FORM 1 HISTORY-WPS Office

FORM 1 HISTORY
What is History?
¯ History is the study of the past, present and future historical events.
¯ These events are mainly political, social and economic events.¯ Political-how societies were
led or governed.
¯ For example in the past societies were led by clan leader and chiefs.¯ Economically –hunting,
gathering and were major economic activities of societies.
¯ Socially- social gatherings (Bira) and entertainment using drums, song and danc
-It is a record of people’s lives, behaviours and activities; their glories,

successes, failures and cruelties.
-It helps us to understand what is happening around us and helps us to

prepare for the future as today’s society has been shaped by decisions of the
past.
-These activities are the ones which bring change to the past. Knowing about
the past helps us to avoid mistakes and understand how we are living.
Environment of history
The environment is vital because through that people behave in certain
ways. The environment affects what people eat, wear and the shelter they
build. Therefore the way people try to control the environment determines
their course of history.
WHY STUDY HISTORY

¯ We study history to know our past because our past predicts our future.
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¯ To know developments which took place in the past for example tools,
leadership etc.
¯ To take advantage of development made by other people.
¯ To know our origin and identity.
¯ To know the history of our country.
¯ To be united.
¯ It informs us our enemies, detractors, and traitors the reasons and the reasons
behind such circumstances.
¯ To know past and present leadership styles and distribution of power in various
government ministries.
¯ Histpry helps us to think critically on historical matters to come up with real

truth
¯ History also liberates/frees human mind and level of thinking
¯ It stimulates analytical skills on human matters in life.
SOURCES/FORMS OF HISTORY
¯ Oral Tradition/evidence
¯ Written records
¯ Archaeological history
a) Oral tradition
¯ Refers to the passing of information from one generation to another through the word of
mouth.
¯ Information comes from eye witness.
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-He/she can be an elder or a local historian who know about certain historical events in their
society.
¯ Audiences or listeners listen to the word of mouth.
Advantages
-Information is given out by eye witnesses who know about certain events.
-It is first-hand information which is useful in compiling written records.
It improves communication skills
-It is easy to get information.
-The information is easy to understand.
-You can ask questions and get clarification on certain issues
-The illiterate can also access the information.
Disadvantages
¯ It can be distorted –when the eye witnesses die.
¯ It can also be exaggerated especially when a local historians only disseminate information about their
success and ignore their failures.
-Important information can be forgotten.
-There are no dates.
-The historian can deliberately tell lies
-There is a lot of bias.
b) Written records
-They are records of information compiled from both oral tradition and archaeological
evidence.
- It can also be written by eye witnesses of certain events.
- The quality of written evidence also depends on the side of the historian on certain historical
events.
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¯ Written Records are stored in national archives and libraries in schools as books, magazines,
newspapers, posters or as novels ready for reading by people.
¯ Written records are either primary or secondary sources.
-Primary evidence - They are found in their origininal form which include photographs,
diaries, letters or just information written by actual duress e.g. Rulers and
Administrators who wrote official letters.
-Secondary evidence -This information is edited and found in published books,
newspapers, cartoons etc and it is an analysis of primary evidence.
-Therefore a person who analyses, studies or writes historical information is
called a historian.
-A historian searches for facts about past events and these facts are called
evidences.
Advantages
¯ Information is easily available.
¯ Once compiled in a book or magazine, information cannot be destr.oyed
¯ Written volumes of information can be stored permanently for future generation to use
-Written records can survive as long as the document can survive.
-Dates are available.
Disadvantages
-Documents can be easily destroyed by fire or water.
-Only the literate people can access the historical information.
-Documents can be lost.
-One cannot ask questions
-Some documents lack the truth as they tent to favour one side of the story the writer favours
most.
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¯ Distortions or exaggerations of real facts may occur during compilation period.
¯ Reflect views of the historian.
-It is expensive because one needs to buy books.
c) Archaeology
¯ Definition- refers to information obtained by archaeologist from the digging and studying of
fossils or remains of the past.
¯ Such remains of fossils include bones, plants, clay pots, skins and various tools and clothing.
-The process of digging inorder to get the information is called excavation.
-The person who diggs is called an archeologist.
-Items that are found after digging are called artefacts.
-Dates in archeology are found through the process called radio carbon dating .
Advantages
¯ Evidence is obtained from the study of past remains.
¯ Evidence is touchable and also be stored in museums for future generations eg soap stones
and the Zimbabwe Birds obtained at Great Zimbabwe.
-There is no bias, distortion or exaggeration.
-There are dates.
Disadvantages
-Only expects can excavate and interpret the information.
-It is expensive because expensive machinery is required.
-Some items might be broken accidentally during excavation.
-It is dirty to work with.
-It is time consuming.
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-It does not tell us names of people, their oe the songs which they sang.
STAGES OF HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT

-These canalso be referred to as factors of production.
-Production is an act of producing goods or items.
-There are three factors of production which are land, labour and wealth;
these are regarded as agents of production. If land and wealth area shared
equally there’s less chance of conflict but if there is unequal distribution
conflict occurs among groups or tribes, this conflict is usually referred to as
trouble.
-People make their own history through production and struggle.
¯ The following are the stages of historical development according to Karl Max:
a) Primitive communism
¯ Property was equally owned by the whole community, while work was done together and
goods were shared equally.
¯ There were no leaders people just lived and shared the factors of production.
¯ These factors include land labour and wealth.
b) Slavery
¯ This was the stage where the means of production were controlled by few individuals.
- In this stage people had gained control over the poor and weaker people.
- Slaves Performed tasks like producing and these were also forced to do what their
masters wanted.
¯ Those who owned the means of production forced their subjects to work on difficult
conditions.
¯ Subjects were subjected to ill-treatment and severe punishment.
c) Feudalism
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¯ Was a dominant social system in medieval Europe, in which the nobility held lands from the
Crown in exchange for military service, and vassals were tenants of and protected by the
nobles, giving their lords homage, labour, and a share of the produce.
¯ During this stage agriculture was their main branch of production.
¯ The Landlords owned the land and the subjects were known as the Serfs.
¯ Many people during this stage worked on the land for the Landlords.
d) Capitalism
¯ It is an economic and political system in which a country’s trade and industry are controlled by
private owners for profit, rather than by the state.
¯ During this stage the wealth of the society was produced by the machines and workers in
factories and mines.
¯ Wealth was no longer produced from agriculture as in Feudalism.
¯ The ownership of the means of production remained in the hands of the few.
¯ Labour could be bought and sold.
e) Socialism
¯ It is a political and economic theory of social organization which advocates that the means of
production, distribution, and exchange should be owned or regulated by the community as a
whole.
¯ It is a stage where wealth and work will be equally shared among the people.
¯ The means of production are controlled by the people and these include land.
¯ The workers control the economy and it is equally shared among the people.
f) Communism
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¯ It is a theory or system of social organization in which all property is vested in the community
and each person contributes and receives according to their ability and needs.
¯ A system of this kind was established in the Soviet Union and China.
¯ It is the highest stage of human development according to Karl Marx.
¯ It is a classless society.
¯ There is no army and other security forces.
¯ People live and share equally the means of production
HUMAN EVOLUTION
-Evolution is a process of change from animals (apes) to human beings

(Homo Sapien Sapien) over a long period of time.
-these changes re chronological.
-Charles Darwin is the man who proposed the theory of evolution.
-He argued that man evolved from animals. In the theory of evolution,
Charles Darwin argues that differences exist between the same groups of
animals if exposed to different environments.
-Within the different environments, some animals may die and some survive
those that survive produce descendants which are different from the original
species.
-These animals then spread out to replace these original species.
¯ There are two basic theories of human evolution or development and these theories have
conflicting ideas concerning the origin or evolution of men
a) Biblical theory
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¯ The theory asserts that man was created by God as noted in the book of Genesis.
¯ It argues that God created Adam and then Eve who became the mother of the universe
¯ The theory is theoretical in nature as it only provides written evidence provides written
evidence without other evidence like archaeological and oral sources
b) The scientific theory
¯ It was a theory put forward by Charles Darwin.
¯ The theory argues that man developed slowly and stage by stage from a group of animals
called apes.
¯ Subsequent there are k stages of development until man left his/her original way of using four
legs like other animals and began to use two legs to stand upright and walk.
¯ History as a subject believes on availability of evidence to support the theory .
¯ Ample archaeological evidence supports the scientific theory makingthe theory worth
acceptable.
¯ The theory also argues that the process of evolution took ten to twenty million years for it to
be completed which is supported by evidence recovered from archaeological remains
discovered and studies made by archaeologists and palaeontologist who study fossils.
¯ Radio carbon dating has dated these fossils since 1958 to discover the rough age of anything
that grows.
¯ Why do Historians believe that human beings evolved rather than they were created by God?
¯ Historians believe in evolution because radiocarbon dating gives evidence of the ages to which
evolution underwent its processes.
Evidence shown by archaeologists reviews that human evolution took various stages over
centuries.
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¯ Similarities between apes and human beings suggest that man was once from the family of
apes/gorillas/baboons/chimpanzee.
Basis of the scientific theory
¯ A theory written by Charles Darwin argues that people and apes came from same ancestors.
Hominids
-They lived on earth millions of years ago. They were not apes or monkeys
and neither were they human.
-These hominids became extinct.
-They were believed to live in Eastern and Southern Africa.
Remains of these hominids had been found covered in dried lakes and these
historical remains are also known as fossils.
¯ Evidence of this creature was discovered in China Java and Algeria.
Ramapithecus
¯ It lived on earth nine million years ago.
¯ Ramapithecus was shared by apes and people as their ancestors.
- It was not an ape, hominid or human being but a different creature all
altogether
Australopithecus
- It lived millions of years ago. These were small creatures that when fully
grown looked like a 12 year old and couldn’t walk upright.
- They are two types which were:
Australopithecus Robustus
- It was sometimes called the nut cracker as it was able to crunch
and grind hard food like nuts as it had large grinding teeth. It was
also called Zinjathropus.
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- Discovered in 1935 by archaeological Dr Robert Broom, who discovered a skull
of an old Australopithecus at Skerkfonten in South Africa.
¯ In 1959 Dr Louis and Mary Leaky also discovered a skull of the Australopithecus
Robustus at Olduval Gorge in Tanzania.
¯ The Australo-robustus existed the same time with the homo-habilis 2 million
years ago.
¯ It had large grinding teeth suitable for vegetable eating.
Australopithecus Gracilis
- These had small teeth of about the same size and it had no specialised
tasks like the Robustus.
- It ate all sorts of food like human beings of today eat. The Australopithecus
did not make tools but used their teeth.
Homo Habilis (Skilful man )

¯ Discovered by Dr Leaky and family.
- Described them as skilful human being with its large brain.
- Had meat eating teeth and well developed hands, it made stone tools.
¯ Is direct ancestor of Homo erectus which developed.¯
- It had large
- It had large brain cavity averaging between 775cm3 and 1500cm3 compare15000cm3 of
people today.
¯ It had the ability to walk upright.

- Survived over the early Stone Age period. It was the first hominid to talk
using languages, to use tools and these tools were called Oldwans as they
were found at Olduvai Gorge.
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- Habilines probably got meat by Scavenging, they waited for lions and
hyenas to feast on the meat they would’ve killed and ate the remains.
-Meat formed a small part of their diet.
Homo Erectus
¯ Are the first human beings
- The word erect means to walk upright.

- They used hand axes and cleavers to chop down trees, branches and for
digging.
- People were able to make tools easily and this period was referred to as the
early Stone Age.
-The Homo erectus learned to use fire to drive animals away, protect their
shelter at night, to cook and keep them warm.
¯ Were found in Tanzania which suggested that the first people lived in the
African continent.
¯ This explains why Africa is believed to be the crandle of mankind or origin of

people.
- In 1924 Professor Raymond Dart of Witwatersrand University in South Africa

discovered a skull at Tung in the Cape Province.
- The skull was from a creature between man and apes,
¯ Such a link between people and apes concludes that people evolved from apes
Homo Sapien
- They survived during the middle Stone Age period.
-They used flex tools for cutting meat, scrapping skins and making tips of
weapons.
- They used glue to stick a pole on a wooden handle.
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- A greater use of fire was noticed.
- They began to build shelter at their camps made from branches, stones and
dry grass.
Homo Sapien (Neanderthals)
- They survived during the middle Stone Age period.
- They looked after the sick, buried the dead and believed in life after death.
- They drove animals over cliffs as groups, trapped, killed and shared meat
equally.
Homo Sapien Sapiens

- The people of today are called Homo Sapien Sapien.
- They continued with the middle Stone Age period but developed future
Stone Age tools.
- Future changes are noticed due to environmental changes that is the

reason why people differ because of different environments
¯ Modern fully developed man.¯ Discovered by Leaky and Dr Richard at Lake Turkama in Kenya
were a skull and more developed leg bones were noted.
¯ Developed a stooped modern way of walking and could make tools for specific rolls.
WHY AFRICA IS THE CRADLE OF MAN?
PCradle
¯ It means origin (where one come from)
¯ Most discoveries of human race were done and concluded in Africa.
¯ These discoveries of the human race were done along the East-African Rift valley.
¯ Discoveries made at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania four million years in North
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East Africa is evidence (facts) that human race originated in Africa.
¯ The first ape-like, though they could stand and walk on two legs were found in Africa.
¯ Changes in the colour of human race are also a result of weather changes.
¯ Tool making also began in Africa and fire making.
Physical changes in human development

¯ Ability to think and work in group co-operation
¯ Ability to make tools which makes work easy.
¯ Ability to speak or communicate sharing ideas or information.
¯ Development of hunting skills e.g. trapping.
¯ Development of skills on how to gather.
¯ Division of labour- woman gathering and in some cases helped men in setting traps for
animals.
¯ Sharing of hunted and gathered foods equally among participants.
Effects of tool making

