PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES OF MANAGEMENT

INTRODUCTION

This module unit is aimed at equipping the trainees with knowledge, skills and attitudes that
would enable him/her to appreciate management functions in hospitality industry.

GENERAL OBJECTIVES

By the end of this module unit, the trainee should be able to:

a) apply principles of management in catering establishment

b) apply the management theories in his/her day to day activities

c) understand the impact of environmental factors on the management of a tourism

organization

d) Appreciate the emerging trends in management

TOPICS CONCERNED

 INTRODUCTION

 PLANNING

 STAFFING / PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT

 ORGANISING

 DIRECTING / LEADING

 CONTROLLING
TOPIC: INTRODUCTION

Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:

a) explain the nature and scope of management

b) identify various levels of management

c) explain various levels of management

d) explain the managerial roles

e) highlight qualities of an effective manager

Management is an integrating force or agency consisting of some basic functions for

accomplishing the objectives of an organization. Thus management is the dynamic life giving
element in every organization. So by bringing together factors of production, management
enables societies to get better and increase the supply of goods and services.

DEFINITIONS OF MANAGEMENT

1. According to McFarland

Management is a process by which managers create, direct, maintain and operate purposive
organizations through systematic coordinated and cooperative human efforts.

2. J.L. Londy

Management is principally the task of planning, coordinating, motivating, and controlling the
effort of others towards specific objectives.

3. George R Terry
Management is a distinct process consisting of activities of planning, organizing, actuating,
performed on the efforts of group members in order to utilize available resources of the group
human efforts, materials, machines and methods in order to attain organization goals.

4. According to Mary Parker Follet, management is defined as the art of getting things done
through people in formally organized group.

NB. These definitions clearly identify four functions of management. However modern
management classifies managerial function into five.

CHARACTERISTICS/ FEATURES OF MANAGEMENT

Management has the following salient features.

 Management is a process. This refers to the process of getting thing done by working
with people to accomplish objectives.

 Management is goal oriented thus aims at achieving organizational goals/objectives

 Management is a group activity. It’s concerned with group efforts and not
individual/efforts

 Management is a economic resource as it aims at reaping rich results in economic terms

 Principles of management have universal application. Apply more or less in every

situation.

 Management is a system of authority. Managers at different levels have varying degree of

authority.

 Principles of management are dynamic and not static

 Management is integrative; the essence of management is to integrate human and other

resources to achieve desired goals.

 Management is both science and an art. Management has an organized body of

knowledge consisting of well-defined concepts, principles and techniques that have a wide
application and thus a science. The application of this concepts principles and techniques
requires skills thus management is also considered as an art.

PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT
 A principle is a fundamental statement of truth that provides a guide to thought and action. It
establishes a cause and effect relationship between two more variables.

The principles of management lay down guidelines for improving management practice.

Variable this is something that can change affect the results of something.

Principles of management are “diagnostic guides” each business situation is unique and must be
analyzed on its own merit. The exact application of these principles will depend upon its social
economic, political and cultural factors in a particular organization.

NEED/REASONS FOR PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT

a) To increase efficiency – it enable a manager to take more realistic view of organizational

problems and their solutions. It avoids the need for trial and error methods and improves the
quality of managerial practice.

b) To crystallize the nature of management job – it helps in analyzing the management job
and in defining the exact scope of management process. It provides a framework for training and
education in management.

c) To improve research in management – it serves as a focal point for useful research in

group dynamics, both to ascertain their validity and to improve their applicability.

d) To attain social goals- it enables more efficient utilization of human and material
resources. In this way, management provides social satisfaction and improves the quality of life
of people.

Criticism of the principles of management

a) They are based on unrealistic premises

b) They represent common sense and are too obvious

c) Many of them are contradicting e.g. the principle of unity of command suggest a single
boss for every employee while the principle of specialization advocates that specialists should
guide subordinates in their respective areas.

Nature/ characteristic of management principles

1. Universality of principles- they can be applied in different types of organization e.g.
business, government, educational, military etc

2. Dynamism – management principles are flexible guides rather than hard and fast rules.
They are dynamic rather than static, diagnostic rather than determinative. Two management
situations are seldom a like in all respects an therefore, management principles have to be
modified with changes in the environment of the organization

3. Human limitation- management is an inexact social science because it deals with human
behavior which is a very complex and unpredictable and in order to understand and influence it,
various principles developed in other fields and applied today in management.

4. Relativity- management principles are relative rather than absolute. Therefore these
should be applied according to the need of the organization and demands of the situation.

MANAGEMENT AS A SCIENCE OR AN ART OR A PROFESSION

There are different viewpoints as to whether management should be regarded as a science or an

art or both. As a matter of fact, the management is an art as well as a science. This is explained
as follows:

A science may be defined as “representing knowledge gathered by observation and experiment

critically tested, systematized and brought under general principles”

It means that science is an organized or systematized body of theoretical knowledge pertaining to

a particular field of enquiry. Such systematized body of knowledge contains concepts, principles
and theories, which help to explain events and to predict the outcome of specific actions. These
principles are capable of universal application.

Management as a science refers to the application of scientific methods in making decisions and
evaluating different courses of actions. It involves obtaining of complete, valid and reliable
information in respect of the problem under consideration before making a decision.
Management is a science because of the following reasons:-

a) The principles of management have been developed through continuous observation and
empirical verification

b) There is a systematized body of knowledge in management principles are now available

in every function of management and these principles help to improve managerial effectiveness.

c) The principles of management are capable of universal application

d) Management theory helps to examine and evaluate alternative courses of action to resolve
a given problem.

MANAGEMENT AS AN ART

An art may be defined as skills or knowledge in a particular field of activity or a method of doing
a thing. It means that art involves the practical application of theoretical knowledge and skills to
achieve desired results. It is concerned with creating of objects or events.

Management is essentially an art because of the following reasons:-

a) The process of management involves the use of know how i.e. skills and knowledge

b) Management seeks to achieve concrete practical results i.e. profit, growth etc

c) Like an art, management is creative it brings out new solutions and makes resources
productive. Management is creative since it involves molding and welding the attitudes and
behavior of people at work for the accomplishment of specific goals in a changing environmental
condition.

d) Good management is efficient and the success of a manager is measured by the effective
realization of organized goals.

CONCLUSIONS
Management is both an art as well as a science. Essentially managing is the art of doing and
management is the body of knowledge which underlies the art. It must however be noted that
science and art are complementary to each other. Science without art is sterile and art without
science is blind.

The art and science of management go hand in hand. The art of management is guided by the
science of management which in turn gets nourishment from the practice (art) of management.

MANAGEMENT AS A PROFESSION

A profession can be defined as:

It is a field where training is intellectual in nature a field in which one enters for the sake of
others and in which financial reward is not considered as a measure of success

A profession is afield which is supposed to possess a well defined body of knowledge one which
is leaned intellectual and organized one with entry restricted by examination or education and
one which is concerned primarily with service to others above self-reward

Management is a profession since it meets the first criteria the body of knowledge requirement
this is true from the vocational understanding of the function of business the general can
discipline found in typical schools of business, the graduate programs where functions,
organizations, social institutions social responsibilities and policy are emphasized

However mgt falls the test of professionalism on another criteria. Anybody can label himself a
manager and apply it to the operation of business. Managers are never self-made instead they
are the product of the classroom and research. Education and training are regarded by socially as
vital to managerial progression and success and typically the educated managers are the ones to
whom positions of power and real responsibility are given

The question of whether mgt is a profession is complex because mgt is a broad subject parts of
the subject do have professional characteristics and others do not
The following criteria of a profession will help to identify those parts which may be considered
to be professional:

1 A profession is based on a proven systematic body of knowledge and thus requires

intellectual training

2 A profession maintains an experimental attitude towards information and thus requires a

search for new ideas

3 A profession emphasizes service to other and usually develops a code of ethics that
requires that financial return should not be the only motive.

4 Entrance into a profession is usually restricted by standards established by an association

that requires its members be accepted by a group composed with people common training

CONCLUSION

Management is not an a straight profession but it is making stride in that direction every
enterprise presents possibilities for the application of the art and science of mgt and virtually
every business is a potential source of employment of professional managers

FUNCTIONAL AND ROLE OF MANAGEMENT

The process of management consists of several interrelated activities. These activities are known
as the functions of management. There is no universally acceptable classification of managerial
functions . However, the following are main functions of management.

