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Psychiatric Damage Liability
Psychiatric Damage Liability
Psychiatric Damage Liability
TORT | Negligence
Psychiatric Damage:
Liability
Revision Note | Degree
14 MAY 2013
Introduction
• claimant's (C) who suffer psychiatric damage (nervous shock) can claim in Negligence, rules refined to take
account of special nature of damage
• personal injury damages may include pain & suffering (covers mental) if flows from original physical injury
• psychiatric damage rules apply where there is no physical injury
General restrictions
• psychiatric damage limited by 2 requirements: harm suffered is medically recognised condition & it is sudden
not gradual damage
• restrictions aim: help determine genuine claims, prevent opening floodgates & limit possible liability for
defendants (D)
• Lord Ackner: '.. the law gives no damages if the psychiatric injury was not induced by
shock. Psychiatric illnesses caused in other ways,such as from the experience of having
to cope with the deprivation consequent upon the death of a loved one, attracts no
damages...'
1/9
LEACH V CHIEF CONSTABLE OF GLOUCESTERSHIRE CONSTABULARY [1999] 1 ALL
ER 215
FACTS:
Sudden event
• psychiatric damage must be brought on by sudden event
• insufficient: even if foreseeable C, under strain, may gradually suffer psychiatric harm
• Lord Ackner: '... 'Shock', in the context of this cause of action, involves the sudden
appreciation by sight or sound of a horrifying sight or sound or a horrifying event, which
violently agitates the mind. It has yet to include psychiatric illness caused by the
accumulation over a period of time of more gradual assaults on the nervous system...'
Duty of care
• D must owe C duty of care
• duty of care: difficult to prove in cases of psychiatric damage, only duty if C a reasonably foreseeable victim
• Cs who suffer psychiatric damage (medically recognised condition suddenly induced by shock) categorised
as primary or secondary victims
• classification in relation to their proximity to incident, with different criteria applied to determine if duty owed
2/9
PAGE V SMITH [1996] AC 155
FACTS:
ISSUE:
HELD:
• duty of care owed: P was primary victim because he was involved in the accident
• Lord Lloyd: '.. A primary victim is someone was in the actual area of danger or reasonably
believed he was in danger. A secondary victim is someone who witnesses injury to
another or fears for the safety of another...'
• primary victims: owed duty of care in relation to pure psychiatric damage, if risk of physical injury
was foreseeable (risk of psychiatric harm does not need to be foreseeable)
• Lord Lloyd: '.. In an age when medical knowledge is expanding fast, and psychiatric
knowledge with it, it would not be sensible to commit the law to a distinction between
physical and psychiatric injury, which may already seem somewhat artificial, and may
soon be altogether outmoded. Nothing will be gained by treating them as different 'kinds'
of personal injury, so as to require the application of different tests in law...'
FACTS:
• Ds negligently drove horse drawn cart into a pub & P, pregnant barmaid, suffered shock leading
to a miscarriage
ISSUE:
HELD:
• duty of care owed: was foreseeable that Ds' negligence would cause P reasonably fear for her
own safety & shock induced, recognised physical condition
• D owes primary victim duty of care not to cause pure psychiatric damage, if risk of physical injury was
foreseeable
3/9
Duty of care: secondary victims
• secondary victim: less closely involved in incident than primary victim, therefore test for establishing duty of
care more stringent
• secondary victim must have suffered medically recognised condition as result of sudden shock
• additional requirements: leading case, relates to Hillsborough disaster (large number of football supporters
were killed & injured in incident caused by negligence of police officers who allowed overcrowding in the
stands)
FACTS:
ISSUE:
HELD:
4/9
ALCOCK V CHIEF CONSTABLE OF SOUTH YORKSHIRE POLICE [1992] 1 AC 310
• Lord Ackner: '.. [for example] a petrol tanker careering out of control into a school in
session and bursting into flames. I would not be prepared to rule out a potential claim by a
passer-by so shocked by the scene as to suffer psychiatric illness...'