-Tool making affected people’s lives positively by making production easier.
- It was easier because they used the tools for gathering food e.g. fruits and
insects.
-This also brought communication and their language progressed and this
was where early language emerged.
- The transition from collecting to hunting established an important base for
the future human development.
- By this people learnt how to take care of themselves. The struggle for
survival helped the human development increase.
Early agriculture.
- It is a very big helping hand in the process of development.
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- At this stage people began to domesticate animals and to breed the young
ones of the animal. Some of the major crops which were first grown in Africa
e.g. Taff which was first grown in Ethiopia.
- Tools of agriculture such as hoes were used. Some got more land than
others resulting in slavery and some of the people gained control over
others.
- In this the first class societies began to emerge.
EGYPT AND KUSH
- In Egypt two great civilised groups existed which were Egyptians and
Kushians.
- The Nile River in Egypt is the longest river in Africa. It has two great
tributaries which are the Blue Nile and the White Nile.
- The Nile was the centre of life through trade, transport and agriculture.
-The early people of the Nile had to learn to understand the river to control
its flooding.
-Dam walls were built to stop the water from flooding the villages.
- Canals were also built to help water run through the fields.
- To calculate this Egyptians needed accurate measurements therefore they

developed early forms of mathematics and Geometry which they called
Geometrics.
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- Egyptians came up with three seasons which the called Arket (the time for
planting), Peret (the time for harvesting) and Shemou (the time when the
Nile river flooded).
-Days were counted by phases of the moon called months.
- The flood cycle started after every 365 days and each month had 30 days
and that left them with 5 extra days which they called Heryou Renepet.
Egyptian writing
- The most vital steps to civilisation were the invention of Egyptian writing.
- The Egyptians adopted a picture way of writing called Hyroglyphics.
- The most important records of the Egyptians which have come down to us
are on papyrus (paper).
- At first Egyptians curved their writing on stones e.g. on the walls of

Egyptian tombs and temples.
- They learnt how to make paper from papyrus reeds which grew freely on
the Nile banks. Ink was made by mixing soot and vegetable dye.
- The Egyptian handwriting is called Hieroglyphics which means picture

writing or sacred carvings.
Who learnt to write?

- Pharaohs and their advisers.
- Priests learnt to interpret sacred writing.
- Scribes as they worked in civil services and wed professional writers.
- Sons of rich man learnt to write as part of their education.
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What did they write?
- They kept records of their everyday business.
- Plays and stories of all kinds mostly about the gods.
- Letters of state business to foreign countries or personal letters.
- Books of medicine, signs and moral based on religion practises as well as
social questions.
- Scribes were present in fields to record the size of the harvest so that
proper text/record could be assessed.
- From this idea modern man developed writing for communication and
Egyptian writing has thus made a great contribution to our present
civilisation.
Agriculture
- Crops such as wheat, barley and sorghum were grown.
- Their food was made up of bread and fish from the Nile.
- They kept a lot of sheep and goats but few cattle. Their animals were
mainly for paying taxes to the Pharaoh. They also grew flex which helped
them to make cloth.
Shaduf
- It was like a see saw, a bucket was fastened to one end to a pole and a
heavy stone to the other side.
- The pole then supports the crossbeam layered across to short wooden
posts.
- When the bucket is dipped into the river, a heavy stone acts as a centre
weight and the bucket can rise easily and tipped into the irrigation charets.
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- Today we have irrigation in most of our country but the idea was borrowed
from Egypt and as years passed by Egyptian grew crops as a result of the
irrigation system.
Pyramids
- Pyramids were the mightiest tombs of all built by the Pharaohs for their
burials.
- Together there were 80 pyramids which were built near the Nile. The first
pyramid was built for Pharaoh Zhoza/ Zozer and it was designed by an
Architect/Imhotep.
- It was made out of a tomb layered out of different levels and this gave an
impression of steps and it was given the name Heroe.
- The largest was built for Pharaoh Khufu and it stands at Gizi near the city
of Cairo, it took many years to build and many men were required for the
construction.
- Pyramids were built during the season of Shemou were no work was done
in the fields.
Egyptian beliefs
- They believed in life after death and looked forward to the same kind of life
which they were living on earth in the next world.
- The book of the dead was listed 2 sins which a man had to avoid which
were cheating and killing.
- The Egyptians believed the soul left the body to be judged by Osiris the
underworld god.
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- The heart of the dead was placed on a huge scale and weighed against its
sins, guilty souls were at once devoured by the jackal headed god Anubis
but good souls entered the world of the dead and the company gods.
- The soul that had been judged worth of eternal life could eventually enter
the body but only if it was properly preserved and laid in a tomb.
- The re-entry of the soul into the body explained why Egyptians preserved
the body of the dead (mummified).
- For kings and rich man, the preserving process of the body would last over
2 months, vital organs were first removed and stored in Alabo Jars whilst the
body itself was dried and treated with spices of essence.
NB: Much of Egyptian culture, writing and was lost and other point changed
under the rule of theGreeks, however, the Greeks learnt more from Egyptian
arts, religion, architecture and science.
Egyptian gods
Horus – The sky god, his eyes were the moon and the sun.
Ptah – He invented the arts, the god of the capital menu.
Hathor – She was the goddess of beauty.
Osiris – He was a god of the underworld.
Rechoralchty (Ra) – He was the sun god.
- The word Pharaoh came from Per-au which means great house of leader.
- Pharaoh was the head of state and high priest; he governed with the
assistance of Advisors, Generals and Priests.
- The Pharaoh was seen as a god and different from other humans.
- Women played a very important rule in the state and 4 women became
pharaohs themselves.
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- Means of production and distribution of wealth was in the hands of the
Pharaoh.
- Building of the temple and mining were state businesses.
- Most people were peasant farmers who worked and lived on land which
belonged to the Pharaoh.
- Land was given as payment to the priest, officials and soldiers.
- Land which was owned could be passed from parents to their children.
- Those who worked for the Pharaoh were paid in regular gifts like grain, fish
and other things.
- There were also crafted people who were involved as potters and sculptors.
- The survival of the economy of the society depended upon the growth and
distribution of land.
- Peasant farmers grew wheat and barley.
- Bread and beer was made from grain as well as vegetables and fruits were
the staple food.
- Land was too wet for cattle raising there for they mainly kept sheep and
goats.
- Glasses were made from sand.
Egyptian law
- Men and women were equal before the law in relation to royal decisions,
legal practises and penalties.
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- They had equal rights to property as well as justice.
- A family was constituted of mother, father and children.
- A strict code of ethics was kept.
Important events in Egyptian history

- Historical evidence was obtained from
Oral tradition.
Written records.
Archaeology.
- A historian called Manetho sorted the kings into dynasties. A dynasty is a

line of family rulers. He divided the periods into 3 kingdoms.
- The old kingdom (2750-2200 BC)
- The middle kingdom (2150-1800 BC)
- The new kingdom (1580-1100 BC)
- The intermediate was the period between dynasties and no records were
kept during this period between civil wars and foreign invasions (Dark ages).
The old kingdom

- The first pharaoh was Menes who united lower and Upper Egypt.
- He was a leader from the south and his capital was Memphis.
The 1st and 2nd dynasties worked hard in uniting a society.
- During the third dynasty the first pyramid was built for Pharaoh Zozer at
Sakkara; pyramids were burial places for Pharaohs.
- Pharaoh Zozer was the founder of the third dynasty; his pyramid was the
only one with stepped sides.
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- Three more pyramids were built during the fourth dynasty and these had
smooth sides. Pharaoh Khufu’s was the greatest and is one of the wonders of
the world.
The middle kingdom

- Pharaoh Menthuhotep of the 11th dynasty worked hard to reunite Egypt
once again.
- His successors extended the power over the rich Nubia at the Sauté.
- During this period Pharaohs put their sons as core rulers. ,
- During the 13th dynasty the Pharaohs were more concerned about the south
that the northern defences became weak.
- Groups of invaders from Asia began to enter the country and these foreign
invaders were known as Hyksos.
- The rulers Thebes fought a war of liberation against the Hyksos and this
war lasted for 50 years.
The new kingdom

- Between the 18th and 20th dynasties Egypt became powerful again.
Pharaohs of that time were Amenhotep I, Thutmose I and Queen Hatshepsut
I. they strengthened and attended external affairs such as building temples.
- During Thutmose III’s reign Egypt became an imperialist power ruling over
city states of Palestine, Syria and Lebanon.
- During the reign of Amenhotep III he concentrated mainly on the internal
as he was more interested in culture at home than abroad.
- During his reign a temple at Luxor in the valley of kings was a sight of one
of the most important of all archaeological findings, the mummified body of
Tutankhamen was found in1922 of the 18 th dynasty. Great important
Egyptian evidence was found in his tomb.
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THE SAN PEOPLE
- The San were the first known inhabitants of Central and Southern Africa.
- They were hunter-gathers living in highly mobilised groups between 20-50
people either following game around the country or living in close rhythm
with the land and its seasons or maintaining a more settled life depending on
seals, shellfish, crayfish, birds and fruits for food.
¯ They are called BUSHMEN by the Boers.
¯ The Xhosa call them the Abutwa.
¯ Shona people call them Masiri/Mandiwonerepi.
¯ Same people were given all these names because they are short and they also disappeared in
grasses.
¯ Today they are found in the Kalahari desert in Botswana.
- Their physical appearance is small in structure,brown in colour and they

have unique click languages.
- The San were stone age people so they did not use metals so their weapons
were made of wood, stone and bones.
- They did not domesticate animals and cultivate crops. No pottery was made
instead they used ostrich egg shells for storing and holding liquids.
- The San were nomads as they were always on the move in search of game
and plant food so they did not build permanent shelter, they preferred rock
shelter for temporary shelter.
- A chief controlled their resources on behalf of the group back in the day
before the arrival of shelter.
- A number of fish bones were found in caves and this indicates that they
were accomplished fishermen.
- Slivers of bones and wood sharpened at each end were used to hook fish
which were also caught by means of tidal trap made from walls constructed
by river Sanda.
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San settlement
¯ San people lived in doom-shaped shelter.
¯ They also stay in caves.
¯ Their groups ranged 50 person and bellow.
¯ They survived through hunting and gathering thus they were also called hunter and gatherers.
San social and cultural life

¯ Stayed in groups of between 50 people and bellow.
¯ When the group grows to exceed 50 people they would split into two groups.
¯ San are the ancestors of people who live today in Southern and Central Africa.
¯ They used Ostrich egg shells to fetch water and used fire sticks to make fire.
¯ The community was headed by the community chiefs.
¯ The wife of the chief supervised the tribal fire and never allowed it to die out.
- The San had no sense of ownership.

- Disputes were solved by a group known as a consensus.
- The status of women was relatively equal.
- The San of both sex wore many ornaments made of seed, berries, shell
and small pieces stuck together as necklaces and bracelets they used ostrich
and tortoise shells to carry and store water.
- Movement to different campsites was organised by a group.
- Their lifestyle was primitive communism.
- The San men were responsible for hunting and fishing, they went on long
hunting trips and they would gather Hordia Gordidni and chew the bitter
miracle plant to supress their appetite.
- The women did most of the gathering of plants and that included wild fruit
and berries as well as leaves, stems bulbs, corms, and root of a variety of
plants.
- They were very good hunters that knew the ways of the animals they
hunted.
- The San had to devise many different hunting traps in the form of parts
covered by leaves which was another way of trapping the animals.
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- Another way was extracting poison which was then used to hunt.
- The meat was cooked fresh or smoked and dried for later use, only small
quantities were preserved this way because it had to be carried when the
group moved to the next place.
- Clothing was light for easy movement, men wore line skirts with a short
skin in front tied on the waist, and they also used skin cloaks and blankets to
keep themselves warm especially in temperate climates.
-Leather work was common and leather was made into Ned bag for carrying
food, string bags were woven from great fibre.
- The eland was considered the most spiritual animal.
- The taught their children through oral tradition.
San economic life

¯ Practised hunting and gathering
¯ They devised many hunting methods like traps e.g. fish traps/ fish baskets made of reeds for
catching fish and animal traps e.g. net trap and pit trap for trapping animals.
¯ They used poisoned arrows and spear to kill the animal very fast.
¯ Used bows and arrows and throwing spears.
¯ Poison was extracted from roots, barks of trees and from poisonous snakes,
spiders and scorpions.
¯ Small animal, reptiles and other large animals were killed.
¯ Meat was cooked fresh or dried.
¯ San people also eat gathered fruits, bulbs and nuts.
¯ Also used hooks made from sharpened bones to catch fish like shell fish.
¯ Fibres were spanned to make traps e.g. sisal fibres.
¯ Clothing was light and loose for easy working.
¯ Also used skins for clothing and blankets.
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¯ They wore ornament made from seeds, berries, shells and pieces of wood to make bracelets
and necklines.
¯ They also practised leather work to make bags and clothes.
¯ They were nomadic – moved from place to place in an area.
Rock paintings
¯ Painted a rock and cave walls and engraved ostrich shells.
¯ They made paints of several colours.
¯ San rock paintings showed their lifestyles and beliefs.
¯ Pictures, drawn included themselves, animal and hunters chasing and killing animals.
¯ San got most of their resources for survival from the environment.
San political life