1 PLANNING

It is the primary function of mgt. it involves determining the objectives and selecting a course of
action to achieve them it implies looking ahead and deciding in advance what is to be done when
and where it is to be done, how and by whom it is done.
It is a mental process requiring the use of intellectual faculties, Foresight imagination and sound
judgment it consist of forecaster decision making and problem solving

A plan is a predetermined future course of action it is today design for tomorrow and an outline
of steps to be taken in future

The process of planning consist of

1 Determination of objectives

2 Forecasting and choice of a course of action

3 Formulation of policies programmers budgets schedules etc to achieve the objectives

4 Laying down of procedures and standards of performance

Planning may be long-term or short term. It is a pervasive function and managers at all levels
have to prepare plans. It is a continuous or an ongoing process. It enables us to do things in an
orderly and efficient manner. It is helpful in achieving the goals and facing uncertainly and
change.

2. ORGANIZING

It is the process of establishing harmonious authority – responsibility, relationships among the

members and the enterprise. It is the function f creating a structure of duties and responsibilities.
The organization structure serves as the framework within which people can work together
effectively for accomplishment of common objectives. It is an important element of management
because it is through organizing that a manager brings together the material and human resources
required for the achievement of goals.

The process of organizing consists of the following steps:

1. Determining and defining the activities required for the achievement of planned goals
2. Grouping the activities into logical and convenient units

3. Delegating authority to these positions and people

4. Defining and fixing responsibility for performance

5. Assigning the duties and activities to specific positions and people

6. Establishing horizontal and vertical authority relationships throughout the organization.

3. STAFFING

It is the process of filling all positions in the organization with adequate and qualified personnel

According to Koonts and O. Donnel the management function of staffing involves managing
organizational structure through proper and effective selection, appraisal and development of
personnel to fit the roles designated in the structure.

Staffing consists of:

a) Manpower

b) Recruitment

c) Selection

d) Training

e) Compensation

f) Integration and maintenance of employees

5. DIRECTING

It is the managerial function of guiding, supervising, motivating and leading people towards the
attainment of planned targets of performance. It is concerned with execution of plans and
policies. It initiates organized actions and sets the whole organizational machinery into action. It
is therefore, the life spark of an organization.

Directing embraces the following activities:

a) Issuing orders and instructions

b) Supervising people at work

c) Motivating i.e. creating willingness to work for certain objective.

d) Communication i.e. establishing understanding with employees regarding plans and their
implementation.

e) Leadership or influencing the behavior of employees.

6. CONTROLLING

It is the process of ensuring that the organization is moving in the desired direction and that
progress is being made towards the achievement of goals.

The process of controlling involve the following steps:

a) Establishing standards for measuring work performance

b) Measurement of actual performance and comparing it with the standards

c) Finding variances between the two and the reasons thereof

d) Taking corrective action for deviations so as to ensure attainment of objectives

LEVELS OF MANAGEMENT

The different levels of management are explained as below:

1. Top management (strategic level management)

2. Middle level management (tactical level management)

3. Lower level management (supervisory or operating management)

1. TOP MANAGEMENT

In case of a company it consist of the BOD and Chief Executives such as general managers,
MDs, president, chairman cum M.D

It is the ultimate source of management and it’s the accountable for overall management to the
shareholders of the company.

Main functions of top management

a) To analyze, evaluate and deal with the environmental forces

b) To establish overall long term goals and policies of the company including the master
budget

c) To represent the company to the outside world, e.g. trade associations, government, trade
unions.

d) To exercise overall review and control on the company’s operation

e) To coordinate the activities and efforts of different departments

f) To appoint departmental and other key executives.

2. MIDDLE MANAGEMENT

This level of management consist of deputy heads of departments and sectional officers such as
plant manager, are sales manager, or branch manager, chief accountants, purchase officers etc

These officers serves as a link between top management and operating management.

Functions of middle management

a) To interpret and explain the policies framed by top and intermediate managements

b) To compile and issue detailed instructions regarding operations

c) To co-operate among themselves so as to integrate various parts of a division or a

department.

d) To motivate supervisory personnel to work for organizational goals

e) To develop and train supervisory and operative personnel.

3. LOWER /SUPERVISORY/ OPERATING MANAGEMENT

It is the lowest level of management. It consist of plant superintendent foremen and front line
supervisors, sales officers, accounts officers etc.

It serves as the link between management and workers.

Functions of supervisory management

1. To plan day to day production with the goals laid down by higher authorities

2. To assign jobs to workers and to make arrangements for their training and development

3. To supervise and control workers and to maintain personal contact with them

4. To arrange material and tools and to maintain machinery

5. To advice and assist workers by explaining work procedures, solving their problems etc

6. To maintain discipline and good human relations among workers

7. To report feedback information and workers problems this cannot be solved at the
supervisory level.
This can be dramatically shown as below:

Top management

Middle management

Lower management

MANAGEGERIAL SKILLS

A skill is the ability to do something. Hence managerial skills are the mixture of talents that
managers should possess in order to perform their roles efficiently. These skills make managers
unique and different from their subordinates. Basically there are four managerial skills namely:-

1. CONCEPTUAL SKILLS

These are mental abilities that enable managers to build their businesses in a wholistic manner.
They enable managers to think in an abstract manner. It enables them to see relationships with
both the internal and external environment.

These skills increase in importance as we move up the managerial levels.

2. TECHNICAL SKILLS

These are abilities to use knowledge and expertise of a particular discipline to achieve the ends
of goals. They are as a result of training and practice.
Since first level managers/supervisors spend most of their time with operating employees, they
must have a good understanding of the work the subordinates perform if they are to supervise
them.

3. DIAGONISTIC SKILLS

These are skills that enable managers to define and understand situations and circumstances.
They assist managers to interpret situations at hand and take corrective action. They increase in
importance as we move up the managerial hierarchy.

4. INTERPERSONAL SKILLS/HUMAN SKILLS

These are the abilities to work effectively with others and build cooperative group relationships
to achieve organizational goals. They entail communication and motivation. They enable
managers to understand someone else position, to present ones own position in reasonable way
and assist managers in dealing with conflicts and resistance.

These skills have equal importance at all levels.

MANAGERIAL ROLES BY HENRY MINTZBERG

Henry Mintzberg identified ten managerial roles which he grouped into three categories namely:-

1. Inter personal roles

2. Informational roles

3. Decisional roles

Interpersonal roles

(i) Figure head

In this role the manager plays a symbolic role. He carries out a variety of social, legal and
ceremonial duties e.g. signing of certain documents, receiving visitors’ etc.
(ii) Leader

The manager relates with subordinate motivates and develops them. He is accountable of the
activities of subordinates. He/she hires, trains and develops the subordinates.

(iii) Liaison roles

The manager serves as a liaison between the organization and the external environment. Thus he
establishes a network of contacts with other organization, customers, suppliers etc.

Informative roles

(iv) Monitor role/Nerve centre

The managers seek information inside and outside the organization. He attends meetings with
subordinates.

(v) Disseminator Role

In this role the manager passes information to subordinates. He may conduct staff meetings, send
memorandums to subordinates and meets them informally. He ensures that they have necessary
information to carry out their tasks efficiently.

(vi) Spokesperson Role

He acts as the representative of the organization. He gives information to people outside the
organization about its performance and policies. E.g. speaks to the community and in
professional meetings, prepare advertisements etc.

Decisional Roles

(vii) Entrepreneur Role

The manager takes initiative for bringing change in his organization. He performs the initiative
and informative role in the organization.
(viii) Disturbance Role

The manager deals with problems that arise when organization operations breaks down. He/she
is responsible for the corrective action.

(ix) Resource allocator role

The manager decides who will get what in the organization. He schedules every activity of the
organization and ensures a balance in operations allocations of people, money etc.

(x) Negotiator Role

The manager is responsible for representing the organization is various important negotiations
with other parties.

N/B Mintzberg emphasizes that these ten roles are inseparable and should be viewed as an
integrated whole. E.g. status as manifested in interpersonal roles, brings information to the
mangers, and it’s this information that will enable manager perform the decisional role
effectively.

QUALITIES OF A MANAGER

The basic job of a manager is the effective utilization of human and other resources to achieve
organizational objectives. He lays down the goals and directs the activities of the group toward
effective utilization of resources so as to achieve organizational goals. The manager manages
work, subordinates and other managers and materials.

In order for a manager to succeed he must posses the following qualities.

1. Education –He should be well educated. He should posses both general education and
specific education in business management/administration.

