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(Download PDF) Facilitating The Development and Use of Interactive Learning Environments First Edition Bloom Online Ebook All Chapter PDF
(Download PDF) Facilitating The Development and Use of Interactive Learning Environments First Edition Bloom Online Ebook All Chapter PDF
(Download PDF) Facilitating The Development and Use of Interactive Learning Environments First Edition Bloom Online Ebook All Chapter PDF
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FACILITATING
F THE DEVELOPMENT
AND USE OF INTERACTIVE
LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS
Computers, Cognition, and Work
A Series Edited by
Gary M. Olson, Judith S. Olson, and Bill Curtis
Edited by
CHARLES P. BLOOM
US WEST Advanced Technologies
R. BOWEN LOFTIN
University of Houston
m
1998
LAWRENCE ERLBAUM ASSOCIATES, PUBLISHERS
Mahwah, New Jersey London
Copyright © 1998 by Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
All rights reserved. No part of the book may be reproduced in
any form, by photostat, microform, retrieval system, or any other
means, without the prior written permission of the publisher.
Preface vii
v
vi CONTENTS
vii
viii PREFACE
that ITSs were good things (surprised?). However, if we all agree that they
are such good things, why are not more of them deployed and in use?
As we sat down to lunch on the second day of the workshop, we began
to discuss the possibility of producing a volume to document the workshop.
There was strong sentiment that the world did not need another "Here is
our ITS: Isn't it wonderful" book. Rather, what we all saw as a more useful
contribution was a book that recounted case histories of technology trans
fer, both successful and unsuccessful, as well as guides and/or methods to
help ITS developers facilitate the technology transfer process. Thus, this
volume was born.
As first drafts of the chapters began to come in, three separate themes
emerged. The first theme centered on tools that ITS developers can employ
during ITS development that should ultimately facilitate deployment. The
first section of this book discusses some of these tools. Chapter 1 by Bill
Clancey, titled "Developing Learning Technology in Practice," calls for a
paradigmatic change in how developers view their ITSs, particularly with
regard to their role in the overall scheme of education. Clancey talks about
a new role for ITS researchers, that of agents of organizational change.
Chapter 2 by my colleagues and myself at US WEST, most notably Scott
Woft, describes the efficacy and use of quasi-experimental methods to gather
design information for ITS domains where other, more empirical or knowl
edge-based methods are inappropriate. This chapter was motivated by a
second ITS project we undertook at US WEST, that of developing an ITS for
teaching object-oriented requirements modeling. What we found as we be
gan developing this system was that the type of expertise we required to
build our ITS was not readily available in our company. This led us to come
up with methods for acquiring ITS knowledge that were different from the
more traditional methods of knowledge acquisition. Chapter 3 by Scott Wolff
of US WEST describes the work he did to get US WEST to fund development
of an ITS. This chapter discusses the conduct of cost-benefits analyses to
facilitate ITS funding decisions. It is interesting to note that Scott's success
ultimately led to US WEST funding us to develop LEAP.
The second theme that emerged centered on case studies of both suc
cessful and unsuccessful ITS technology transfer from industry. Chapter 4
by myself, along with colleagues Scott Wolff and Brigham Bell, recounts the
3-year history of US WEST's LEAP system, including descriptions of some of
the methods and strategies we used to facilitate LEAP's transfer into US
WEST's operational environment. Chapter 5 by Anne McClard of US WEST
describes something that seems to be sorely lacking in the ITS literature-an
actual observational study of subject-matter experts as they attempt to build
an ITS knowledge base from scratch. During the latter half of the second
year of the LEAP project, we had actual subject-matter experts building the
PREFACE ix
who helped in the production of this book in both word and action, particu
larly Hans Brunner at US WEST. Hans was my supervisor at the time we
held the workshop and while we developed our ITS. It was only through his
generosity that the workshop (and ultimately this book) became a reality.
Charles P. Bloom
PART
TOOLS OF THE
TRADE
CHAPTER
1
DEVELOPING LEARNING
TECHNOLOGY IN PRACTICE
William J. Clancey
Institute for Research on Learning
IThe meeting was sponsored by US West and held in Boulder, Colorado, July 26-28, 1993.
The original title of the workshop referred to ITS, so this term has been used in this chapter.
Increasingly, developers have preferred to shift the focus to learning and the student, emphasize
interaction, and include nontechnical tools, facilities, etc. Hence, the term "interactive learning
environments" is more often used today. The focus of this paper is specifically programs
developed by AI researchers, which universally were called "intelligent tutoring systems" during
the decade beginning around 1977.
3
4 CLANCEY
There are many reasons why the ITS methods of the mid-70s are not in use
today. Indeed, the reasons are overwhelming:
6 CLANCEY
Of all these considerations, one of the most important is the shift in how
knowledge and learning are conceived. From the well-known situated-learn
ing perspective, learning is viewed as something occurring all the time and
having a tacit component (Lave & Wenger, 1991; Clancey, 1995, in press).
Concepts are not merely words and definitions but ways of coordinating
what we see and how we move. Understanding is spatially, perceptually,
and socially embedded in activity. Activities are not merely tasks but roles,
identities, and ways of choreographing interpersonal interaction. Problems
are constructed by participants, not merely given. "Trouble" is defined in
conversations about values, how assessments will be made, and who is
participating. In these terms, documents and tools are not specified and
given but open to interpretation, having new meanings and uses in changing
circumstances-according to workers' experience, not merely packaged by
teachers and rotely digested. Communication with coworkers is viewed as
central, especially by informal relationships of friendship, developing
through meetings and chance encounters (Stamps, 1997).