¯ They had no centralised political system or government.
¯ There was a group leader or community chief.
¯ Their groups ranged from 35 to 50 people per-group.
¯ Change of location was decided by the whole group with leader co-ordinating.
¯ San societies had no classes or hierarchy, all people were equal.
¯ This was the stage of early communalism.
THE KHOIKHOI
- The other early inhabitants of Central and Southern Africa were the Khoisan
herders or Khoi Khoi.
- The early Europeans called these people the “Hottentots” meaning
stammers.
- The exact origin of these people is still being debated by historians.
- The old theory was the Khoi Khoi migrated from East Africa with their
livestock and settled in Southern Africa but recent historical evidence has
shown it is not true.
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- It is being argued that the Khoi Khoi were among the original inhabitants
of the area.
- It is also known that some of the San people adapted to the changes in
their environment and began to domesticate animals probably about 2000
years ago.
- The Khoi Khoi was originated from pastoral culture and language was
found.
- The exact place of origin of these people is still debated and some say they
originated from the northern place of Bulawayo and migrated to East Africa
with their livestock in Southern Africa.
- However, recent evidence argues that they were among the original
inhabitants.
- It is also known that some of the San adopted change in the environment
and began to domesticate animals.
¯ The San and the Khoikhoi when combined are known as the KHOISAN.
¯ The Khoikhoi were herders.
¯ They kept livestock e.g. cattle, goats and sheep.
¯ They stayed in large numbers of 500 and above.
¯ They also practised hunting and gathering.
¯ Some of their characteristics are similar to that of the San except: they are taller than the San
and they are copperish in complexion.
Economic system
- Major economic system was based livestock production.
- They raised long horned cattle and fat tailed sheep and goats;
cattle were a symbol of wealth and prestige.
- Their way of life was organised around their livestock therefor
they moved from place to place during different seasons in search
of pasture and water for the animals.
- Animals were kept for meat, milk and blood. Cattle were also kept for
ceremonies.
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- Husbandry of sheep, goats and cattle provided a stable balanced
diet and allowed the related Khoi Khoi people to live in large
groups than the previous inhabitants.
- As time went on Khoisan began to grow crops and a variety of
other plants.
- Crops grown include a grain called PENNISETUM.
- Like the San both sexes were involved in the economic activities.
- Apart from herding animals men sometimes hunted wild animals

for meat and skin for clothing.
- Women milked cows and goats, gathered roots and berries and
also made pottery.
- The Khoi Khoi industry was more developed than that of the
San.
- Their technology included carvings of shallow dishes, bone ivory
and smelting and smithing of iron.
- Trading of some of these times was developed with traders from
the Far East who often came to the south of the east coast of
Africa.
- They also extracted salt from the salt mineral springs through
evaporation in soapstone dish
- They used used the salt in food and for meat preservation.
Political and Social organisation

- The village settlement was relatively large often well over hundred people.
- They did not live in caves because of their large numbers.
- They built dome shaped huts from young branches.
- They covered them with mats from reeds and sometimes with animal skins.
- Huts were arranged in a circle and domestic animals were often kraaled
overnight within the circle.
- Each village consisted of member of the same clan and a group of male
descendants of a particular ancestor with their wives and children.
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- The young people were initiated at adulthood at about 18 years and
marriage could take place after the ceremony.
- The groom paid lobola in the form of an ox for the wedding feast.
- After the marriage a hut was built for the couple near the bride’s mother’s
hut.
- Unlike the San the Khoisan community had more organised system of
authority.
- Each village had a headman, it was a hereditary position passed to the
eldest son of the founding ancestor for every generation.
-Headman made decisions such as when and where to move.
- They also acted as mediators or judges in criminal and civil disputes.
- Senior people had more privileges than the juniors e.g. they lived in houses
to the right of the elder whilst juniors lived to the left side.
- Each family had their own hut; however, children who were older lived with
their age group.
- The Khoisan were polygamous (more than one wife).
- Several villages were united into a larger unit called a tribe.
- Tribes had a kinship base and were made up of a number of linked clans
with a Seniority of one of the clans being recognised.
- The head of the senior clan was recognised as the chief of the tribe.
- The extant of the tribal land was not defined by exact boundaries but
reference to land Tokay water hole.
- Tribal chiefs controlled outside access to their resources.
¯ Chief led the communities.
¯ Chief was also leader of the army.
¯ Chief also presided over community ceremonies.
¯ Khoikhoi had an organised system of central authority.
¯ Senior person helped chief in settling disputes of the community.
Customs and religion
- The Khoisan believed in a supreme being.

- They believed in spirits of natural forces especially water and rain.
-'They gave special significance to the moon which they viewed as a physical
magnification of the Supreme Being associated with heaven.
- The time of a new and full moon was a special occasion for dancing.
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¯ Boys were initiated into adulthood at 18years.
¯ Marriage only took place after rituals have been done.
¯ Lobola was paid as Ox for wedding feast.
STONE AGE PERIOD
¯ It was a time began to make stone tools.
¯ As people continued to evolve their teeth grew small and their jaws became weak to eat
uncut meat.
¯ This forced man to develop stone tools.
¯ The Stone Age period is divided into three stages that are Early, Middle and Late Stone Age.
a) Early Stone Age
¯ Four million years ago to 50 000 BC, stone tools became widely used.
¯ The developed the hand axe for killing animals, skinning and cutting meat into pieces.
¯ Also began to make and use stone tools like cleavers, scrapers, knives and throwing stones.
¯ Gathering and hunting was a major pre-occupation.
¯ The gathered nuts, berries, bulbs and other fruits.
¯ Archaeological evidence in East Africa points out that trapping and poisoning of pools was
used to catch fish.
¯ In Zimbabwe people use a bulb called Chitupatupa to poison pools to kill fish.
b) Middle Stone Age

¯ Started around 50 000 BC to 150 000BC.
¯ It was the period in which fire was made.
¯ Fire was used for scaring world animals from their caves which they used as their shelter at
night.
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¯ Fire was also used for drying meat, warmth during winter days and to make glue through
warming up juices from plants and insects.
¯ Glue was used to protect spear heads.
¯ Fire was made from rubbing two dry sticks continuously.
¯ They also made spears from bones of animals.
¯ Scrapers continued to be used for scraping animal skins.
¯ Fire was made also used to clear forests to easy the work of hunting.
¯ Stone Age people also made gums out of juices of herbs and insects to make poison arrows or
spears.
¯ Poisoned spears killed the animals quickly during hunting.
¯ Gathering also continued.
c) Later Stone Age

¯ It lasted two million years ago.
¯ The means of production was communal because people worked as groups.
¯ Hunting and gathering was done collectively (in groups).
¯ There was also equal sharing of goods or foods hunted and gathered.
¯ They carried out some religious ceremonies like now hunting seasons.
¯ They began the practise of burring off dead person in small and shallow caves (Ninga for
Chiefs).
¯ Practised rock painting – drawing of people on walls/ rock surfaces to show their different
activities.
¯ The painting shows the life styles, beliefs and myths of the period.
Later Stone Age tools and their uses

1.MICROLITHS
¯ Is a tiny-very small tools made from bones.
¯ Used for cutting skins
¯ To make clothes
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¯ Sawing
¯ To make bulbs put on spears to increase its sharpness
2.BOWS AND ARROWS
¯ It is a projectile pin used for
hunting and killing animals.
¯ Used in hunting
¯ Killing of animals for meat.
3. BARB
¯ Cover the front of the spear and arrow to increase its sharpness and effectiveness.
Later Stone Age: the rise of agriculture

¯ Agriculture is the rearing/ keeping/ domestication of animals and growing of crops.
¯ Agriculture was the major development of the late Stone Age.
¯ Human experience in hunting and in gathering led them to experiment animal keeping and
crop cultivation.
¯ They began to grow crops like sorghum, millet, potato (yam), teff and rice called Orzya
Glaberima.
¯ Potato is a yam is also a tuber plant.
¯ Teff, rice, millet and sorghum are cereal crops.
¯ Cereal crops were used as staple food.
¯ New crops were used to supplement foods obtained from hunting and gathering.
¯ Animals domesticated included goats, cattle, sheep, pigs, and chickens.
¯ Reared animals provided them with bones for making tools, meat, milk and skins for clothes.
¯ People began to make iron tools to replace the ineffective stone tools.
¯ The rise of blacksmiths who began to smelt iron and to iron tools like hoes, spears and later
the plough which transformed agriculture.
¯ Blacksmith were iron workers, this led to the division of labour with some people becoming
cultivators, and others remain hunters and others as traders.
¯ Most women were crop cultivators.
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¯ To some people began to accumulate or get wealth through trade.
¯ The wealthy persons began to hire labour.
¯ This is known as the master-slave relationship.
Iron Age period

¯ This is a period were iron technology was introduced.
¯ It was between 1st century AD and the 19th century AD, in the region of central and Southern
Africa.
¯ During this period the mode of life changed from the Stone Age and hunter gatherer mode of
production to the use of iron technology.
¯ This process of change is known as the NEOLITHIC REVOLUTION.
¯ Wooden and stone tools were substituted for iron technology, thus the wooden and stone
axes, knives, and arrows gave way for iron tools.
¯ The increased use of iron tools such as iron hoes, axes, knives, hunting arrows and fish hooks
increased man’s capacity to domesticate and manage his environment.
The changes brought by Iron Age technology

Political changes
¯ The use of iron technology brought changes in the method of producing food.
¯ These changes were political, economic and social.
- States began to emerge.
- The rich became kungs and chiefs and they began to raise armies to protect their privileged
positions.
- They made laws.
Economic changes
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- Farming-people started domesticating animals and grew crops. As a result more land was
cultivated, many wild animals and fish were caught thus there was a more and varied food
which resulted in long life expectancy and increased population.
- Mining- people engaged in iron and copper mining. The ores were smelt to produce tools and
jewellery. The implements/tools were then used in farming, hunting and trade.
- Hunting- became more organised and efficient through the use of iron arrow and spears.
- They made pottery to sstore nd carry water and milk.
- Therews division of labour based on age, sex and skill. Women gath, men hunted, whilst the
young boys looked after liestock.
- Blacksmithing was done producing knives, hoes,axes and iron tippe arrows.
- Due to the availability of better and stronger weapons people started raiding one another.
- Trade- Iron Age people engaged in both internal and external trade in grain, livestock, tools
and crafts. Trade was mostly controlled by rulers who became rich and powerful.
- Tribute-the rulers established a tributary system in which the subjects paid tribute as a sign of
allegiance/loyalty.
Social changes
- People began to have permanent settlements.
- Population bean to increase due to adequate food supplies.
- Man’s mobility was increased through the use of bigger canoes that facilitate the crossing of
big and wide rivers.
- Accommodation improved as iron axes and hoes made it easier to cut more wood and mould
dagga for house construction.
- The rich loaned cattle to the poor.
- The groom paid lobola usig cattle and iron tools.
Uses of iron
1. To make light arrow-heads and spears.
2. To make jewellery.
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3. To make knives, hummers and chisels
4. To pay lobola e.g. hoes.
5. Blacksmith used iron to pay tribute to the chiefs
Importance of iron
1. Iron technology increased the man’s ability and capacity to domesticate the environment in
order to satisfy basic needs.
2. Settled life encouraged the development of permanent settlement, there was now better
food security derived from farming, hunting and trade.
3. The safety and security from enemies and wild animals increased through the building of
houses in clusters.
4. The development of specialization in the areas of farming, mining, manufacturing and trade
led to an increase in production and prosperity.
Problems of iron technology
1. Disintegration of communal way of living and the growth of inequality in wealth and power
between individuals, social groups and communities.
2. Women were regarded as commodities indicating wealth in marriage. The more wives one
had the wealthier he was regarded.
3. The establishment of tributary system promoted the exploitation of man by man .
Comparison of the Stone Age and the Irnon Age

LATE STONE AGE EARLY IRON AGE
The hand-axe was blunt, difficult to Hand axe was now lighter and
use when cutting down trees for sharper therefore it was easier to
agriculture and it was also heavy. clear large pieces of land for
agriculture
Used the stone tipped arrow for Used iron tipped arrows for hunting
hunting and it was difficult to kill a and it was easier to kill a lot of
lot of animals. animals.
Stone knifes were used for cutting Iron knifes were used for cutting
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LATE STONE AGE EARLY IRON AGE
meat. meat.
Most people had no food to store for A lot of people had food to store for
the next season. the next season.
Farming was done on a small scale. Farming was done on a large scale.
Population was stable as food was Population increase as food was in

scarce. abundance.
People could die early because of People could live longer because they
diseases associated with ate a balanced diet.
malnutrition.
Fish was caught using baskets. Fish caught using iron fish hooks.
GREAT ZIMBABWE STATE

¯ The state was founded by the Shona people between 1200 and 1450AD as a result of Iron Age
development.
¯ The capital was based at Great Zimbabwe. The statehas an estimated population of above 10
000 at the height of its power.
¯ The state was famous for its stone work with wall built without water.
¯ The name Zimbabwe is derived from these stone structures at Great Zimbabwe (Dzimbabwe)
houses of stones.
Why was Great Zimbabwe built