2. Training -managerial skills are acquired through training.

3. Intelligence –manager should have an ability to think scientifically ad analyze problems
accurately.

4. Leadership –Manager should be able to inspire and channel the efforts of people toward
attainment of organizational goals. (Motivate)

5. Foresight –The manager should be able to foresee problems which might face the
business and take necessary measures

6. Maturity – a good manager should be emotionally mature and have a balanced

temperament. He should have high frustration tolerance.

7. Technical knowledge- a manager should possess peculiar knowledge to the technique of

production being used in the enterprise

8. Human relations attitude. A manager should be able to maintain good working

relationship with others. He should treat workers well.

9. Self-confidence. A manger should have confidence and take initiative on decision made.
He should not fear carrying out his duties.

EVALUATION

i. define the term management.

ii. Describe the skills that managers should posses in order to be effective managers.

iii. Explain the ten managerial roles as propounded by Henry Mintzberge.

iv. Describe the essential qualities of managers.

TOPIC: EVOLUTION OF MANAGEMENT THOUGHT

Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:

a) discuss the evolution of schools of management thought

b) explain the systems approach to management

c) explain the modern management approaches

EARLY CONTRIBUTORS TO MANAGEMENT

Management is as old as civilization. Evidences of management exist in:-

1. Management of antiquity (ancient history)

a) Babylon

It has been shown that ancient Babylon practices management in various ways:-

 i) They had financial control inform of stone tablets

 ii) They had concepts of managerial responsibilities as evidenced in the code of

Hammurabi. The code stipulated what was expected from the cities of Babylon

b) Egypt

Ancient Egyptians practiced management in the following ways:-

 They practiced some management in their skill of construction of pyramids. The building
required a lot of planning and organization of both material and people.

 They had well-organized systems of leadership i.e. the pharaoh, priests and common
people.

 They demonstrated some planning in their farming of the Nile valley and irrigating it
through the ages.

2. The roman empire

The Roman Empire practiced management in: -

 Keeping records; the empire was very large and thus required complex administration

 Existence of the judiciary; the existence of magistrates created a system to control human
behaviour.

Roman Catholic Church

The existence of the Roman Catholic Church in Rome shows some degree of management:-

 The existence of the popes seat at the Vatican as its headquarters whose some form of
centralization of authority

 The spreading of the gospel through missionary required some organization of human
and physical resources

 The existence of the pope as the head of the church (leadership)

 Hierarchy of authority – the pope at the top the bishops and priests and the congregation
at the bottom

3. Military Organization

The success of the war generals in their conquest efforts was based in their ability to organize
their men.

E.g. Napoleon, Alexander the great, Hitler

4. The Bible

Examples of the bible of existence of management include:-

(i) In the book of exodus

 Moses led his people form captive in Egypt (leadership)

 He chose able men to be rulers over others (delegation of duty)

 Rulers judged all seasons, but difficult/complex cases were taken to Moses (hierarchy of
authority)

5. Cameralites

These were a group of German and Austrian public administrators in the (16th to the 18th who
held the believe that:-

 To enhance the position of the state it was necessary to maximize material wealth.

 The same qualities needed to acquired individual wealth have to be applied to the state
and other departments

 They emphasized specialization of functions that is a person to what he is best in

 They advocated for simplification of administrative procedure (policies and procedures)

 They called for control techniques – how well we have achieved what we planned to do.

PERIOD OF MANAGERIAL AWAKENING

The period around 18th century industrial revolution of management took a more defined
direction as the study was geared towards maximizing production. Pioneers of this period
include: -

1. CHARLES BABBAGE

He was a professor of mathematics at the Cambridge University. Through visiting industrial in

UK and France. He found that manufacturers were unscientific and used guesswork in
production.

He felt that science and mathematical methods should be used in operations of factories. He
advocated for

(i) Factories should have data/information which is obtained through research

(ii) Determine the precise cost of every process

(iii) Paying workers fairly and bonus when the produce is high to motivate them.

2. JAMES WATT & MATHEW BOLTON

They were sons of the distinguished inventor of the steam engine. They used the following
management techniques:-

• Market research and forecasting

• Planned machine layout to facilitate better flow of work

• Production planning and standardization of product components

• Elaborate statistical records and advanced control systems.

• Maintenance of advanced reports and cost accounting data

3. ROBERT OWEN

He was a manager of textile firm in Scotland. He believed that workers performance is

influenced by total environment/working conditions. He came up with the idea of human relation
in management. He emphasized on:-

 Short working hours

 Better housing facilities

 Training and workers hygiene

 Education and scholarship for workers children

 Provision of canteen and rest places in work place

N/B the extend to which these principles are practiced will depend on management perception,
nature of competition, attitudes and employees perceptions, size of the business organization,
rate of employee turnover, government policies and societal influenced.

THEORIES OF MANAGEMENT

Groups of assumptions have been formulated to explain productivity in business organizations.

Due to forces such as technological forces, social forces, economical, political etc.

The study of theories enables managers to do the following:-

 Avoid making mistakes of the past

 Compare the past and present in order to make rational decisions

 Approach problems systematically

 Compare their business organization with other businesses

 Come up with quality goods and survive the market competitions and retain their
customers

 It enables manager to maximize profit, which is the major aim of business organizations

 Make predictions for better achievement of organizational goals

DEVELOPMENT OF MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLES

Over the last century management has evolved in several faces. They can be summarized as:-

(i) The classical theory (1900s)

(ii) Human relations theory (developed 1930s)

(iii) Behavioural Science theory

(iv) Modern Management theories

THE CLASSICAL THEORY

The classical theory was based on the assumption that people are rational and economic oriented.
According to this theory people consider the opportunities available and do anything necessary
to achieve highest gains. It argues that an incentive given to the employee leads to better work.

This theory has three schools of thought

 Scientific management theory

 Administrative management theory

 Bureaucratic management

SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT THEORY

The major advocate of scientific management is one Fredrick Taylor. He alleged that individuals
could be programmed to be efficient as machines. The key to scientific management is the
concept “man as a machine” Taylor believed that workers who were motivated by money and
limited by physiology needed constant directions. He studied scientific management in four main
areas.

1) Standardization

2) Time and task study

3) Systematic selection and training

4) Pay incentives

5)

TAYLOR’S PRINCIPLES OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT

1. Financial incentives

High pay should be tied to successful completion of work. Loss incase of failure should be
personally costly. No work no pay

2. Standard conditions

A worker should be given standard conditions and appliances in order to accomplish the task
with certainty

3. Workers must be scientifically selected and trained so as to be more productive

4. Separation between planning and doing.

There should be specialization of task whereby the management does all the planning and
workers are only instructed what to do.

5. Each task must be scientifically designed so as to replace the old rule of thumb method each
person should have a clearly designed daily task which should require a full day’s effort to
complete.

6. Bringing scientifically designed jobs and workers together so that there will be a match
between them.

7. Bilateral mental revolution. There should be a complete mental revolution on both

management and workers to effect that they must take their eyes off the profits and together
concentrate on increasing productions so that profits were so large that didn’t have quarrels about
sharing them.

CONTRIBUTIONS OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT

(i) Promotes Expertise in the organization.

(ii) Enabled workers to be paid by result and take the advantage of incentive payments.

(iii) Contributed towards standardization of tools equipments, materials and work method.
Thus work could be accomplished with a higher degree of certainty

(iv) Minimized wastage of time, material and energy thus advocated for better se of resources
(v) Its emphasis of scientific selection and training enabled the right people to occupy the
right jobs

(vi) It has established harmonious relationships between worker and managers through the
advocating of elimination of rule of thumb.

(vii) It has led to proper achievement of equal division of responsibilities between workers and
management.

(viii) It gives detailed instruction and constraint guidelines for worker which management use.

LIMITATION OF SCIENTIC MANAGEMENT

• It reduces workers to mere role of rigid adherence to methods (mindless machines)

• It puts planning and control in the hand of management and ignores worker thus lowering
their morale

• It assumes that everything can be scientifically be quantified.

• It rules out any realistic bargain on wages rates, since every job was measured, timed and
rated.

• There is no room for initiative

• Scientific methods overlooks human desire for job satisfaction (job conditions are often
the cause of strikes)

• It overlooked the social needs of workers since it assumed that people are rational and
therefore motivated by material gains.

ADMINISTRATIVE MANAGEMENT THEORY

Around the same time when scientific management theory was in action, a similar view of
classical organization theory evolved. This new theory was referred to as administrative
organizational theory.