• however later case seems to suggest bystander not sufficiently proximate relationship
• Stuart-Smith LJ: '.. In my judgment both as a matter of principle and policy the Court
should not extend the duty to those who are mere bystanders or witnesses of horrific
events unless there is a sufficient degree of proximity, which requires both nearness in
time and place and a close relationship of love and affection between plaintiff and victim...'
FACTS:
• P suffered psychiatric harm after her husband & children involved in serious car accident, caused
by D's negligence
• P informed by friend who witnessed crash & P arrived at hospital 1hr after crash & found family
receiving medical attention
ISSUE:
HELD:
• there was sufficient proximity in time & space: P saw her family in immediate aftermath, within 1hr
& victims still in same condition (covered in mud, oil & blood
FACTS:
• P identified his brother-in-law in mortuary 8hrs after incident, victim's body was badly bruised
ISSUE:
5/9
HELD:
• secondary victim not present at incident must experience immediate aftermath, immediacy determined case
by case
FACTS:
• C identified her daughter's body in mortuary, approximately 2hrs after she was killed in car
accident
ISSUE:
HELD:
• sufficient proximity in time & space: C suffered psychiatric damage after experiencing immediate
aftermath of accident
• Lord Wilberforce: '.. The shock must come through sight or hearing of the event or of its
immediate aftermath...'
• whether watching live television coverage can amount to sufficient proximity of perception
FACTS:
ISSUE:
HELD:
• Ps not have proximity of perception: broadcast did not include suffering of identifiable individuals
(broadcasting ethics code prevented)
• Ps watching footage not equivalent to seeing & hearing event or its immediate aftermath
6/9
• Lord Ackner: '.. the simultaneous television broadcasts of what occurred cannot be
equated with the 'sight or hearing of the event or its immediate aftermath'. Accordingly
shocks sustained by reason of these broadcasts cannot found a claim... simultaneous
broadcasts of a disaster cannot in all cases be ruled out as providing the equivalent of the
actual sight or hearing of the event or its immediate aftermath...'
FACTS:
• P suffered psychiatric damage after helping at train crash, caused by D's negligence
• P crawled under debris & gave injections to wounded
ISSUE:
HELD:
FACTS:
• oil rig exploded, due to D's negligence, killing over 100 workers
• P off duty & resting on ship 100 metres away, survivors from incident transferred to same ship
• P suffered psychiatric damage
ISSUE:
HELD:
FACTS:
• Ps, police officers, suffered psychiatric damage due to experiences rescuing victims of
Hillsborough disaster
7/9
ISSUE:
HELD:
• House of Lords: Ps were not primary victims: not within range of foreseeable physical injury &
psychiatric harm result of witnessing immediate aftermath
• rescuer only primary victim if in danger of physical injury or reasonably believes that he is
• no duty of care owed to Ps on basis that D was employer
• reversed Court of Appeal decision in Frost v Chief Constable of South Yorkshire [1997] 1 All
ER 540, which found Ps were primary victims as rescuers
Misconceptions
• C that wrongly believes, due to D's negligence, he caused death or injury to another person, is primary victim
FACTS:
ISSUE:
HELD:
8/9
Witness to destruction of property
• C may make claim for psychiatric damage after witnessing destruction of property
FACTS:
• P suffered psychiatric damage after witnessing her house burning down, due to D's negligence
• P did not fear for safety of herself or others
ISSUE:
HELD:
• (11): statutory duty of care owed if P suffers reasonably foreseeable recognisable psychiatric
illness as result of death, injury or imperilment of person who has close tie of love & affection,
regardless of closeness in time & space to accident or aftermath
• (14): fixed list of relationships with close tie of love & affection: spouse, parent, child, sibling,
cohabitant of at least 2 yrs
• (7): recognisable psychiatric illness not have to be induced by shock
9/9