¯ As a trading centre
¯ As mambo’s court
¯ As a dwelling place for the nobles
¯ For religious purposes
¯ Environmental factors
¯ As a symbol of power
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Factors leading to the development of the state
1. Availability of enough water from Mutirikwi River for domestic and agricultural purposes.
2. An increase in completion over the control of existing land resources.
3. An increase in cattle herding and gold mining created more wealth for the ruling clans. As
people grew richer they married more wives they had children who were then drafted into the
army.
4. The army enabled to conquer derived groups thereby establishing control over land
resources on the more fertile Zimbabwe Plateau.
5. The building of defensive walls that protect people from their rival groups and wild animals.
6. The buildings at Great Zimbabwe were a display of power and it was viewed as a symbol of
wealth.
7. Trading activities at Great Zimbabwe brought in more wealth. Gold was traded for the
imported ceramics from Persia and China.
Political Organisation
- The king was the head of the state and supervised trade, commanded the army, received
tribute and judged all cases that were brought before him.
- Chiefs were below the king and had to be submissive, these included provincial chiefs and
district chiefs.
- They paid tribute as loyalty to the king.
- They also collected tribute from the subjects and ruled their own areas.
- Village chiefs and village heads controlled villages; they were submissive to the king and
paid tribute.
- Religious leaders conducted religious ceremonies and advised the king when ruling; they
were part of the council.
Economic structure
-They practiced farming growing crops such as sorghum, rapoko and millet.
-They kept animals such as cattle, goats and sheep.
- Tribute was paid to the king in the form of gold, copper, iron, cattle, goats, sheep grain, animal
skins and labour.
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- Internal and external trade was practiced. Externally they traded with the Portuguese giving
them gold, Cooper, ivory, salt and animal skins in exchange for guns, gunpowder, mirrors,
beads, jewellery and cloth.
- They mined gold, copper, iron and tin.
- Hunting was done for meat, skins and ivory.
- Fishing was done to supplement their diet.
Social structure
¯ The society at the Great Zimbabwe State was characterised by:
¯ Social classes namely the ruling class that enjoyed a number of privileges and the commoner
class that paid tribute.
¯ The division of labour based on occupation hence the society had farmers, herders, miners,
traders, hunters, etc.
¯ The division of labour based on gender thus women were cultivators,
weavers, pottery makers while males were herders, hunters, miners, traders etc.
The religion of the state

¯ The Shona at Great Zimbabwe were a religious group who worshiped the Mwari Cult through
use of Vadzimu.
¯ Mhondoro/ Masvikiro had powerful religious and mystic abilities. They practised rain-making
through the Masvikiro or spirits.
¯ Mwari was the Supreme Divine being worshiped by Shona people.
¯ Shona chief had power to control religion which was the only way in which people could talk
to Mwari.
¯ The king who presides over national religious ceremonies had power to intermediate between
people and Mondoros for social unity
Decline of the Great Zimbabwe State

¯ To decline means to fall in power.
¯ The reasons for the decline of the Great Zimbabwe State are:
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¯ Shortage of salt.
¯ Decline in sources of ivory.
¯ Depletion of reserves
¯ Decline in trade with the Portuguese.
¯ Shortage of enough pastures.
¯ Population increase causing pressure/ competition on available resource.
¯ The empire was so large giving problem to the king to control.
¯ Succession disputes leading to civil wars.
¯ Migration of Nyatsimba Mutota to the Dande region.
THE MUTAPA STATE

- The state has been founded by Nyatsimba Mutota.
¯ It was formed around 1400AD. Mutota led a number of people and soldiers from Great
Zimbabwe to the Dande region.
- The state was formed after the decline of Great Zimbabwe in 1400AD.
- The son Matope continued with the extension of the state boundaries, by the 16th century
the Mutapa State included Guruuswa, Manyika, Mbire, Tete, etc.
¯ The state is an off-shoot of Great Zimbabwe.
- It can be referred to as Monomutapa, Munhumutapa and Mwenemutapa.
- The Name or title Mutapa came from a Shona verb root Tapa. Historians
have used other meanings munhu in Shona which means person and when
combined with Mutapa means a person who forcibly takes someone’s
property or a kidnapper.
- This name describes the strategy used to establish his empire.
- Oral tradition has it that sometime in the 15 th century a certain Nyatsimba
Mutota son of Chibatamatosi king of Great Zimbabwe was sent by his father
to search for salt in the Dande area.
-He moved from Great Zimbabwe in search of salt and was accompanied by
his son Matope, daughter Nehanda and Nyakatonje a visitor to the Great
Zimbabwe.
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-Mutota the decided to take over the area and marked the beginning of the
Mutapa Empire.
- Mutota established his capital at Chitakochangonya Hills near Mt Fura in the Dande area.
- After the conquest of the entire Dande, Mutota died and was succeeded by
his son Matope who then expanded the state into a large kingdom which
some sources describes as an empire.
- He expanded the area to Mozambique and took control of foreign trading

coast along the Indian Ocean coast which was a key to trading.
- The state was said to have 6 provinces Dande, Barwe, Pura, Guruuswa,
Manyika and Uteve.
Factors that led to the rise of the Mupa State
- The Dande area was rich with resources like pastures for their livestock and firewood.
- The area was rich with salt which was an important trade commodity.
- They were pleof elephants which provided ivory for trade.
-They were plenty of minerals in the Dande area such as gold, copper and iron.
- The decline of Great Zimbabwe forced people to migrate northwards.
- The Tpnga, Tavara and Korekore people who resided in the area were weak and Mutota easily
conquered them.
Political organisation
¯ The King was the head of the state who held political and economic powers.
- He was helped to rule by an advisory council.
¯ The King was called by the praise name Munhumutapa.
¯ The main duties of the Munhumutapa were :
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i. To control long distance trade.
ii. Allocation of land of grazing and cultivation to his subjects.
iii. He received tribute from his subjects.
iv. The head of state and the military Commander.
v. Presides over national religious activities
¯ The Munhumutapa was assisted by aristocratic officials, territorial Kings and Chiefs to
administer the state.
¯ At the top of the Political hierarchy was the King who with the assistance of the aristocratic
officials was in charge of the Mutapa state.
¯ He was followed by territorial/ provincial Chiefs who were in charge of the provinces and they
collected tribute on behalf of the King.
¯ The Chiefs were in charge of districts and villages and they also collected tribute on respective
areas on behalf of the King.
The army
¯ The state has extending army of between 200-500 soldiers.
¯ The army used traditional weapons
¯ The King was the army commander
¯ The army was responsible for :
¯ Maintaining peace and order within the state
¯ Defending the state from external forces
¯ Carry out military campaigns against other weaker states
Economic activities
- They practiced farming growing crops such as sorghum, rapoko and millet.
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-They were pastoralists keeping animals such as cattle, goats and sheep.
skins and labour.
- Gathering of fruits, nuts berries, edible roots and bulbs was done by women and children.
- They practiced blacksmithing producing tools such as knives, axes, hammers, spears, fishing
hooks and iron tipped arrows.
Social Organisation
- The Mutapa state had people of different dialects e.g. Karanga, Ndawu and
Zezuru.
- There was gender awareness when allocating duties. Men were part of the
army and hunted whilst women were involved in household chores e.g.
cooking, taking care of children etc.
- People of the same totem were not allowed to marry one another.
-Incest and bestiality were taboos.
- They believed in life after death and so they consulted family spirits, clan
spirits and national spirits, this was usually done in times of crisis uch as war,
drought and harvest.
- Family spirits were believed to help family members achieve their
ambitions.
- Clan and national spirits also intervened in political disputes, succession
disputes and inter-clan disputes.
- They believed in avenging spirits (Ngozi).
-They practised polygamy.
THE PORTUGUESE PENETRATION INTO THE MUTAPA STATE
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Aims of the Portuguese in Mutapa / Reasons for Portuguese penetration in Mutapa
-Initially the Portuguese wanted to trade with The Mutapa people.
-They wanted to drive the Swahili and Arabs away for they had become competitors.
-They wanted to spread Christianity.
-They wanted to take control of the gold mines in Mutapa.
-They wanted to control trade routes in the interior.
-They wanted land from the Shona.
-They wanted to build trading posts [feiras].
-They wanted to avenge the death of Father Goncalo da Silveira.
Developments
- After the death of Matope there were quarrels over leadership. In 1494 Chikuyo
Chisamarengu became king.
¯ He was the first king to receive a European visitor called Fernandez a trader.
¯ He was received in friendly manner and presented the Munhumutapa with one of his guns; he
also gave the king some powder and short.
¯ With new weapons and others which follow, the Munhumutapa expanded his empire and
assisted his ally, Makombe of Barwe, to take control of Manyika.
¯ After his death in 1530, Neshangwe became the Munhumutapa. He expanded the empire
further by taking over Mbire province, which earned him the praise
¯ He began to send judges each year to hold court in Mbire at Mutiusinazita, “the nameless
tree”.
¯ He also renewed the old custom of chiefs sending their ambassadors once a year to receive
the moto mutsva “the new fire”.
- This was a sign of their loyalty and allegiance.
¯ Neshangwe was succeeded in 1550 by Chivere Nyasoro.
¯ He crushed a Tavara revolt and as a symbol of the defeat, he took their totem or taboo. This
was, Nzou, the elephant, n’tembo in Tavara.
¯ Chivere died in 1560. The leadership passed to his eldest son, Negomo Mapunzagutu, an
unmarried youth who was assisted in government by his mother, Chiuyu.
¯ The king and his mother were baptised as Christians by Father Gonzalo da Silveira and were
given the names Sebastian and Maria by Goncalo da Silveira.
¯ The VaMwenye (Muslim Traders) thought Silveira had become too powerful and they plotted
a way to get rid of him.
- In 1561 the VaMwenye plotted and killed Da Silvera and dumped his body
in a pond.
¯ In 1570, the Portuguese king sent an army to invade Mutapa to avenge the death of Silveira.
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¯ This army was defeated easily even though it had many guns, just because the Portuguese did
not know the area, they wore heavy metal armour which made it difficult for them to move
around.
- They were easily defeated even though they had superior weapons.
- 1567 Francisco Barretto was sent by the Portuguese to invade Mutapa so as
to avenge the death of Fr Goncalo Da Silveira as well as driving away
Muslims.
- Unfortunately he died before invading as they reached Mutapa during the
rainy season and were affected by diseases.
- In 1574- Father Vasco Fernandes Homem was sent together with 400
men. Before reaching Manyika, he faced resistance from Chiteve.
- Chiteve King was defeated, but the Portuguese realised that the area had
little gold deposits.
- Most soldiers sent by the Portuguese faced opposition from the Tonga and
couldn’t invade Mutapa. For 35 years there was peace in Mutapa.
¯ In 1607, the Munhumutapa Gatsi Rusere asked for Portuguese help to fight against a rival for
the leadership. In return he gave them the silver mines at Chikwa.
¯ But he refused to tell them where the mines were.
¯ The people at Mutapa refused to help the Portuguese look for the mines because they had
seen prazeros take their land.
¯ Portuguese took more land and cattle. They forced people to work in their farms.
¯ They formed their own private armies called the Chikundas. They became wild, lawless and no
longer obeyed the Munhumutapa.
- They refused to pay tribute to the Mutapa.v
¯ The next Munhumutapa, Nyambo Kapararidze tried to expel the Portuguese but they
overpowered him and put in his place Mamvura Mhande.
¯ He agreed to save and obey the Portuguese because they had made him the leader.
- The new ruling Mutapa Mamvura was baptised to Philip.
- In 1629 Mamvura signed an agreement with the Portuguese, Portuguese
had freedom to:
-Build churches whenever/ wherever they wanted.
-Travel to any part of Mutapa as traders.
-Drive away Muslims from Mutapa.
Mi
-Mine in Mutapa.
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-The Portuguese established Tete, Sena, Kilwa, Zumbo, Sofala, Quelimane
and Luanze as their feiras or trade centres.
¯ After him the Portuguese chose those who would obey them.
¯ An 18th century Munhumutapa moved with his people to new land in what is now
Mozambique.
¯ They built a new state in the lowlands there, appointed new chiefs and worked with them to
restore order.
¯ A Mutapa state continued to exist in the Zambezi valley until the end of the 19th century.
¯ But it was very small, the land was poor and the people were poor. The last to use the title
Munhumutapa was Chioko.
¯ In about 1900 he led a revolt in the Zambezi valley against colonial rule in
Mozambique and Zimbabwe.
¯ This revolt was crushed by the Portuguese colonial rulers in 1917
Portuguese activities in the Mutapa State

¯ They came to Mutapa state in the name of trade but later changed like a chameleon and
started to interfere in the internal politics of the state.
¯ They installed puppet leaders (Gatsi Rusere and Mavhura Mhande) who ruled in favour of
them at the expense of the whole nation.
¯ They defeated Mutapa Kings through the use of their soldiers called Chikundas who used
superior weapons such as guns.
¯ They enforced their religion on the Mutapa people that is Christianity. Negomo Mupunzagutu
and his mother Chikuyu are typical examples of leaders who were turned to be Christians.
¯ They took over large places of land and set up for the prazos.
¯ They forced Mutapa people to provide forced labour/chibharo on the prazos.
- They even brutally abused women e.g. sexual harassment.
Decline of the Mutapa State

- Inexperienced leaders - there were inexperienced leaders who took over
after the death of Matope (1450) e.g. Nyahuma.
- Overpopulation - the state became too large to be controlled by one king.
- Civil wars and Succession disputes - this was due to power struggle within
the Mutapa e.g. vassal chiefs who rose against the ruling Mutapa. Nyahuma
was killed by Changa and later Changa was killed by Nyahuma’s sons. The
State became politically weak.
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- Portuguese Influence - they brought Christianity which destroyed the
traditional religion of the Mutapa people.
- Shortage of Salt and Minerals - this affected trade which once made the
state a prosperous one.
- Death Of Many People - Outbreaks of epidemics killed a lot of people.
THE ROZVI STATE