It concentrated on the broad problem of departmentation, division of labour and coordination.

For Taylor and the scientific managers concentrated on individual worker upwards, the
administrative manager worked from the managing director downwards.
Henry Fayol was the main advocate of this view.

He first divided industrial undertaking into six separate activities: -

1. Technical (production and manufacturing)

2. Commercial (buying and selling)

3. Financial (search for capital)

4. Security (protection of properties and persons)

5. Accounting (stocktaking, balance sheets etc)

6. Managerial (planning, organizing etc)

According to Fayol managerial activities were the most important and deserved the most
attention. He divided his approach of studying management into three parts.

 Managerial qualities and training

 Principles of management

 Element of management

Managerial qualities and training

The following are managerial qualities according to Fayol.

1. Good physical health

2. Good mental health – ability to understand and learn, make sound judgment (intelligence
and wisdom)

3. Upright morals – willing to accept responsibilities with initiative, loyalty, tact and
dignity.

Moral qualities help the manger to respect him/herself, his decision and also others

4. General education - a manager should have general acquaintance with matter not belong
to the function performed.

5. Special knowledge – that is knowledge peculiar to the function performed.

6. Experience. That is knowledge arising from work itself. Fayol held that managerial
abilities should be acquired in the same way one acquires technical ability. That is first in school
and later in the workshop.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT

Fayol’s principles of administrative management may be summarized as:-

1. Division of work

According to this principle, work should be divided at every stage and employees assigned
particular task to perform and in the essence become specialized. This will lead in turn to
efficient labour utilization.

2. Authority and responsibility

Fayol suggested that there should be parity between authority and responsibility. The right to
give orders should be accompanied by authority.

1. Discipline

Workers should have respect to both fellow workers and to the management. There should also
be respect for agreements between employees and employers

2. Unity of command

An employee should receive commands form one superior only

3. Unity of direction

Activities of the same nature aimed at achieving same goals should be put under one command.
That is on leader.

6. Remuneration of personnel

Remunerations should be fair and satisfactory to both the employees and the employer. Workers
should be paid for wages to motivate them in their work.
7. Centralization

The decision for centralization or decentralization depends on interest of organizational purpose,

quality of workers, size of the organization and nature of work to be accomplished.

8. Scalar chain

Taylor suggests that there should be clear lines of authority from the top to bottom of the
organization, and employees should be encouraged to follow the proper hierarchy of command.
However this can be short circuited when strictly following it would be detrimental.

9. Order

There should be a place for everything and everything in its place. The right man in the right
place is also part of this principle. Order should be maintained all through the organization

10. Subordination of individual interests to the general interest

According to this principle, the interest of the organization should super side that of the
individual. The interests of an individual or one group in the organization should not prevail over
the general interests of the organization.

11. Equity.

This principle states that management should exercise a combination of justice and fairness
towards employees (kindness)

12. Stability of tenure of personnel

A worker should not feel threatened in his/her position. They should be given time to settle in
their jobs.

13. Initiative
This principles state that mangers should allow workers to exercise initiative by scarifying
personal vanity (within the limits of authority and discipline)

14. Esprit de corps

This is the principles that in “union there is strength” in other words harmony is a great strength
to an organization and team work should be encouraged. This principles emphasizes the need for
team work in the organization

Elements of management

Fayol regards elements of management as the managerial functions i.e.

 Planning – looking ahead and making provisions

 Organizing – arrangement of resources

 Coordination – harmonizing efforts

 Commanding – giving orders and instruction

 Control – verifying whether the result conform to the plan adopted.

BUREAUCRATIC THEORY

Max Weber formulated this theory. He was a German Sociologist who was very sensitive to the
abuse of power by people in managerial positions.

In order to reduce these abuses Weber proposed an organizational system that had a hierarchal
structure based on formal authority.

From the above analysis, bureaucracy can be defined as a photo type form of organization that
emphasizes order, systems rationality, uniformity and consistence.

According to Weber consistent performance can be achieved because organizational members

are guided by a set of rational rules and regulations rather than the actions of position holders.

SALIENT FEATURES OF BUREACRACY

1. Clear Division of Labour. (By Functional Specialization)

Job responsibilities and levels of authority are clearly defined for each employee thus there are
no overlaps of responsibilities between jobs.

2. A Well Defined Hierarchy Of Authority

Each position in the organization is controlled by and reports to a single position one level up in
the hierarchy.

3. Maintenance of Written Records

There should be a written record of organization activities that keeps rules and regulations visible
to all participants. It also allows for evaluation of past decision and activities and adds to the
organizational memory.

4. A System of Rules And Regulations

There should be laid down rules and regulations to ensure rational and consistent organization
behaviors.

Rules and regulations allow organizations activities to be performed in a predictable and routine
manner.

5. Impersonal Approach to all Interpersonal Activities.

This principle emphasizes equality in dealing with employees, customers or clients so as to

eliminate favourism.

6. Merit Based Employment

Selection and promotion within the organization should be based on qualification, ability and
performance (technical competence and not family relationships, friendship or political reasons.

7. Autonomous Decisions by Office Bearers.

Employees must not use their rights and privileges of their jobs to enrich themselves.

Power dos not belong to an individual but its part of the office.

8. Centralization of Authority

For bureaucracy to operate, efficiently authority should be centralized so as to coordinate the

different specialized functions.

ADVANTAGES OF BUREACRACY

1. Leads to consistent employees’ behaviour. This makes management easier.

2. Assists managers to achieve and maintain quality because of strict adherence to

procedures.

3. It eliminates conflicting job duties because duties and responsibilities are clearly defined.

4. Lead to maximum utilization of human resource (clear division of labour)

5. It minimizes dissatisfaction because promotion is based on merit and expertise.

6. Division of labour leads to specialization which in turn may increase production

7. Helps to minimize wastage of the organization scarce resources

8. Maintenance of written records makes planning easier.

9. Organizational goals may be achieved with ease.

DISADVANTAGES OF BUREAUCRACY

1. Rules and procedures when many affects efficiency

2. Bureaucracy makes organization rigid especially as concerns decision making

3. Its very expensive as it involves a lot of paperwork

4. Its time consuming especially when decisions are needed urgently. (Tall organizational
structure)

5. Does not give room to participative management thus kill initiative?

6. It’s likely to cause resistance and dissatisfaction on the part of the employees because of
its lack of flexibility.
LIMITATION OF THE CLASSICAL THOUGHT

• It ignores the psychological aspects as man is seen to be motivated purely by economical

incentives and nothing else

• Much emphasis has been drawn to structures and attainment of organizational goals.
While peoples needs are ignored.

• There is no room for participative management, which may cause poor morale among the
employees.

• The theory has been criticized as a case of the past when organizations were relatively
stable and environment being predictable

• Social aspects and group dynamics receive very little attention

• The classical theory principles are too general for today’s complex organizations.

THE HUMAN RELATIONS THEORY

This movement developed as a reaction to the classical models. It’s associated with people like
Mary Follet and Elton Mayo.

Mary believed that the fundamental problem in all organizations was in developing and
maintaining dynamic and harmonious relationships she believed that conflicts in organizations
were not necessarily wasteful outbreak of incompatibility but a normal process through which
socially valuable differences register for the enrichment of all concerned.

Elton Mayo and the Hawthorne Studies

These studies were carried out in several stages over several years.

The emphasis was on the worker rather than work itself. The studies were concerned with
studying people in terms of their social relations at work. The conclusions gave rise to the ideal
of social man and to the importance of human relationships.

1. The first stage of the experiment was to study the effect of lighting on output.

Two groups of workers were selected for study. One group has a consistent level of light while
the experimental group had its light varied form better to worse.
The significant result was that the output increased in both groups. Obviously some factors other
than pure physical conditions were at work in the situation. Thus Elton Mayo was invited at this
stage to carry on the studies.

2. The next stage was the Relay assembly test room.

The objective of this study was to determine the effect of the physical conditions on productivity.

Six women form the relay assembly section were segregated and segmented to numerous
changes in the working conditions e.g.

 Rest pauses were introduced and varied

 Lunch breaks were varied in length and timing

 Alteration of the working week

Once again regardless of whether the conditions were improved or worsened, productivity
always increased.

At the end of the experiment the researchers realized that they were not only studying the
relationship between physical working conditions fatigue, monotony and productivity but had
entered into the study of employee attitudes and values.