None of this makes the articulation of principles, rules, and policies in
written text irrelevant. Rather, this situated-cognition analysis reveals how
such descriptions of the world and behavior are created, in what sense they
are shared, and how they are given meaning in practice. The result is that
both creation of work representations, or tools, and their use must be
understood in the context of work activity. Put concisely, one participant
at the US West workshop said, "Classroom learning should be modeled after
workplace learning, not vice versa." Crucially, we don't want to fall into an
either-or mentality and impose one view on another, such as bringing CBT
18 CLANCEY
static repository" view that we must capture and proceduralize the special
ized viewpoints of retiring experts. The next generation will learn to describe
problems and situations in multiple languages by using different perspec
tives and methods. This is not the same as delivering a course on one
subject.
The problem for people who want to promote this new perspective on
knowledge and learning is to find a way to sell what is not in a binder or
flashing colorful graphics and sounds in computer windows. We must de
velop new forms of assessing learning that make social processes visible to
reveal the informal, tacit components of knowledge as essential. The worst
possible step, which the ITS community has indeed adopted so far, is to
view ITS technology as supplying training departments with methods to
produce more materials or better materials more quickly. Changing the
practice of instructional design involves learning about and incorporating
new perspectives in computer programs:
Anyone who has tried to bridge such perspectives knows that the process
of change is slow, politically charged, and in many respects, uncontrolled.
Some researchers will prefer and will be better off working alone in research
labs, exploring what computers can do rather than investigating what peo
ple need them to do. Other researchers will find that it is possible to belong
to multiple communities, retaining academic ties while enjoying the intel
lectual breadth of a multidisciplinary team. Ultimately, beyond all the argu
ments about productively and competitiveness, it will be individual workers
and researchers alike who assess their own performances and realize that
in taking on challenges from different perspectives, they have landed on
two feet in multiple worlds.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research has been supported in part by NYNEX Science and Technol
ogy, Inc. and Xerox Corporation, Inc. I want to thank my colleagues for our
many stimulating conversations: Gitti Jordan, Charlotte Linde, and Ted Kahn
at IRL, plus Pat Sachs, Dave Torok, and David Moore at NYNEX. Jeff Kelley
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
Silloin yhtäkkiä ajaa jäädyttävä pelko hänet takaisin pojan luo Hän
on unohtanut lapsensa, ajatellut itseään. Mitä jos jotain on
tapahtunut?
*****
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Elena miettii hetken, sitte koettaa hän selittää, että se kai johtuu
siitä, kun ihmiset eivät ole hyviä. Vaikeat ajat voivat ehkä opettaa
heitä paremmiksi, kun he näkevät miten paljon kärsimystä paha
tuottaa.
Aljoscha ei vastaa tähän mitään, sentähden jatkaa Elena
selittelyä.
— Kerran kun sinä olit pieni, napautti isä sinua sormille. Sinä itkit
kovin. Sinua ei koskaan oltu rangaistu. Mutta sen kerran jälkeen
muistit olla koskematta isän kirjotuskaluihin.
*****
*****
Paperi painuu Sergiuksen kädestä pöydälle. Monta puolustus- ja
syytöskirjelmää on hän sekä lukenut että itse laatinut, — tällaista ei
koskaan.
Leipää.
Petter on niin usein katsellut tätä kaikkea, että hän osaa sen kuin
ulkoa. Kun hän vain ummistaa silmänsä, näkee hän sen edessään:
iloisen valkean talon päivänpaisteisella mäentörmällä, puutarha
ympärillä ja puutarhassa ukkoja, myhähteleviä, osaansa tyytyväisiä
ukkoja…
Ja kun hän kerran istuu siinä, silloin hän ei ainoastaan ole saanut
sitä, mitä ei koskaan ennen annettu: huolettomia päiviä, — silloin
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Hän on niin kauan syönyt näitä nälkäisin katsein, että jo luulisi itse
teossa olevansa niitä syömässä, elleivät nälkä ja vilu muistuttaisi
hänelle asian todellista laitaa.
Pieni tyttö ja poika kääntyvät samassa kadulta puotiin. He ostavat
itselleen kauniita, sokerilla päällystettyjä kakkuja ja syövät niitä.
Nälkä kurnii Petterin suolissa, vilu puistattaa.
Petterille tulee kiire. Hänestä tuntuu siltä kuin joka askel veisi
häntä yhä lähemmä kaikkea sitä, mitä hän vasta näki unissaan.
Ensi hetkenä tuntuu siltä, kuin olisi hän saanut iskun vasten silmiä,
iskun sellaisen, että päätä huimaa. Sitte herää hänessä
voitonriemuinen ja ylpeä ajatus. Tämä ei enää merkitse mitään.
Rahat on koottuna. Johtokunnan jäsen ajaa hänen asiaansa.
Uupuvat markat saa hän vaikka kiven kolosta. Ei mikään saa häntä
enää säikkymään. Voitto on hänen.
Petter ei näe eikä kuule mitään. Hän vain syö. Pää tutisee, kädet
vapisevat ja pitkä aaltoileva parta nytkähtelee.
*****
Seller kumarsi.