OriginsyOrigins
- The state wa found by Changamire Dombo around 1700AD.
- He had an army of about 2000 to 4000 men.
¯ Using his army he conquered the Torwa and incorporated them into Rozvi State, in 1693 he
defeated and expelled the Portuguese from Zambezi Valley.
¯ Changamire Dombo was a military genius, thus he was able to defeat and unite people under
his rule.
¯ He also took control of Manyika and the larger parts of former Mutapa State on the
Zimbabwean Plateau.
¯ People respect Changamire Dombo due to his charisma and rain making powers.
¯ He established his capital at Danangombe and this capital was later moved to Thabazika
Mambo.
¯ Due to their conquest the Rozvi became known as the destroyers (pillagers).
¯ He was a cattle keeper in the Mutapa and he rebelled against Mutapa and subdued them
- The Rozvi kingdom was also known as the Changamire state.
- The State is believed to have existed between 1445 and 1695.
- According to oral tradition Changa who briefly ruled the Rozvi in the 1490s
was the first to use the title Changamire.
- Changa was son of Matope and a slave wife.
- After his death his son adopted the title Changamire and moved to
Guruuswa area south-western Zimbabwe.
- The Changamire State appeared to have disappeared for 150 years only to
re-emerge in the 1680’s as a very strong state under the leadership of
Changamire Dombo.
- He was believed to be once a herdsman of Munhumutapa Mukombwe.
- Changamire Dombo was also known to be a magician.
- Other schools of thought believe the Rozvi originated from the Torwa State.
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- Changamire Dombo conquered the Karanga and established himself in the
Butwa/Buchwa area, later he conquered the Mutapa, Uteve and Manyika
areas under the leadership of Changamire’s son Negomo.
- In the 1670s it is believed to have gathered followers and declared
independence and was forced to move away from the Mutapa towards the
southwest where he fought, conquered and absorbed the Torwa and Karanga
people then he established his own powerful state and Capital called
Danamombe.
- The state adopted the name Rozvi from the Shona name Kurozva “Defraud”
or “Destroyers”, soon after the Rozvi embarked on a conquest program from
surrounding areas defeating the Mutapa, Uteve and Manyika.
All the conquered people were forced to pay tribute.
- The state stretched to Limpopo.
- It existed up to the 17th century.
- Changa’s Rozvi included Changamire Dombo, Changamire Nechagadzike,
Changamire Nechapingura, Changamire Rupandamanhanga, Changamire
Gumboremvura, Changamire Chirisamhuru and Changamire
Torwechipi/Tohwechipi.
-Mambo was head of state, his title was hereditary, succession was collateral
and chieftainship was passed from father to son.
- Above the chiefs were the Mambo or King and his court.
- The Mambo ruled with the help of a council called Dare. Members of dare included priest,
military leaders and provincial governors.
- Some of the Mambo’s wives played a role at the court, and some of sons-in-law had special
duties.
- As a political leader, the mambo was a figure of great respect and loyalty.
¯ He was the distributer of land the holder of other property in trust of the state.
- The king obtained tax from traders and tribute from vassal chiefs as a sign of allegiance.
- He was the head of the judiciary system and was responsible for making final decisions.
- He had power to call up the army or to summon communal labour.
¯ The Rozvi king controlled external trade. He also controlled ivory hunting
¯ The Mambo presides over national religious ceremonies and political activities.
- The king appointed chiefs, priest, governors and army general.
- He communicated with God through the ancestral spirits.
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¯ The chiefs were in charge of the village and districts and collected tribute on behalf of the
king.
¯ The commander of the Rozvi army and chief collector of tribute was an official called
Tumbare.
- He also stood in place of Changamire, if there was a succession dispute or if the heir is too
young to rule.
Military strength
- Changamire Dombo defeated the Portuguese in many battles between
1684-1695.
- Changamire Dombo was said to have had special powers like changing the
colour of cattle, making rain and making soldiers brave, however, the
Portuguese thought he was a wizard or magician.
- This might have been because of the clever tricks he used in battle.
- His soldiers would often form a half circle around their enemy (cowhorn
formation).
- Dombo’s soldiers used many kinds of weapons like wooden clubs, assegais,
spears, bow and arrows, cow hides as shields and Rozvi officials used guns.
- Mambo received guns from the Portuguese as tribute therefore the highest
ranking Rozvi officials had guns.
- The army possessed guns acquired from Portuguese through trade
therefore they could raid neighbouring states easily.
- It was also used to punish rebellious chiefs and subjects.
¯ Carry out military campaigns against other weaker states
Economic activities
- They practiced farming growing crops such as sorghum, rapoko and millet.
-They were pastoralists keeping animals such as cattle, goats and sheep.
skins and labour.
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- Gathering of fruits, nuts berries, edible roots and bulbs was done by women and children.
- They practiced blacksmithing producing tools such as knives, axes, hammers, spears, fishing
hooks and iron tipped arrows.
Uses of cattle in the Rozvi State
¯ To pay lobola
¯ To provide draft power
¯ To provide meat, milk, skins and manure
¯ Cattle were killed at religious ritual ceremonies
¯ It was a symbol of wealth
¯ Were used in trade
¯ Were used to pay tribute
¯ Cattle skins were used to make drums
Social organisation
¯ People stayed in communities leaded by village chiefs/ heads.
- They shared Moyo totem. The practised ritual and religious and rain making ceremonies.
- They practised inter-marriages. Lobola was paid for the bride.
- Community elders settled domestic disputes.
- There was division of labour between males and females. Women produced grain and
vegetables while men hunted meat, herded cattle and worked as soldiers.
- People were organised into homesteads.
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- A lineage head ensured good conductions of religious ceremonies and other
ceremonies.
- They believed in “Mwari” whom they worshipped through the ancestral spirits.
They believed mambo descended from God.
- Ancestral spirits were also vital; there were other spirits which they
believed to live in mountains, thick forests and pools of water.
- They practised to “kuronzera” whereby those without cattle were given by

the king to use for manure and milk, but were not allowed to sell them or kill
them.
- They sang and danced on important occasions like weddings, funerals and
religious ceremonies.
- Territorial mediums solved succession disputes.- Spirit mediums formed

members of mambo’s council and could make decisions for the state.
Decline of the state
- Civil wars disturbed economic activities.

- Succession disputes also disrupted other economic activities.
- Drought also caused the decline as some people moved to favourable parts
of the area and it also weakened their economy.
- The state became too big to be ruled iAttacks by one person.
- Rebellions by vassal chiefs who proclaim their independence caused loss of population. Many
chiefs stopped paying tribute to the Rozvi Mambo and were a direct challenge to the King.
Additionally, it shows that the king was losing power.
- Attacks from Nguni groups running away from Mfecane - they were attacked
by Zwangendaba when he was defeated by Soshangane. They were also
attacked and incorporated into the Ndebele State.
- The killing of Chirisamhuru 2 by the general woman Nyamazana left the Rozvi state leaderless
and it culminated succession disputes hence weakened the state. Nyamazana entered the
Rozvi territory to the heart of it and she crossed over Zambezi valley in1835, she proceeded
northwards and settled in Malawi. She gave a very serious blow to the Rozvi since she arrived
soon after Zwangendaba had left.
- Decline in Trade - they lost control in trade which once made them very
prosperous.
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- They had limited technology and this made mining difficult.
- Elephants population was decreasing rapidly and ivory became scarce.
- Coming of Europeans - they were finally destroyed by the BSAC led by Cecil
John Rhodes in 1890.
THE NGUNI STATES OF SOUTHERN AFRICA
GROUP LEADER
Mthethwa Dingiswayo
Ngwane Sobhuza
Ndwandwe Zwide
Zulu Tshaka
Khumalo Mzilikazi
- The Nguni people lived in fertile land along the east coast which is now
South Africa.
- They were Bantu people who understood each other’s languages even
though they spoke different dialects.
- They were Xhosa, Khumalo, Zulu, Tembu, Mthethwa Mpondo, Ndwandwe,

and others.
Political system
- The king was the head of the kingdom.
- The king was a military leader.
- He was also the final judge.
- He gave final judgement in court cases but was not a dictator.
- He presided over all the religious ceremonies.
- He distributed land to his subjects.
- The king received tribute as a sign of loyalty from his subjects.
- He ruled with the help of advisory councils which made up all important
decisions.
Economic system
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- Nguni people cultivated crops.such as sorghum, kidney beans, pumpkins,
melons, gourds, millet and other grains. Tobacco and maize were cultivated
later.
- They also practised livestock production (kept cattle and goats).
- Cattle were herded by small separate groups of people each herd organised
around a royal clan
- Cattle provided meat, hides and milk which were important in the Nguni
diet.
- Cattle were also used to carry goods.
- Nguni women made clay pots for cooking and carrying water.
- The Nguni people were hunters, the chief wore leopard skins.
- Land was property of the chiefdom and the king had the power to distribute
land and nobody could be deprived of this important means of production
and could not be so hard as there was plenty of it.
Social system
- Members of one family lived together in a family compound of scattered
homesteads built in a half circle with the cattle kraal built in the sides of hills
with the huts facing towards the east.
-The homestead had up to 1 000 huts with the mother of the homestead
living in the centre hut.
- The chief wore leopard skins.

- Women wore copper and iron beads as jewellery; they also wore earrings,
ivory bracelets, shells feathers and various buttons.
Historical change in Nguniland

Why did the change come at the turn of the 19th century?
- The Nguni clan suddenly changed and began fighting amongst themselves.
- This fighting welded the Zulu nation into the most powerful state of its kind
in Africa.
- Some claim that the changes were caused by the coming of the Europeans
and better fighting methods.
- Others suggest that this occurred as a result of the strains caused by the
population growth and land shortage.
- This country was fertile and free from diseases
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- Natural increase in population and shortage of land caused internal conflicts
as there was a competition for grazing land.
- Chiefs began to improve their methods of warfare changed from a game of
skill to a serious struggle for survival.
Dingiswayo of the Mthethwa

- In the late 18th century Dingiswayo removed his brother as chief and took
over the leadership of the Mthethwa clan.
- Dingiswayo was an innovative man who introduced revolutionary methods

of warfare to Nguniland.
- He abolished long initiation ceremonies where young men and women of

the same age group no longer had to attend circumcision schools were they
where initiated into manhood and womanhood by elders.
- Instead Dingiswayo took the young man into his army in groups of the
same age.
- He organised them into military units called regiments so they could

achieve their manhood on the battle field.
- Dingiswayo’s army spared people they defeated.
- By the time of his Death in 1818 he had defeated many chiefs in Nguniland.
- He had created an empire united by his rule and by his army.
- In this way Dingiswayo created a standing army in which his soldiers could
study and practise new methods of fighting.
THE ZULU STATE
Rise of Tshaka
- Tshaka was born in 1787.
- His father was Senzangakhona, a Zulu chief and his mother was Nandi of the
Langeni tribe.
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- Senzangakhona and Nandi were never formally married meaning that Tshaka
was born out of wedlock.
- Therefore Tshaka grew up with his mother among the Langeni, Qwabe and
finally Mthethwa.
- Tshaka joined the Mthethwa’s age regiment and proved to be very brave as
a regimental leader.
- He became Dingiswayo’s military advisor at a tender age.
- When Senzangakhona died in 1816, Tshaka seized the Zulu throne; he was
supported by Dingiswayo and became the Zulu chief. He killed his brother the
rightful heir to the throne Sigujana.
- Zulu means rain or heaven. Zulu State is said to have originated from a
man called Zulu ka Ntombela who probably was the ancestor of the Zulu
clan.
Formation of the Zulu empire
¯ It was formed when Tshaka defeated all other Nguni states after Dingiswayo’s death.
¯ He combined all defeated states under his authority. States which did not accept Tshaka’s rule
were pushed out of Zulu land by Tshaka’s ruthless army.
¯ The formation relied much on Tshaka, military organisational abilities to form a strong
standing army.
Factors leading to the rise

1. Competition for fertile land
-In Nguniland there was population increase and at the same time herds
also increased, people began to fight for control of land for cultivation of
crops as well as grazing animals, therefore Tshaka proved to be very
powerful and defeated a lot of states hence his rise to power.
2. Competition for trade with Portuguese

- Portuguese wanted cattle, fresh meat and ivory.
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- The number of cattle a state had the more it would supply meat to the
Portuguese.
- The Zulu had a lot of cattle and controlled hunting grounds for ivory,
therefore Tshaka emerged as powerful.
3. Military methods learnt by Tshaka from Dingiswayo.