The women were responding to the attention of the researchers and saw themselves as a special
group. These behaviors has been called the Hawthorne’s effect

3. Third stage consisted of interview programs to establish employees’ attitudes towards working
conditions, job and supervision.

The interviews were first structured and lasted 30 min eventually the pattern became relatively
unstructured and lasted longer.

The conclusion made was that relationships with people were in important factors in attitudes of
employees.

4. The forth stage was referred to as the Bank Wiring observation room.

Fourteen men from the Bank working plant were moved to a separate room with more less the
same working conditions as those in the main wiring room.

It was discovered that the group was developing its own rules, standards and behaviors. They
restricted production according to their norms and protect its own interests against those of the
company. The group had developed its own un official organization/informal organization.
5. Final stage took the form of personnel counseling in which employees were able to discuss
their work problems. The result was improved relationships between workers, supervisors and
the management and general personal adjustment.

Main conclusion of Hawthorne studies

 Organization is a social system. This social system defines individual roles and
establishes norms that may differ from those of the formal organization.

 Social and psychological factors exercise a greater influence on the behaviour of workers.
Therefore managers should adopt a sound human approach to all organizational problems.

 Informal groups at work exercises strong influence over behaviors of workers

 There is emergence of informal leadership in the organization. This informal leadership

enforces group norms.

 Group dynamics – in organization members do not react as individuals but as members of

a group.

 Money is not the only motivator of human behaviour, social and psychological need of
workers is very strong. E.g. praise, status etc.

 Conflicts can arise between group goals and organizational goals. Conflicts should be
handled properly so as not to harm the interests of workers.

BEHAVIOURAL SCIENCE APPROACH

This approach emphasizes on behaviors of individuals and people in groups. It draws its
concepts from psychology and sociology.

According to this approach, management is getting things done through people hence managers
should understand human behaviors and relationships. It is concerned with human relationships
and how managers can utilize the relationships for the good of the organization, the manager as a
leader and the leadership style, group dynamics and motivation in management and how to
improve employee’s morale. The approach focuses on how the understanding of individual
behaviors and relationship influences the leadership style and general motivation at work.

Proponents of this approach include people like Abram Maslow, Mc Gregor, Fiedler, Herzburg,
and Chaster Barnard.

Theories that explain human behaviors and motivation will be discussed in later chapters.
SYSTEMS APPROACH

The approach is based on the generalization that an organization is a system and its components
are interrelated and interdependent.

A system is a set of interrelated items, which work together for a common goal. The basis of
systems theory in management is the limitations of the classical theory. Each system may
comprise of subsystems and each sub system may be further composed of smaller units.

The systems approach recognizes variety and offers a way of interacting differences by
reconciling them within the organization; this is an approach which emphasizes theory and
conformity.

An organization is a system because it has the following characteristics;

(a) It is goal oriented meaning that every organization exists to achieve certain objectives
and goals

(b) An organization consists of sub systems inform of departments and sections, which are
interdependent and inter related.

(c) An organization transforms inputs (raw materials) to outputs (finished products).

Contingency approach

Appropriate management depends on situations prevailing at that time. According to this

approach, there are no ready made universal answers to management rather the decision that a
manager will make will depend on the situation.

Contingency refers to immediate circumstances that are normally uncertain. The managers as to
try systematically to identify which technique or approaches in a particular situation/context best
contributes to the attainment of the goals.

An example of this is the recurrent problem of how to increase productivity. The expert would
prescribe as following.

a. Contingency approach- Examines both ideas and how any fits the goals, structure
resources of the organization.

b. Behavioral scientists- Create an environment which is psychologically motivation.

c. Classical approach- Create incentive scheme.

The contingency approach seeks to apply real life situation. The ideas are drown from various
school of management. Different problems and situations require different approaches and no
particular approach is universally applicable.

EVALUATION

i. Explain the meaning of system approach to management.

ii. Highlight the characteristics of management as a system.

iii. Outline the benefits of system approach in management.

vi. Describe the conclusions drawn from the hawthorns studies at the western electrical plant

v. Explain Fayols principles of administrative management.

vi. Describe the principles of scientific management.

vii. Explain the short comings of bureaucratic management.

TOPIC: THE CONTEXT OF ORGANIZATIONS AND SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY

Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:

a) describe the organization and its environment

b) explain the social responsibility of an organization

c) highlight management ethics

ENVIRONMENT OF MANAGEMENT

An environment is the sum total of the factors or variables that may influence the existence of a
business organisation. It’s sometimes seen as all factors both outside and inside an organisation
that can affect the organisation in attaining its goals.

- It’s the aggregate social, cultural, economic and physical conditions that influence the life
of an individual organisation

- They are those forces from within and without the organisation that impart the
organisational ability to accomplish its objectives

- Environmental factors affect the practises and type of decisions made pertaining
managerial issues

- All environment can be macro or micro i.e. external & internal factors respectively.

External Factors/Environment

This is the macro environment. An environment that is beyond management reach. It exists
outside the organisation thus managers cannot manipulate it. External factors can be summarised
as:-

1. Economic Factors

Important aspects of the economy that affects decision making include:-

a) Inflation – price levels (firms pay more for raw materials)

b) Economic growth – influence demand for products

c) Interest rates (determines how much it will cost an organisation to borrow money)

d) Unemployment – influence the supply of labour

e) Fiscal and tax policy – affects the control & availability of credits which affect business
operations

f) Constraints imposed by customers – (attitudes & desires) i.e. when a substitute appears
in the market it causes confusion

g) Constraints imposed by competitors

2. Sociology Factors

Sociological factors are concerned with humans and their interaction with one another. These
include customs & values of the society within which the firm operates

- Such forces influence consumer tastes & preferences employees expectations and
attitudes and the accepted role of business in that society (Muslim religion)

3. Government Factors

These forces associated with the government and legal systems within which a firm operates.

These includes:-

- Change in character of government e.g. change in parliament or president

- Shift in government politics

- Export & import restriction

- Change in government personnel e.g. government reshuffle, parastatal appointment etc

4. Locational Factors

Where an organisation is located has a bearing on the kind of practices an organisation has.
These may include:-

a) Availability of both skilled & unskilled labour

b) Means of transport & communication

c) Housing facilities

d) Water supply

e) Raw material supply

f) Government polity on industries

g) Local laws and regulations

5. Technological Factors

The rate of technological changes greatly affects the mode and style of doing business or running
organisations e.g.

- Organisations that have not embraced technological changes have been thrown out of
business or are incurring higher costs

- Technological advancements calls for training and development of personnel (more

allocation of resources)

- Automation of work and the resultant effect on labour reduction affects workers
satisfaction

Internal Factors & Environment

This is that part of organisations environment that exists inside the organisation and has
immediate implications for managing the organisation. It’s the environment which managers can
manipulate and control in order to achieve their organisational goals. They include: -

1. Managerial Factors

Changes in management of an organisation may affect policy and implementation. Managerial

factors include: -

a) Changes in managerial patterns

b) Changes in personnel policies

c) Changes in organisational chart

2. Operational Factors

Operational factors that affect management include: -

a) Factory layout and modification of factory

b) Licensing policy

c) Tax rates
3. Growth and Development Factors

Changes in this area which may affect management can be analysed as:-

— Finance available

— Investment decisions

— Market stability

— Mergers

4. Method/Process Factors

a) New discoveries in production process

b) New technologies

c) Use of alternative raw materials

5. Design Factors

Those are factors concerned with the designing and packaging of new products

- Designing of new products

- Appeal to the market

- Competitors

Social responsibility of an organization

Social responsibility refers to the business obligation to refrain from harmful practices and
deliberately engage in activities that benefits the society.

Arguments for social responsibilities

• it discourages additional government intervention

• social involvement creates a favourable image

• It’s better to prevent social problem than to cure them.

• Give the business an opportunity to solve problems that the government has failed to
solve

• Give the business an opportunity to solve problems that it has created.

• The society has powers to deny the operation of a business.

Arguments against social responsibilities

• It cuts on the profits of the business.

• The society pays for the social responsibility through increased prices.

• There is lack of accountability by the business to the society.

• Business people lack the social skills to deal with the problems of society.

• Business has enough power and additional social involvement would further increase its
power and influence.

• There is no complete support for involvement in social actions.

Management ethics

Ethics is defined as the discipline dealing with what is good and bad and with moral duty and
obligation.

