machine