- Tshaka had learnt a lot of military tactics from Dingswayo.
4. Tshaka’s ambitious character

- Tshaka was teased by his peers as he grew up, so he was determined to
prove to them that he could achieve something in life and became a chief.
Military reforms
- Tshaka introduced the short stabbing spear called the assegai, which encouraged
hand to hand fighting; it made sure that the enemy was killed. Loss of this
assegai meant harsh punishment / execution.
- Any stab at the back was considered cowardice and it attracted punishment
of death.
- His soldiers went to war bare-footed so as to increase speed.
- Soldiers were organised in regiments according to their ages. They were three
age-regiments under different commanders or indunas. These regiments were disciplined
and loyal to Tshaka, and were trained to fight effectively in battles.
- He introduced long shields which were made of cow hides for protection. The fact
that the shields were the height of a man made it possible to shield soldiers
from enemies.
- The shield was also used to hook away enemies
- Men were only allowed to marry at the age of 40. Early marriages were discouraged
as one could not fight well thinking of the family back home.
- However, soldiers who displayed skill by killing a lot of enemies later got
beautiful women raided during war.
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- Raided men were incorporated into the Zulu army, sometimes they fought
for total destruction by killing men, women and children.
- Tshaka banned the system of circumcision as it prevented young boys from

participating in war.
- Tshaka used guerrilla warfare tactics by attacking at night and at times

ambush attacks.
- Tshaka used witchdoctors to treat injured soldiers.
- Spies were sent to gather information about the enemy. They helped in
setting a suitable regiment to attack the enemy.
- Tshaka made use of smoke signals.
- His soldiers wore distinctive head-gear for each regiment.
- Tshaka's soldiers used the cow-horn formation to fight the enemy and it proved very
effective as it made the Zulu to win wars..
- The king was an absolute ruler; he was supreme administrator though he
had a council of Indunas which advised him when ruling. Though he got
advice his decision was final.
- Duties of the king included: allocating land, distributing cattle, he was the
commander of the armya and Chief Judge.
- The king initiated inxwala and inkata ceremonies.
- Chiefs were vital as they ruled their chieftaincies.
- Chiefs were loyal to the king.
- The state was divided into regimental towns and a woman was chosen to
override each town. This was a way of controlling regiments and also gave
information to Tshaka on the Induna responsible of that town; this
encouraged the checking on the balance of the administration.
- Each regimental town encircled a huge cattle pen as each town was
allocated regimental cattle.
- Outlying tributary states paid tribute to Tshaka as a sign of respect.
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-Youths were divided into military groups which could provide service to the
state e.g. working for the king; they could also raid and hunt.
Economic organisation
- They cultivated near homesteads, they grew maize and millet.
-Men took care of cattle, manufactured and repaired weapons and other
household tools e.g. hoes; they also constructed huts as well as repairing
them.
-Some skilful women were involved in bead work; pottery making and
making of mats. -Weaving was done to produce mats.
- They traded iron tools with each other.
- They also gathered to complement their diet.
- They kept cattle for meat, milk and hides.
- They paid tribute to the chief in the form of cattle, special animal skins and
other iron tools.
- They practisedboth interbal and external trade with Portuguese traders at the
Delagoa Bay, beads and cloth were exchanged for ivory.
- Ivory which was hunted belonged to the king.
- They also practised hunting and hunting parties were put into regiments.
Social Organisation
- The Zulu believed in God whom they called Unkulunkulu.
- They believed in ancestral spirits “Amadlozi” whom people would
communicate with in times of need.
- They believed that every misfortune that people encountered was caused
by sorcery (magical practise).
- Settlements/military towns were circular and each settlement encircled a
cattle pen.
- Cattle were vital as they determined one’s social status; they were used for
paying lobola.
- Polygamy was widely practised such that a Zulu family was built on a
polygamous family.
- Zulu became the national language so those incorporated into the state had
to speak the language.
- Inxwala ceremony was initiated by the king and every Zulu member had to
attend. It was the first fruits ceremony.
- Inkata was a national unity day ceremony that promoted Zulu identity.
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- Grass was woven to make distinctive features which were displayed on the day.
- They played Zulu type of traditional dances in honouring their ceremonies.
Problems faced by Tshaka during his reign

- His most trusted Induna e.g. Mzilikazi ran away, this made the state
weaker and he felt insecure.
- He did not get support from his family and relatives.
- He got many threats from British, Ndwandwe and Boers.
- The death of his mother made him rule with anger and also reminded him
of his death.
- He had unsuccessful military campaigns and was defeated by the British.
Successes of Tshaka’s rule

- Zulu became a very large state under Tshaka due to raids, a lot of people
were incorporated into the state and the State expanded from Pongola river
to the north i.e. Tugela river up to Indian ocean in the east.
- Zulu was a unified State because people who were absorbed had the same
culture and language.
- Age regiments brought young people together as they no longer stayed in
homesteads, but regimental towns therefore they became more loyal to
Tshaka than the clan head.
- The State became dominant in Southern Africa and was known as the
“fighting machine” due to military reforms introduced by Tshaka.
- Development of pride in the Zulu State due to military success in war.
- The Zulu State became a very rich state economically; cattle raided were a
lot and people benefited through meat, milk, hides and manure etc.
Reasons for the decline of Zulu State

- The death of Tshaka resulted in ineffective leaders taking over leadership.
- The death of her mother Nandi made feel empty without her as she was her advisor.
- The mfecane made his most trusted Indunas run away e.g. Mzilikazi with some
of the Zulu people and the state was weakened.
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- His endeless military campaigns made his warriors to be exhausted and they
nolonger wanted these campaigns. This led to them hating him and finally
assassinate him.
Reasons why Tshaka was killed/assassinated

- Tshaka no longer sought the advice of his advisors
- His relatives became jealous of his success
- Tshaka’s engage in endless warfare
- Tshaka’s strict discipline became so oppressive.
- Tshaka increasingly killed people for petty offences
- Tshaka killed people for not mourning his mother. This was cruelty.
MFECANE
- It refers to wars which took place among then Nguni people around the 18 th
century, Nguni people included many groups speaking dialects e.g. Zulu,
Mthethwa, Xhosa, Hlubi, Mpondo, Zizi etc.
- New states were found due to military power and trading. - By 1820s, one
state had emerged to dominate others (Mthethwa of Dingiswayo, Ngwane of
Sobhuza) i.e. Zulu state.
- Other states were forced to migrate from Nguniland e.g. Ndebele of

Mzilikazi and Kololo of Sebetwane.
-A lot of destruction resulted as warfare spread to Central Africa as death

and destruction was greatly experienced.
- This time was called Mfecane by the Zulu meaning “Great crushing” and
Difaqane by the Sotho meaning “Scattering”. It was also referred to as time
of suffering, trouble, movement etc.
Causes of Mfecane
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- Economic and Political development -Northern Nguni people were farmers
during the 19th century and heavy rainfall was received leading to good crop
yields, the area had good soils and vegetation leading to surpluses. As a
result population increased.
- As population increased herds also increased in size and therefore could not
be moved freely to the hills and villages for grazing.
- There was an imbalance in population density and available resources so

competition to control the best lands for agriculture and grazing purposes
developed.
-Age regiments -As states grew age regiments increased in importance e.g.
were Amabutho promoted unity and provided an army as competition to
control land increased, therefore the role of the army became more
important and initiation ceremonies were banned so that young men would
participate in the army.
-Hunting and Gathering -This led to a large scale destruction of wild game.
Powerful states could get larger areas for hunting as they could overpower
weaker states.
- Elephant hunting led to a greater demand of ivory at Delagoa Bay by the
Europeans, good control of such trade meant a lot of wealth to a particular
state, and this also meant good rewards to subjects.
- The desire to control trade led to growth of states.
-Drought. -Rains came to an end and drought was experienced for about ten
years.
Crops failed, pastures withered leading to wide spread famine.
- This became known as Madlatule famine meaning Madlatule meaning “let

him eat and keep quiet”.
- Competition for scarce resources became severe as people raided each

other for cattle and stores of grain.
Course of Mfecane
- When raided some chiefdoms broke up and migrated disorganised as
desperate beggars, they had no time to pack up food or cattle.
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- Some migrated as strong men and women under leadership and most likely
not to beg.
-Whole chiefdoms were terrified of the Zulu and its raids so much that they
moved to safer lands while some remained and paid tribute to the Zulu.
- Ngwane of Sobhuza was defeated by Ndwandwe of Zwide and moved to
north part of Pongola River, his soldiers adapted tactics of the Zulu,
Mthethwa and Ndwandwe.
-This made him conquer other weak groups and incorporated them into his
new kingdom (Swaziland).
-Soshangane of Gaza-Nguni was in Zwide’s army as one of the chief officers,
when Tshaka defeated the Ndwandwe in 1818 he escaped and absorbed
some immigrants (Northwards) and he was able to conquer Southern
Zimbabwe and Mozambique but was not as successful as Sobhuza as his
political influence was weak.
- Zwangendaba of the Ngoni also escaped when the Ndwandwe were
defeated, he followed Soshangane but parted when the two clashed and lost
the battle in 1831 and the Ngoni travelled to Northwest Zimbabwe.
- Zwangendaba had a series of battles with the Shona under Changamire
dynasty, failing to subdue them completely. He crossed the Zambezi river
and finally settled in Tanzania.
- After Zwangendaba’s death they separated, one group settled in Eastern
Zambia and the other group caused havoc in Southern Tanzania and Malawi
as they used Nguni warfare to overwhelm weaker groups.
- Mzilikazi of the Khumalo was also part of the Ndwandwe, but presided over
the Khumalo clan as he was loyal to Tshaka, Zwide had conflicted with
Mashobane, Mzilikazi’s father so as a result there was hatred between the
groups and Mzilikazi sided with Tshaka, but sooner conflicted because of
resources as he preferred to give them to the Khumalo than the Zulu.
Impacts or effects of Mfecane

-Death of many people due to hunger as they lost their cattle, sheep and
goats.
-Abandonment of circumcision as it kept young boys away from active duty
for a long time i.e. in the army.
- Destruction of chiefdoms which began Mfecane e.g. Ndwandwe, Mthethwa,
Ngwane and new ones emerged e.g. Kololo of Sebetwane and Ndebele of
Mzilikazi.
- Some large areas were left depopulated e.g. South of Tugela river
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- Spread of Nguni culture and language through assimilation. However, in
some instances the Nguni language was destroyed.
- New war tactics were spread in Southern and Central Africa.
- People from stronger chiefdoms benefited from the loot taken from weaker
chiefdoms.
- Leaders were appointed due to talent and rather than inheriting.
- A balance between human population and land available was established
leading to stability in the region.
The Ndebele State

Background
- While in Zululand, the Ndebele people were known as the Khumalo clan.
- Mzilikazi was the son of king Matshobani of the Khumalo clan.
- Khumalo clan was once controlled by Ndwandwe of Zwide. The defeat of Ndwandwe by
Tshaka resulted in Mzilikazi being Tshaka’s Induna.
- Mzilikazi was sent by Tshaka for a raiding mission but he did not surrender the booty to
Tshaka.
- Tshaka sent another regiment to punish him, thus Mzilikazi ran away with his people.
Origin
¯ The rise of Ndebele State is largely explained by a combination:
1. Mfecane – The rise of Ndebele State was a by-product of the political upheaval of Mfecane.
Due to the trouble in Zulu land Mzilikazi; the chief of the Khumalo clan and one of the top
ranked military commanders of Tshaka broke away from Tshaka in 1822.
- He migrated north-wards, crossed the Limpopo River and settled in the South-western part of
modern Zimbabwe inhabited by the Rozvi people. He conquered the Rozvi people and founded
a new state called the Ndebele State.
2. Inco-operation of different ethnic groups into his own state through military campaigns-
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- During the journey northwards Mzilikazi conquered and Incorporated other ethnic groups to
become part of the Ndebele kingdom.
- In1836-1837 Mzilikazi and his people conquered and incorporated large number of the Swazi
and Sotho communities when they were settled in Marico River Base.
- In1838 Mzilikazi raided and incorporated the Tswana. In 1839 the Ndebele crossed the
Limpopo River.
- They then entered the South-western part of Zimbabwe were they conquered and
incorporated the Rozvi people who were the original inhabitancies of the area.
3. The ability and skills of Mzilikazi
a) Military skills –Mzilikazi had a strong military background inquired in the Zulu Land. He was
one of Tshaka’s top-ranked military commanders. He was well versed with the Zulu styles of
military warfare introduced by Tshaka.
- The Zulu used the assegai, the cow-horn battle formation, regimental systems based on age
groups and the use of speed and surprise night attacks. Given this military background it is
therefore not surprising that Mzilikazi was successful in carrying out military campaigns.
- He managed to conquer and incorporate the Swazi, Sotho, Tswana and Rozvi communities in
his newly created state.
b) Administration skills- Mzilikazi had administrating background. Among the Zulus he gained
knowledge of a high centralised administration.
- In this system the King retained absolute authority and was assisted by territorial chiefs,
Indunas who were military commanders. Such knowledge was used by Mzilikazi to create the
Ndebele state.
- This explains why the newly created Ndebele state was modelled on the Zulu traditions and
organisation. Thus political, military and socio-economic organisation of Ndebele strongly
resembled that of Zulu kingdom.
4. Enough mineral wealth

They had a lot of gold which enabled them to practise both internal and
external trade. They traded with the Portuguese and the Arabs hence
prosperity of the state.
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5. Strong economy
Food was in abundance as they supplemented raiding with farming though
farming was on a small scale; this led to growth of the state.
- The Ndebele state was more centralised and covered a limited area.
- Outlying areas of the Rozvi Empire were kept in touch through
ambassadors and tribute to the royal court and shrine of Mwari.
- The king occupied central and almost powerful position in the Ndebele
state.
- The king was the commander of the army and chief judge.
- He was also chief administrator and religious leader.
- He made major decisions and had power of life and death over the subjects.
- He had two advisory councils the Izikhulu and the Mpakati.
- The Mpakati was made up of selected chiefs and members of the royal
family; they made all decisions affecting the state.
- A bigger advisory council called the Izikulu included all chiefs, elders known
for wisdom, traditional customs and history; these groups discussed all
national issues in accordance to local tradition before referring them to
Mpakati and the king.
- Mzilikazi organised his state in regimental towns under an induna.
- The Induna was an administrator of the town as well as military
commander.
- These regional governors kept the king regularly briefed on the activities
and the state affairs of the province.
- The regimental towns were grouped into 4 provinces headed by an
appointed chief.
- Provinces were divided into regimental towns and an Induna was in charge
of each regiment, however, their position was not hereditary, some of the
king’s wives controlled the provinces therefore these wives had power over
Indunas, this encouraged total control of the state as the wives reported any
developments and problems to the king.
Socio-Political organisation
- Then state was divided into three classes:
Zansi
9
- Constituted of the original Khumalo who formed aristocracy class, they
made up 15% of the total population; although they were few they were
very powerful and privileged.
- Most Indunas were elected from this class; they were not allowed to marry
from Enhla and Hole but with time could, the Enhla and hole were not
allowed to marry from Zansi.
Enhla
- This made up all elements that had been in cooperated into the state either
by force or voluntary on their journey from Nguniland to Zimbabwe.
- They made up 25% of the total population and included the Sotho, Tswana,
Pedi and Kora etc. they were not as privileged as the Zansi but were treated
better than the Hole class.
Hole
- This was made up of the locally absorbed Shona, Karanga, Leya, Nyayi etc;
they made up 60% of the total population.
- They were most disadvantaged in the state as they did most of the hard
work in the state. They were used as herdboys.
- They were not elected as Indunas or any other leadership positions in the
state.
- They were not allowed to marry from the zansi.
Economic organisation
1. Cultivation -They practised crop cultivation but on a small scale because
the area could hardly receive enough rainfall.
- They grew crops such as maize, millet, sorghum, pumpkins, melons,
potatoes, beans etc. Both men and women cultivated crops.
2. Pastoralism -They were also pastoralists who kept sheep, cattle and goats.
Cattle were of greater value compared to sheep and goats.
- There were Zebutho (National herds) and Inkomo Zamatonga (Private
herds and king’s herds).
- The rich loaned cattle to those who had none and this promoted peace
among the Ndebele.
- Cattle were used for lobola payment, as food at funerals, weddings, inxala
ceremony and in times of draught.
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3. Trade -The Ndebele practised both internal and external trade. Externally
they traded with the Portuguese and Arabs for firearms, beads, cloth and
ceramics, foreigners were interested in gold and ivory.
- Internally they traded cattle for grain and iron tools e.g. hoes, spears and
knifes.
4. Raiding -Was vital amongst the Ndebele, they obtained food young men
and women.
- Youngman were needed to build a strong army to defend the state; this
also meant a powerful nation. Herds also increased through raiding.
5. Tribute -It was paid by subjects as a sign of respect; it could be in the
form of cattle, grain, firewood, iron tools, leopard’s skin and labour.
6. Hunting and Gathering -There was clear division of labour as men hunted
and women gathered.
- Animals such as, Impalas, Kudus etc were hunted whilst women gathered
berries, bulbs and small insects.
7. Crafts work -Women were involved in weaving baskets; baskets could be
used to store grain. Pottery work was done and thus having pots for
cooking.
8. Blacksmithing -This was mainly done by and made hoes, spears and
knives.
Religion
- Nguni groups worshipped a high God (Mlimo), Mlimo and Unkulunkulu were
the same, the Ndebele adapted Mlimo from the Tswana and when they
reached Zimbabwe they adopted the Shona high God (Mwari), Mwari was
believed to be powerful so when rain failed they consulted Mwari.
- The Ndebele sent annual gifts and offerings to the Mwari shrine.
- They held an annual gathering, inxwala ceremony were they thanked
ancestors for good harvests, prosperity and success especially in military
campaigns.
Decline of the Ndebele State