Business ethics is concerned with truth and justice and has a variety of aspects such as
expectations of the society, fair competition, advertising, public relations, social responsibilities,
consumer autonomy and corporate behaviour in the home county as well as abroad

Ways of enhancing business ethics

• Establishing a code of conduct

• Discussing ethical issues in management meetings

• Rewarding those who behave ethically and punishing those who do not.
• Managers should behave themselves ethically and be role models to other organizational
members.

Question: Explain the reasons why managers behave unethically.

EVALUATION

i. describe the external factors that affect the management.

ii. Outline the main social responsibilities of an organization.

iii. Explain the social responsibilities of an organization towards the following public.

• Employees

• Local community

• Government

• publics

iv. Outline ways in which managers may enhance ethic in their business organizations.

TOPIC: PLANNING

Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:

a) Explain the nature and purpose of planning

b) Explain the principles of planning.

c) Outline the types of plans

d) Explain ways of making planning effective

 Planning is the most fundamental function of management. It determines the course of

action to achieve the desired results.

 Planning therefore is the outlining of things to be done, the people to do those things and
the method to accomplish the objectives of the organizations.

 It is deciding in advance what to do, how to do it, when to do it and who to do it.
Planning is characterized by thinking before doing.

 Planning precedes all other managerial functions because without set goals to be reached
and lines of action to be followed, there is nothing to organize, direct or control.

Nature and characteristics of planning.

1. Planning is goal oriented – i.e. it is a means towards accomplishment of objectives.

2. Planning involves the selection of the best course of action.

3. Planning is mainly concerned with looking ahead into the future.

4. Planning is required at all levels of managements (its all pervasive)

5. Planning is flexible as it is based on future conditions which are too dynamic.

6. Planning is a continuous and unending process. (Assumption and events on which plans
are based change therefore old plans have to be reused periodically).

7. Planning governs the survival, growth and prosperity of an organization.

8. Planning is the basis of all management functions.

ADVANTAGES OF PLANNING

• Planning facilitates the process of decision making.

• It helps management to implement programmes in a systematic manner.

• Planning helps organizations adjust to changing environments and therefore helps reduce
risks and uncertainties.
• Objectives of the organization can easily be achieved through proper planning.

• Planning facilitates optimum utilization of the available resources. The most efficient and
economical methods are adopted.

• It encourages a sense of involvement and team spirit that in turn increases motivation.

• Planning facilitates the process of control in the organization. Sound planning enables the
management to control events rather than to be controlled by them since planning provide
standards against which performance is evaluated.

• Planning serves as a training device for future managers.

LIMITATION OF PLANNING

• Planning is an expensive exercise in the organization.

• It is a time consuming exercise.

• It makes the entire organization set up extremely rigid as people have to follow the laid
down plan. This may curb initiative and individual freedom and sometimes may cause delays.

• Planning is based on forecasts which are never 100% accurate.

• Elasticity of plans makes planning a cumbersome process.

• Planning encourages a false sense of security against risk and uncertainty.

• The effectiveness of planning may be affected by external forces which are beyond the
control of those responsible for preparing plans.

• Some managers may have a negative mental attitude towards planning. They may
consider the present more important than the future and may resist change.

PRINCIPLES OF PLANNING

1. The Principals of contribution to objectives

This means that planning aims at facilitating the achievement of organizational goals. therefore a
good plan should indicate how the stated objectives will be achieved.

2. The principle of primacy of planning.

It states that planning comes first in all managerial functions and therefore each manager must
start with planning.
3. Principle of efficiency of plans
It states that the goodness or efficiency of a plan should be measured by its contribution to the
objectives as offsets by the costs.

4. Principle of planning premises

It states that the better the understanding of the planning premises the more coordinated the plans
are.

5. The principle of strategy and policy Framework

It states that the more strategies and policies are carefully developed and understood, the more
the consistent and effective the plans are expected to be.

6. Principle of commitment

It states that good planning should allow a period in future necessary to foresee the
accomplishment of plans.

7. Principle of flexibility

It state that each plan must give room for corrections and therefore plans should not be rigid.

8. Principle of Limiting Factor

It states that each plan must identify the limiting factors or critical points that are likely to affect
the plans.

9. Principle of navigational change

It states that each good planning requires continuous revision such that planning is a continuous
process.

TYPES OF PLANS

A plan is a projected course of action.

features of a good plan

A good plan should have the following features;

• It should be based on clearly defined objectives

• It should be simple
• It should provide for proper analysis and classification of action.

• It should be relatively stable, balanced and well coordinated.

• It should use all the available resources and opportunities before creating new resources.

• A good plan should be realistic and viable. This means that it should be implement able.

• It should open up new avenues and ways of doing things and reveal specific opportunities
previously unknown to the planner.

FORMS AND TYPES OF PLANS

1. Long term planning

It covers a period more than five years though it can be extended up to twenty years or so. It is
not about planning or future decision but planning the future impact of today’s decision.
Prepared after an analysis of the business environment and may require change in organization
structure and activities. Long term plans are developed by top management to guide the future
efforts of the enterprise.

2. Short term planning

It is formulated by lower level management to programme the efforts and operations of the
organization for the immediate future. It refers to determination of courses of action for time
periods exceeding up to three years. It is a short term plan is relatively more precise and less
flexible.

3. Strategic planning

It refers to the process of formulating unified comprehensive and integrated plan relating to
strategic advantages of the firm to the challenges of the environment.

It involves appraising the external environment in relation to the enterprise, identifying the
strategies to be adopted in future to achieve the objectives.

It is long term in nature. It is comprehensive concerned with the total enterprise. Strategic plans
are therefore formulated mainly at the top level of management. It has mainly an external focus
at it is designed to achieve the organizational objectives in the face of environmental
opportunities and threats. It indicates how and where the firm will position itself within its
environment.

Advantages of strategic plans

1. It identifies the opportunities and threats which the firm is likely to face in future.

2. It determines the future direction of a company

3. It defines the manner in which the resources of the enterprise are to be deployed.

4. It lays down systematic and logical procedures for carrying out the operation of the firm.

5. It provides a basis for the formulating of operational plan

6. It facilitates coordination between the different division and department of the enterprise.

Strategic planning involves

1. Defining the organizational mission

2. Analyzing the situation (internal and external environment)

3. Selecting organizational goals and objectives

4. Determining the policies and strategic programs necessary to achieve goals

5. Establishing methods necessary to ensure that policies and strategic programs are
implemented.

6. Matching the selected strategies with identified opportunities and threats in the external
environment.

Features of strategic planning

1. It deals with fundamental basic problems of providing answers to such questions as:

a) What is our business

b) What business are we supposed to be in?

c) Who are out customers? Who should they be?

d) What is the unique thing that we can provide?

2. It provides a basis for detailed planning and for day to day managerial decisions

3. It involves a longer time frame than other forms of planning

4. It is a top level activity

5. It provides guidance and boundaries for operational planning

Strategic planning process

1. Goal formulation

This steps defines the mission of the organization and established the objectives that will help
translate the mission into concrete term

2. Identification of current objectives and strategies

Managers must identity the objectives that are already in place and see how well they fit in the
newly defined mission

3. Environmental analysis

This tries to identify which aspects of the environment will have the greatest impact on the
organizations ability to achieve the objectives.

4. Resource analysis

This identifies the organizations competitive advantages and disadvantages. The profiles of the
organizations resources should be developed, key success requirements to determine the manager
strengths on which strategy can be based should be considered.
5. Identification of strategic opportunities and threats

6. Determine the extend o strategic change required

The aim is to see whether depending on the various resources and the environment the existing
strategy needs to be changed.

7. Strategic decision making

This involves identifying, evaluating and selecting alternative strategic approaches.

8. Strategic implementation

This involves incorporating the selected strategy into the daily operations of the organization

9. Measurement and control of progress

Progress of the strategy is monitored in order to ensure the implementation is going as planned
and that the strategy is achieving the intended results.

Operational planning/ tactical planning

It is a short term exercise designated to implement the strategies formulated under strategic
planning. They are plans which have a moderate scope and intermediate time frame.

Functional planning

Functional plans are prepared for various functional areas of business. Examples include
production planning, marketing planning financial planning and manpower planning. Every
functional plan serves as a guide for people in a particular department.

Standing or multi-use planning

These are recurring plans and they are used repeatedly in situations of a similar nature. Examples
include objectives, policies, strategies, procedures and rules.

Single use or Adhoc planning

These are plans set up to handle events that happen only once and then it is discarded when the
situation or event is over examples include programmes, budgets, projects schedules.
These two types of plans can be shown under:-

PLANS

Multiuse plans Single- use plans

-Objectives -Programmes

-Strategies -Budgets

-Policies -Schedules

-Procedures -Projects

-Rules -Methods

1. VISION

This refers to the unique dream of the organization. It explains the position the organization
desires to be achieved in the future.

2. MISSION STATEMENT

This is a central guiding concept, describing the fundamental reason for the existence of an
enterprise or organization. It gives a clear cut idea about the basic long term commitment of an
organization and is the basis for developing organizational objectives.

A mission statement of an organization therefore, is a unique aim that sets the organization apart
from others of its type.

3. ORGANISATIONAL OBJECTIVES

Organizational objectives are goals or targets towards which an organization directs its efforts.
They maybe established on areas such as;

• Market standing

• Innovation productivity
• Resource level

• Profitability

• Managers performance and development

• Social responsibility

• Work performance and attitude

ESSENTIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD OBJECTIVES

Sound objectives should posses the following feature;

• They must be clear and specific so as to avoid confusion and misunderstanding.

• They should be measurable so as to act as standards for control.

• Objectives must be result oriented and as such focus on results rather than work.

• They should as much as possible be in written form in order to act as reference and
reminder.

• Objectives should be realistic and attainable.

• They must also be well coordinated

IMPORTANCE OF OBJECTIVES

• Clear objectives leads to unified plans

• Objectives act as motivators to those who are assigned tasks to accomplish them.

• The lead to unity of direction for organizational members.

• The serve as rationale for resource allocation.

• Unproductive tasks can be avoided when work is goal oriented.

• Objectives act as standards for control of managers.

• They act as sound basis for developing administrative controls.

BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE GOAL SETTING.

• Educating and training managers on goal setting.

• Making available enough resources to assist in goal setting.

• Low Morale of managers.

• Lack of information.

• Lack of coordination.

MANAGEMENT BY OBJECTIVES (MBO)

MBO is a system of Management where the organization strives to attain its goals while at the
same time meeting the goals and satisfaction of each member in the Organization.

MBO Involves effective participation and involvement by each member of the Organization.

MBO is known by different names e.g. “management results”, “Accountability management”,

“Management by objectives and self control”, “Management by Motivation”, “Performance
Results and Individual Development”, “Evaluation. (PRIDE)”, etc.

CHARACTERISTICS OF MANAGEMENT BY OBJECTIVES (MBO)

• MBO focus on goals and their achievement- it focuses on the determination of unit and
individual goals in line with the organizational goals.

• MBO is characterized by high degree of participation of the concerned people in goal

setting and performance appraisal.

• MBO tries to inter-relate goals in the organization.

• MBO aim at improving relationships in Organization.

• Optimization of resources – the ultimate aim of MBO is to secure the optimum utilization
of physical and human resources.
• Multiple accountability –under MBO, accountability for results is not centralized at
particular points. Rather every member of the organization is accountable for accomplishing the
goals set to him.

• Simplicity and dynamism – it is a non- specialist technique and it can be used by all types
of managers.

STEPS INVOLVED IN MANAGEMENT BY OBJECTIVES

1. The manager explain the rational and methodology of MBO to subordinates

2. The superiors and subordinates meets to set the objectives for the coming period

3. Superiors and subordinates agree o n the subordinates goals

4. Subordinates are then given necessary advise and resources required

5. Subordinates are then given enough time to pursue their goals at one’s own pace

6. Each time the superiors hold periodic meetings with the subordinates to evaluate the
degree and goal attainment

7. At the end of a specified time period, the superiors and subordinates hold meetings to
assess whether the goals have been attained

8. If the subordinates have achieved their goals they should be rewarded and asked to set
other goals

9. At the conclusion of the time period set for the achievement of the objective a final
review is conducted and necessary action is taken

10. In cases the subordinates do not attain the goals corrective action is taken and the
subordinate is asked to go back again

OBJECTIVES OF MBO

To ensure and judge performance

To relate individual performance to organizational goals.

To clarify both the job to be done and the expectations of accomplishment.

To foster the increasing competence and growth of the subordinates.

To enhance communication between superior and subordinates.

To serve as a basis for judgments about salary and promotions.

To stimulate the subordinates’ motivation.

To serve as a device for organizational control and integration.

ADVANTAGES OF MANAGEMENT BY OBJECTIVES (MBO)

• MBO forces managers to think in term of results rather than activities. This leads to
improved planning.

• MBO provides a basis for training and development

• MBO provides a basis for performance appraisal (help evaluate employees)

• MBO leads to participatory management which may increase workers Motivation and
commitment.

• MBO saves top management time to address other Organizational problems.

• MBO may lead to good health manager and subordinate relationships.

• It’s a basis for reducing conflicts and resistance to changes.

DISADVANTES OF MANAGEMENT BY OBJECTIVES

• Its time consuming in case of large organizations.

• MBO involves a lot of paperwork making it very costly.

• There may be a problem of participation by some members.

• Objectives are difficult to set especially if they owner along period.

• MBO Inflexible / rigid.

• MBO emphasizes of short term goals at the expense of long term goals.

• The Organization may over emphasis on quantitative goals at the expense of qualitative
goals.

POLICIES
Policies are general statements which guides thinking in decision making. A policy defines the
limit within which decisions can be made and achieved.

Thus policies are statements which provide ready answer for day to day members of the
organization.

TYPES OF POLICIES

Organisational and functional policies

 In terms of scope, policies may be classified as organizational and departmental.

 Organizational- are the overall policies of an organization and are formulated by top
management.

 Departmental or functional policies- are meant for specific functions or department of

business e.g. sales policy, production policy, financial policy, personnel policy etc.

Originated, appealed and imposed policies.

 Originated Policies
these are deliberately formulated by top manages on their own initiative holder to guide the
actions of their subordinates.

 Appealed policies

These are formulated on requests / appeals of subordinates.

 Imposed policies

Are those policies that arise from the influence of offside forces like government, trade unions
e.t.c

General and specific policies

 General – are stated in broad terms to give freedom to units of the organization.

 Specific – they are intensively defined to restrict freedom of action.

Written and Implied Policies

 Written policies are explicit declarations in writing.

 Implied policies are those policies inferred from the behaviours or conduct of
organization al members particularly the top executives. (Interpreting the action of the boss) e.g.
promotion made on the basis of seniority.

ESSENTIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUND POLICIES

• Should be based on the objectives of the organization & also contribute towards
attainments of objective.

• Should make for consistence in the operations of the organization.

• Should be relatively stable

• Should be flexible i.e. give room for attractions.

• Should be clear, unambiguous and explicit .It should not leave scope for
misinterpretation.

• Should be reviewed & revised regularly so as to be relevant.

• Should be communicated to the concerned persons.

• Should be consistent with the ethical behaviors of the society.

• Should be based on careful consideration of resources and environment of the

organization.

POLICY FORMUTATION PROCESS

The process of policy formulation involves the following steps

1. Definition of the policy area

The policy area should be decided in view of the objectives and needs of the

Organization.

2. Identification of policy alternatives

Alternatives policies are developed in light of both internal and external environments of
the organization.

3. Evaluation of alternative

The Identification policy alternatives are evaluated in terms of their contribution to the
organizational Objectives, cost and implication.

4. Choice of policy

The most appropriate policy is chosen.

5. Communication of policy

The policy should be communicated to those concerned with its implementation.

IMPORTANCE OF POLICIES

• They facilitate quick and correct decisions by serving as guides to thinking and action.

• The save time and effort by pre-deciding problems.

• Effective policies lead to unfired pattern of action

• Good policies assist in training & orientation of new employees.

• They permit delegation of authority to lower level employees: - subordinates can

understand their tasks and what is expected of them.

• Policies bring about coordination of organizational activities.

PROCEDURES

A procedure is a step by step process showing how to handle/ undertake a certain activity.

It lays down the specific manner in which a particular activity is to be preformed.

ESSENTIALS OF A GOOD PROCEDURE

1. Should be simple and straight forward to be understood.

2. Should be put in written for reference purposes.

3. Should be tested before implementation.

4. Must be reviewed and revised regularly to keep them up to date.

5. Must be consistent with the objectives of the organisation.

6. Should be communicated to those concerned.

IMPORTANCE OF PROCEDURES

1. Simplify work by eliminating unnecessary steps.

2. Ensures consistence of operations in the organization thus eliminating conflicts.

3. Provides standards for appraisal of employees.

4. Minimizes wastage of Organizational resources.

5. Indicates a standard way of performing work and therefore ensures uniformity of action

6. It eliminates need for further decision making by laying down a standard path to follow.

RULES

Rules are prescribed guide to conduct. They specify what to be done and what may not be done
in a given situation. They do not give any room for decision making. They are in the nature of
commands seeking to structure, discipline and restrain behaviour of a group in formal
organization

METHOD

A method outlines the specific way in which a particular step in the procedure is to be
performed. It specifies the mechanical way by which an operation is to be performed.