-Mzilikazi died in 1868 and was succeeded by Lobengula in 1870, between
1868 and 1870 there were succession disputes between Gwabalanda and a
chief Induna who supported Lobengula and Zwangendaba’s regiments which
9
supported Nkulumani, Zwangendaba urged that Nkulumani was still alive in
South Africa.
- Lobengula experienced threats from Transvaal, Portugal and Britain, they

were interested acquiring colonies for prosperity, and therefore they were
defeated by BSAC in 1893.
THE SLAVE TRADE AND ORIGINS OF

UNDERDEVELOPMENT
What does slavery mean?
- It is when one is taken forcibly from their home and sold. One there for
loses their freedom and their possessions and no longer is in control of their
lives and they are ill-treated.
- Slavery can also be defined as the practice of treating another human being as part of your
property.
¯ Slave trade- is the process of buying and selling human beings.
Origin of slave trade

- The economies of European countries were complex, involving in some cases long-distance
trade in a variety of items. Africa was thus not static or isolated. Links with other parts of the
world were developing and these were based on equality.
¯ This was the time when European traders came to Africa, not to look for traditional items of
trade such as gold, ivory and cloth but to purchase people to take oversees and save
¯ Slaves lost their freedom, possessions and were no longer in control of their lives.
¯ From a human point of view, the selling and buying of people was a violation of all moral
principles.
9
¯ From an economic point of view, this trade in people saw the beginning of poverty, ignorance
and increased inequality among the African people. It was the beginning of the process of
underdevelopment in Africa.
- When the wealth of a society is no longer used for its own development, this
is called underdevelopment.
- Wealth is exported and the people are robbed of their potential by their
own labour and resources. Africa was developing at her own pace meeting
her own technological needs, however, in the mid of the 15 th century
changes took place that allowed the natural course of her history and
development.
The demand for slaves
- The sale of human beings was a result of external demand. The growth of
political and economic systems required the use of human labour.
- The development of mercantile capitalism in Europe and America led to

the setting up of plantations and mines where human labour was required to
produce a mine and warrant of minerals and grew sugar, tobacco, coffee and
bananas needed by emerging capitalists of Europe.
¯ From as early as the 17th century, small numbers of slaves were required by some Feudal
states of Europe, the Arab world and the far Eastern regions of India and China.
¯ The Feudal leaders used slaves for various functions from domestic work to cultivating fields
and maintaining state security.
¯ This early demand for slaves was very small indeed
¯ Slave labour was required to work on European and Arab estates and plantations within
Africa.
¯ In the Zambezi region around Tete in modern Mozambique, slave labour was used by
Portuguese settlers on their vast estates known as Prazos.
¯ In East Africa slaves were in great demand from the beginning of the 18th century to work on
clove and coconut plantations on the Islands of Zanzibar and Pemba and the main land.
Why Africans were enslaved?
9
¯ Why Africans and not any other race were enslaved? Was it not possible to enslave other
people?
¯ Asians were the first race to be used in the American’s plantations as slaved but they died in
large numbers
¯ So African labour was sold
¯ Some writers argued that Africans were preferred because they were strong and could resist
diseases.
¯ Others have argued that Africa had many unwanted people who could be sold into slavery
without disturbing the existing social system.
¯ Both these arguments are weak. A more convincing argument is that, by the beginning of the
15th century, Europe had the control of the sea through advances in boat building.
- This early advantage enabled Europe to expand its empire to other parts of the world. It is
believed that Africans were prepared and could resist diseases.
- Others argued that Africa had many unwanted people who could be sold
without disturbing the existence of the social system.
- In these colonies, European merchants began to use African labour to create wealth for
themselves.
Organisation of the trade

¯ The Arabs organised themselves in parties of 50, 100 or even 500 depending on the territory
through which they were passing. If they were passing through friendly or weak area, small
parties were the norm.
¯ If they were passing through strong or hostile territories, bigger parties of up to 1000 would
be formed. If they were weak they were defeated and wiped out.
- So they went into the interior armed for war. In the interior, they established themselves at
particular centres. Captured Africans were then assembled at these centres.
The prices
¯ Henry Morton Stanley, the explorer found prices of slaves in East Africa quoted as follows:
¯ A girl aged 13-18 worth 80-200 cloths
¯ A woman aged 18-20 worth 80-130 cloth
¯ A boy aged 13-18 worth 16-50 cloth
¯ A man aged 18-50 worth 10-50 cloth
¯ The prices of female slaves were so much higher than those for men. The reason for these is
likely to be that for both plantation labour and domestic labour, women were found to be more
useful than men.
- Also women gave birth to children who automatically became slaves. So whoever bought a
female slave also bought several slaves still to be born.
9
The triangular trade
1. Manufactured goods moved from Europe to Africa
2. Slaves moved from Africa to America
3. Raw materials moved from America to Europe
Supply of slaves
- The demand for slaves led to the capture or buying of many millions of
Africans. However, millions of people died during the process of raiding,
capture and transport.
- One study says the population of Europe and Asia increased by 4 times
between 1650-1900, while that of Africa remained stable.
- The slave buyers preferred their victims between the age of 15-35 thus it
had a terrible effect on the African labour force.
- Most of the people sold into slavery in the Americas and the Atlantic islands
came from West Africa.
- The Portuguese were the first to obtain slaves in 1518. There after the
supply of slaves from West Africa was more as countries such as Britain,
France, Netherlands and Spain were involved.
- The main supplying regions were the Sene-Gambia, Sierra Leone and the
Gold Coast of Benin.
- During the latter part of the 18 th century, the supply of the slaves from
West Africa decreased because of the growing anti-slavery movements in
some parts of Europe.
- This forced the slave traders to concentrate on the East African region.
These slaves were exported to Oman, Persian Gulf and India.
- In the 19th century there were also sent to Brazil and the Caribbean islands.
- During the early days of the trade European merchants obtained slaves
through the use of force. They hunted and raided local people of the coast
and later then adopted methods of exchange.
- They offered African middlemen imported and manufactured items such as
cloth, metal work, ornaments, guns and gun powder, spirits and tobacco in
exchange for human beings.
- The middlemen were chiefs, clan leaders and headmen.
- The victims were weaker ethnic groups, prisoners of war, criminals, so
called witches and domestic slaves.
Supply of slaves from West Africa

9
¯ Most of the people sold into slavery in the America and Atlantic Islands come from West
Africa.
¯ The 1st European merchants to sail to West Africa to obtain slaves were the Portuguese in
1518.
¯ The supply of slaves increased and more European countries became involved in the trade. By
the 17th century Britain, France, the Netherlands and Spain were all involved.
¯ By the 18th century Britain was the leading buyer of slaves from West Africa.
The main supply regions of slaves in West Africa

¯ From the 17th century up to the middle 18th century, the main supplying regions were the
Sene-Gambia region, the upper Guinea Coast, Sierra Leone, the Gold Coast and the Slave Coast
that is from the Volta River to Benin.
¯After about 1730, the West Africa region stretching from Cameroon to Angola became the
main region for supplying slaves.
Supply of slaves from East Africa

¯ During the latter part of the 18th century, the supply of slaves from the West African region
decreased because of the growing anti-slavery movement in some parts of Europe.
¯ This forced the slaves to concentrate on the East African region.
¯ In the 18th century, the development of Europe sugar plantations on the Islands of Bourbon
and Ile de France further stimulated the trade.
¯ Slaves were also exported to Brazil and the Caribbean Islands mainly in the 19th century,
although not on the scale of the West Africa.
The main supply regions of East Africa

¯ It is said that Mozambique was exporting an average of 5400 slaves per year between 1786
and 1794, while Kilwa and Zanzibar were selling 2500 slaves per year to European merchants.
¯ Other sources of supply were Northern Zambia, Malawi and Tanzania.
¯ Weaker ethnic groups such as Makua, Makonde, Ngindo, Wanyase and Achikunda were sold
into slavery.
¯ The stronger, war like groups such as the Yao, Nyamwezi and Ngoni were the middlemen in
the East Africa slave trade.
¯ The external supply of slaves from East Africa declined from 1820s partly because of British
anti-slavery moves in Mauritius, India and other Christian countries in the Far East.
¯ Because of this decline in the external demand, more and more slaves were supplied to the
Arab owned plantations on the Islands of Zanzibar and Pemba.
9
Abolition of slave trade
- As anti-slavery movements increased more and more slaves were supplied
to the Arab owned plantations on the island of Zanzibar and Pemba.
- It is said throughout the 19th century about ½ of the population of these
islands were made up of slaves.
- Despite the fact that it laagered behind Portugal in the slave trade, Britain
was the leading buyer of slaves by the 18th century.
- However, Britain was also the first to abolish the trade of humans.
- Some of the leading British abolitionists were Thomas Clarkson (Writer),
William Wilberforce (Member of Parliament) and Granville Sharp (Lawyer).
- These and others that opposed slave trade were known as Humanitarians.
- Slavery was declared as illegal in 1772 but the British Parliament did not
agree in the abolition of slave trade until 1807.
- Slavery itself in the Americas was not abolished until much later and in the
British colonies in 1833, however, the trade continued illegally from much of
the 19th century.
Effects of slave trade

The slave trade affected Africa for close to 400 years.
1. East Africa was ravaged and depopulated into the interior.
¯ The slaves that reached the Coast are thought to be about 150 of the total destroyed by the
trade.
¯ Many more died in the inter-tribal wars organised by African chiefs to catch slaves for sale to
the Arab settlements.
¯ More died on the long march to the Coast.
¯ In this respect, the effects of the trade on East Africa were similar to what happened in West
Africa.
2. The trade caused as much uncertainty in East Africa as in West Africa.
¯ Plans for the future were abandoned. Homes became temporary, expensive cultivation of
crops became impossible. People started to live from day to day.
9
¯ Starvation and malnutrition were inevitable consequences with the result that many more
people died of malnutrition or from lack of resistance to diseases as a result of malnutrition.
3. As in West Africa cultural development was brought to a halt.
¯ The Africans who had acquired the skills of spinning and weaving, iron craft, basket and
pottery were provided with ready-made articles.
¯ Instead of concentrating on developing their own skills, they diverted their attention to
raiding each other and in that way obtained the ready made goods.
¯ In addition, the development of these skills needed political and social stability. This was
shattered by raids.
4. Several powerful kingdoms came into existence in East Africa
¯ The Nyamwezi of Tanganyika, the Bemba of Zambia, the Bisa and the Yao are the good
examples of this.
¯ This is not really a credit to the Arab slave traders for the existence of these powerful
kingdoms, only made them more destructive to the weaker ones.
THE PORTUGUESE PRAZO SYSTEM IN THE ZAMBEZI VALLEY
Aims of the Portuguese in Mutapa / Reasons for Portuguese penetration in Mutapa

-Initially the Portuguese wanted to trade with The Mutapa people.
-They wanted to drive the Swahili and Arabs away for they had become competitors.
-They wanted to spread Christianity.
-They wanted to take control of the gold mines in Mutapa.
-They wanted to control trade routes in the interior.
-They wanted land from the Shona.
-They wanted to civilise Africans.
Prazeros involved in the prazo system

-Diego Simeos Madeira -Vicente Jose Ribeiro
-Manuel Antonio de Sousa [Kuvheya] -Sisuando Dias Bayao
-Rodrigo Lobo -Matakenya
THE PRAZO SYSTEM
9
-The Prazo system was introduced by the Portuguese.
-Prazos [Mapurazi] were large farms largely owned by Portuguese in Mutapa.
-Prazeros were owners of Prazos.
-The system began during the reign of Negomo Mapunzagutu when he gave land to Francisco
Barreto.
-Some of these Prazeros were given land as rewards for their military service.
-They gained control of the lower Zambezi through signing treaties with African chiefs or
through military force.
-In 1607 Gatsi Rusere gave land to a Tete trader, Diego Simeos Madeira. He became a powerful
settler with 4000 Chikunda army.
-More land was given to Portuguese conquerors by Mavura. It is said that he was forced to cede
the whole of his kingdom to the Portuguese crown as part of the price for Portuguese aid.
-Rulers of Uteve gave large tracts of land to Dias Bayao. The area stretched from Pungwe to
Zambezi.
-The Portuguese confirmed the Prazo system by giving official land titles to individual Prazeros.
-The Portuguese government wanted Prazos to be centres of Portuguese civilisation and
commercial agriculture.
-The Portuguese grew crops like dagga, tobacco, rice, maize, sorghum, millet, watermelons,
sugar cane, coffee, cassava, squash, groundnuts, pumpkins, guavas, mangoes, cow peas, sweet
potatoes, paw paws and potatoes.
-Slavery began on Prazos and mines.
-The Prazeros used African chiefs and their subjects as labourers.
-Trusted slaves were recruited into personal armies of Prazeros.
-The Chikunda armies ill-treated the local people.
-Female slaves were used as cultivators.
-Armies were used to raid chiefs to capture lands with minerals.
-The Prazeros spoke African language.
-They believed in witchcraft.
-They practised polygamy just like Africans.
-They traded with and raided Africans.
-Prazeros became African chiefs demanding tribute from Africans on their land.
-They stripped African chiefs off their role.
-The Portuguese used old feudal laws to govern the Prazeros.
-The Portuguese lived in luxury.
-They controlled trade through vashambadzi.
-Mining of gold, silver and copper was done.
-Prazos were a source of slaves who were exported to Brazil.
-Shifting cultivation was practised.
-There was sexual co-habitation between Portuguese and African women which resulted in the
birth of a race called mulattos [coloureds].
9
-The Portuguese surrounded themselves with advisers, including religious leaders who helped
them in such ceremonies as rainmaking.
-The Prazeros were responsible for deciding on all judicial cases and settling all disputes.
Effects of the prazo system

- The Africans lost large pieces of land to the Portuguese.
- The Chikunda armies were very brutal.
- Africans were forced to work for the Portuguese.
- Slavery started as Africans were sold to East African slave traders.
- The Portuguese demanded tribute from the Africans.
EARLY MISSIONARY ACTIVITIES

Aims of Missionaries
_To spread Christianity
_To stop slave trade.
_To promote legitimate trade.
_To teach new farming methods.
_To teach new skills.
_ To bring European education.
_To civilise the Africans.
_To promote European rule(colonisation)
._To establish mission stations.
Some missionary who worked in Africa

_Robert Moffat
_John Smith Moffat
_Charles Helm
9
_Peter Aestag
_ Father Kroot
_David Livingstone
_Suleiman Sykes
_Robert Laws
_Knight Bruce
_Michael Buys.
EARLY MISSIONARY GROUPS IN ZIMBABWE

1.London Missionary Society (L.M.S ) established at Inyati and Hope Fountain near Bulawayo
2.The Roman Catholic opened a mission at Empandeni in Matebeleland ,Chishawasha in

Mashonaland and Regina coeli and Marist Brothers in Nyanga
4.The Methodists opened at Tegwani in Bulawayo,Old Mutare and Mutambara in Manicaland.
5.The Brethren in Christ opened at Matopos,Mtshabezi and Wanezi in Matebeleland.
6.The Dutch Reformed Church at Morgenster in Masvingo.
7.The Berlin Missionary Society at Matibi in Masvingo and Mposi in Midlands.
8.The Anglican Church at St Augustine's in Penhalonga.
9.The Church of Christ set up Chikore and My Selinda in Chipinge.
10. The Seventh Day Adventist-opened a mission at Solusi in Bulawayo.
[29/10, 12:10] GOPITO: They introduced new crops.
_They taught Africans New forms of hygiene
[29/10, 12:10] GOPITO: _Transport made travelling difficult.
_Missionaries faced opposition from Africans.
9
_They clashed with Africans because they attacked African cultural practices.,such rain -making
ceremonies and killing of twins.
_Africans were illiterate and therefore were unable to read the Bible.
_Missionaries were attacked by wild animals and local people.
_Knight of food and medicines made their life difficult.
_There was also competition from other RELIGION e.g African traditional religion and Islam.
_African political leaders denied them
_There was poor communication network in the areas they operated.
PROBLEMS FACED BY MISSIONARIES.

_The pioneer missionaries faced language and cultural differences which made communication
difficult.
_They were affected by tropical diseases such as malaria that killed some of them.
_They taught Africans New forms of hygiene
_Transport made travelling difficult.
_Missionaries faced opposition from Africans.
_They clashed with Africans because they attacked African cultural practices.,such rain -making
ceremonies and killing of twins.
_Africans were illiterate and therefore were unable to read the Bible.
_Missionaries were attacked by wild animals and local people.
_Knight of food and medicines made their life difficult.
_There was also competition from other RELIGION e.g African traditional religion and Islam.
_African political leaders denied them
_There was poor communication network in the areas they operated.
9
Missionary activities
_Missionaries preached the gospel and tried to convert Africans to Christianity.
_They denounced traditional RELIGION and African customary practises such as polygamy and
the worshiping of vadzimu.
_They trained Africans to be evangelist and catechists to preach on their behalf.
They translated the Bible into vernacular languages and printed hymn books in local languages.
_They taught Africans how to read and write and do basic arithmetic.They also taught Africans
technical skills such as agriculture, building and carpentry.
_They traded with local people to promote legitimate trade.
_They taught Africans to operate guns and to repair them.
_They treated the sick and animals were vaccinated. _
_They acted as the kings advisers and wrote diplomatic letters on behalf of the kings. egCharles
Helm and John S. Moffat.
They helped in the colonisation of Zimbabwe during the Rudd Concession.
_They introduced new crops.
_They taught Africans New forms of hygiene.
IMPACT OF MISSIONARY ACTIVITIES ON AFRICANS

Positive impact/Benefits
_Missionaries brought literacy to Africans.They were now able to read and write.
_Africans were taught technical skills which enhanced their lives e.g they became better
farmers ,builders and carpenters.
_African evil practices were put to an end e.g killing of twins ,human sacrifices and SLAVERY.
_They also improved health by setting up clinics and hospitals.
_Transport systems were developed.
9
_They constructed schools.
_They taught Africans basic hygiene practices.
Negative impact/non-benefits.
_Missionaries destroyed African culture and disturbed its moral fabric.
_They violated African religion and vandalised important religious shrines.
_Missionaries helped in the colonisation of Zimbabwe eg
John Smith Moffat and Charles Helm were used as British agents to colonised Zimbabwe.
_They were accused of wrongly interpreting and writing African history.
THE SCRAMBLE AND PARTITION OF AFRICA

9
Definition of terms
1.Scramble-to rush or fight for something which has good value.
2.Partition-to divide into parts.
EUROPEANS POWERS INVOLVED IN THE SCRAMBLE FOR AFRICA
_Britain
_Portugal.
_German
_France.
_Spain
_Netherlands
_Belgium
_Italy
REASONS FOR THE SCRAMBLE AND PARTITION FOR AFRICA.

1.Economic reasons
_The Europeans wanted minerals in Africa.
_They wanted fertile soils for agricultural activities.
_They needed raw materials other than minerals
_They were searching for markets for their finished products.
_They also wanted favourable climates for agriculture and human settlement.
_They needed human labour to work in their farms and mines.
_They colonised Africa so that they could invest their surplus capital in mining and farming.
_Technological advancement intercultural equipment and mining equipment led Europeans to

colonised Africa.
9
_The growth of banks in Euroe which gave loans to investors.
_Improvement in transport and communication system led Europeans to colonised Africa e.g
building of roads, railway lines and ships.
POLITICAL REASONS.
_Local agents like Rhodes helped in the colonisation,he had a Cape to Cairo dream.
_Africa was weakened by slave trade and it became easier for the European to colonised it.
_The Berlin Conference encouraged colonisation.
_Some European countries colonised Africa for prestigious reasons.
_The European powers wanted to increase their spheres of influence.
_Some Europeans wanted to protect themselves from energy attacks e.g during the World War
1. Some Africans were taken to fight in Europe.
_They wanted to divert each other's attention from territories left back home.
_The Boers wanted to avoid encirclement by the British hence the expansion north of the
Limpopo.
METHODS USED BY EUROPEANS POWERS TO COLONISE AFRICA.

_They used treaties e.g the Rudd Concession in Zimbabwe.
_He of Missionaries e.g colonisation of Lesotho and Zimbabwe.
_He of bribery e.g Lobengula's indunas was bribed to influence Lobengula to Sign the treaty by
Lotche.
_He of force and wars e.g during the Anglo-Zulu war.
_He of traders e.g German in the colonisation of Namibia.
_He of prazo e.g in Mutapa's Zambezi valley.
_They influenced African leaders to enter into treaties of protection e.g Botswana ,Lesotho and
Swaziland.
_They used ambitious leaders e.g. Britain used Rhodes in the colonisation of Lesotho ,
Botswana,Swaziland,Malawi,South AFRICA and Zimbabwe.
9
_Granting of chatter e.g charter given to Rhodes to colonised Zimbabwe ,Malawi and Zambia.
_They used tricks e.g Lobengula in the Rudd Concession was given verbal promises which were
never fulfilled.
_They used conferences e.g the Berlin Conference.
_They used hunters e.g Selous gave the pioneer column direction to Zimbabwe.
[29/10, 12:10] GOPITO: SOCIAL/HUMANITARIAN REASONS.
_The Europeans wanted to settle their social misfits in Africa e.g robbers and prostitutes.
_To spread western civilisation which discourage evil practises e.g raiding witchcraft and killing
of twins.
_They wanted to spread Christianity.
_They wanted to stop slave trade.and slavery.
_The Europeans colonised Africa because they considered themselves as a superior race.
_They wanted to educate the Africans.
_They wanted to treat Africans who were ill of malaria.
_They also wanted good climates for their health e.g Rhodes.
THE BERLIN CONFERENCE OF 1884-5.

Aims of the Conference.
_To settle conflicts of Europeans powers during colonisation.
_To stop conflicts of Europeans during colonisation.
_To divide Africa amoung th
emselves.
What was agreed.
_A country should tell others it's sphere of influence.
_The Congo,Nile and Niger were made international rivers.
_Freedom of navigation in major rivers e.g Nile, Congo and Zambezi.
9
The Congo Free State was given toLeopold king of Belgium.
_Africa was divided into 20 territorial units.
_France was given the French Congo.
_Signing of treaties among European powers to preserve peace.
_ Signing of treaties with African chiefs to make colonisation legitimate.
STRATEGIC REASONS
_Portugal wanted to link Mozambique with Angola and German to link Namibia with Tanzania.
_The need to protect strategic routes e.g Cape to Cairo railway by Britain.
_The need to protect military bases by Europeans.

FORM 1 HISTORY-WPS Office

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FORM 1 HISTORY-WPS Office

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FORM 1 HISTORY

-It is a record of people’s lives, behaviours and activities; their glories,

-It helps us to understand what is happening around us and helps us to

WHY STUDY HISTORY

¯ To take advantage of development made by other people.

¯ To know our origin and identity.

¯ To know the history of our country.

¯ Histpry helps us to think critically on historical matters to come up with real

¯ History also liberates/frees human mind and level of thinking

¯ It stimulates analytical skills on human matters in life.

¯ Information comes from eye witness.

¯ Audiences or listeners listen to the word of mouth.

-It is first-hand information which is useful in compiling written records.

It improves communication skills

-It is easy to get information.

-The information is easy to understand.

-You can ask questions and get clarification on certain issues

-The illiterate can also access the information.

¯ It can be distorted –when the eye witnesses die.

-Important information can be forgotten.

-There are no dates.

-The historian can deliberately tell lies

-There is a lot of bias.

- It can also be written by eye witnesses of certain events.

¯ Written records are either primary or secondary sources.

¯ Once compiled in a book or magazine, information cannot be destr.oyed

-Written records can survive as long as the document can survive.

-Dates are available.

-Only the literate people can access the historical information.

-Documents can be lost.

-One cannot ask questions

¯ Reflect views of the historian.

-It is expensive because one needs to buy books.

-The process of digging inorder to get the information is called excavation.

-The person who diggs is called an archeologist.

-Items that are found after digging are called artefacts.

-There is no bias, distortion or exaggeration.

-There are dates.

-It is expensive because expensive machinery is required.

-Some items might be broken accidentally during excavation.

-It is dirty to work with.

-It is time consuming.

STAGES OF HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT

-People make their own history through production and struggle.

¯ These factors include land labour and wealth.

¯ Subjects were subjected to ill-treatment and severe punishment.

¯ During this stage agriculture was their main branch of production.

¯ Wealth was no longer produced from agriculture as in Feudalism.

¯ Labour could be bought and sold.

¯ It is the highest stage of human development according to Karl Marx.

¯ There is no army and other security forces.

¯ People live and share equally the means of production

-Evolution is a process of change from animals (apes) to human beings

b) The scientific theory

¯ It was a theory put forward by Charles Darwin.

¯ History as a subject believes on availability of evidence to support the theory .

Basis of the scientific theory

¯ It lived on earth nine million years ago.

¯ Ramapithecus was shared by apes and people as their ancestors.

¯ It had large grinding teeth suitable for vegetable eating.

Homo Habilis (Skilful man )

- Described them as skilful human being with its large brain.

¯ Is direct ancestor of Homo erectus which developed.¯