PROGRAMMES

Is a single use plan which contains a series of actions designed to accomplish a given task. A
programme specifies;

• Steps to be taken.

• Resources to be used.

• Time limit for each step.

• Task assignment.

BASIC STEPS IN PROGRAMMING.

• Divide various activities needed into clear cut steps.

• Arrange the steps into a sequence.

• Allocate responsibilities to particular people.

• Allocate time duration for each step.

• Determine the other resources needed.

• Write down the programme.

PROJECTS

A project is a scheme for investing resources. It usually contains time bound activities which
have to be accomplished over time.
SCHEDULES

Scheduling is the process of establishing time sequence for work to be done schedule prescribes
the exact time when each activity should begin and end.

Starting and finishing dates for different activities

They are essential for avoiding delays and for ensuring continuity.

STANDARDS.

Is a criterion against which performance is compared and evaluated? It is a guide for

performance evaluation.

BUDGETS

Is a statement of anticipated results expressed in numerical terms for a specific period of time in
future.

Budgets are usually prepared for certain duration of time.

WAYS OF MAKING PLANNING EFFECTIVE

REASONS WHY PEOPLE FAIL IN PLANNING

• Lack of commitment to planning

• Failure to develop and implement sound strategies.

• Lack of managerial objectives and goals.

• Underestimation of the importance of planning premises

• Excessive reliance on experience.

• Lack of support from the top management

• Lack of adequate control measures

OVERCOMING PLANNING BARRIERS

• Planning should not be left to chance. A climate conducive to planning should be created
in the organization.

• Planning must start at the top. Top management initiative and support is essential for
effective planning.

• Planning should be definite, that is time specific and focused.

• Plans must be properly communicated to all those concerned in the organization.

• Long range planning should be integrated with short range planning.

• Planning must include awareness and acceptance of change as a necessary aspect.

• Planning must be organized to allow for a wider participation in the formulation and
execution of plans.

• Plans should be flexible to allow for easier adoption to the changing environment.

• Managers need to be educated and trained on the art of planning and the need for the
same.

• Plans should be revised regularly to ensure that the premise, on which they were based
on, still holds.

Decision making

The work of a manager involves working on decisions and constantly solving problems. The
manager therefore has to confront problems and make effective decisions on what action to take.

Decision making refers to the process that leads to the selection of an alternative between two or
more competing alternatives.

Steps in decision making

i) Identify And Define The Problem

A problem is half solved when it is well defined. Accurate dignosis of the problem is necessary
to find the right solution. This step should result in a statement of the desired result. Cause,
magnitude and boundaries within which it can be solved is also identified.

ii) Analyse the Problem

This step involves collection of all facts that are pertinent to the decision. The data collected
must be classified and analysed.

iii) Develop Alternative solutions

Alternatives are possible courses of action. Identify various possible courses of action.

iv) Evaluate The Alternatives

The developed alternatives are then evaluated on the basis of their contribution to the
organizational goals and the limiting factors involved. (Risks, economy, timing, other resources)

v) Select The Best Alternative

Evaluation of alternatives will reveal the best alternatives. This is where the real choice is made
and a plan of action adopted.

vi) Implement The Decision

Implementation of the decision involves developing detailed plans, communication of decisions,

gaining acceptance of decisions and cooperation of those concerned.

vii) Follow Up

Actual results of the decisions should be compared with the expected results and appropriate
action taken.

DECISSION MAKING

Decision making is defined as the selection of course of action from among

alternative. It is the core of planning. A plan cannot be said to exist unless a decision

has been made.

Managers sometimes see decision making as their central job because they must

constantly choose what is to be done, who is to do it and when, where and how it will
be done. Decision making is the part of planning and everyone’s daily living.

RATIONAL DECISION MAKING;

It is the rational decision making that goals cannot be attain without action.

People acting or deciding rationally are attempting to reach some goal that cannot be

attained without action. They must have a clear understanding of alternatives. Thy

must have ability and information to analyze and evaluate alternatives in order to

achieve goals. Finally they must have desire to come the best solution by selecting

alternative.

STEPS IN DECISION MAKING

There are three steps in decision making.

1- THE SEARCH FOR ALTERNATIVES.

The first steps of decision making are to develop alternatives. There are almost

always alternatives to any course of action. If we think of only one course of action,

clearly we have not thought hard enough.

The ability to develop alternatives is often as important as being able to select

correctly from among them. One of the other hand ingenuity research and common

sense will often unearth so many choices that all of them cannot be evaluated. The

manager needs help in this situation, and this help can be solved by decision making.

2- EVALUATION OF ALTERNATIVES.

When an appropriate alternative has been found, the next steps in planning one best

alternative to achieve the goals. There are three ways of evaluated decision making.

1- QUANTITIVE AND QUALITIVE FACTOR

Quantitative factor can be measured in numerical terms. This factor is vary important

but the success of the venture would be endangered qualitative factors were ignored.

Qualitative factor are those that are difficult to measure numerically such as the
quality of labor relations, the risk of technological change etc.

2- MANAGERIAL ANALYSIS

In evaluating alternatives managerial analysis is very important. Marginal analysis

can be used in comparing factors other then costs and revenue. For example to find

the best output of a machine, inputs could be varied against outputs until the

additional input equals the additional output.

3- COST EFFECTIVENESS ANALYSIS

Cost effectiveness analysis seeks the best ratio of benefits and costs. For example

finding the least costly way of reaching objectiveness is a technique for choosing the

best plan.

SELECTING AN ALTERNATIVE

During the selection among the alternatives, managers can use three basic approaches

(1) Experience (2) Experimentations (3) research and analysis.

Bases for selecting from among alternatives

Experimentation

How to select from

among alternatives.

Research and

analysis

Reliance on past Choice made

EXPERIENCE

Reliance on past experience plays a larger part in decision making to some extent,

experience is the best teacher. The very fact that managers have reached there

position appears to justify their past decisions. Moreover, the process of thinking

problems through making decisions and seeing programs succeed or fail.

EXPERIMENTATION

One way of deciding among alternatives is to try one of them and see what happens.

Experimentation is often used in scientific theory. The experimental technique can be

most expensive, especially if a program requires heavy expenditures firm cannot

afford to attempt several alternatives.

RESEARCH AND ANALYSIS

One of the most effective techniques for selecting from alternatives is research and

analysis of decisions. This approach means solving problems by first comparing it. It

is pencil and paper approach to decision making

EVALUATION

i. Explain the nature and purpose of planning.

ii. How can managers make planning effective?

iii. Describe the strategic planning process

iv. Explain the principles of planning

TOPIC: ORGANIZING

Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:

a) explain the nature and purpose of organizing

b) outline types of organization structures

c) explain ways of making organizing effective

ORGANIZING

This is an activity which establishes human adjustment among all the factors of production.
Organizations are social entities which coordinates the activities of a number of people for their
achievement of some common goals through division of labour and well defined systems of
working.

Organizing can be seen as a process.

As a process therefore, organizing can be defined as follows

1. A processing of welding together a framework of position which can be used by the

management for the purpose of accomplishing the organizational goals.

2. It’s a process of identifying and grouping the work to be performed, definitions,

responsibilities, delegating them and giving authority together with establishing relationship for
the purpose of enabling people to work most effectively in accomplishing organizational
objectives.

3. It’s a process of grouping of activities necessary of the purpose of achieving

organizational objectives.

Organizing can be seen as a structure.

As a structure organization, structure consist of those aspect of patterns of organization,

organizations that are attractively stable and change only slowly.

Equally, organization as a structure can be defined as a system of relationship that governs the
activities of people who are dependent upper each other / changing the common objectives.

IMPORTANCE OF ORGANIZATION
1) Organizing is an aid to management-it aids management in accomplishing organizational
objectives.

2) It facilitates growth of the organization i.e. it assists in recruitment of staff, delegation of

authority assignment of responsibility etc.

3) It helps to ensure optimum use of human resources because it affects human resources in
different ways such as training, placement of workers, creating of harmony, improving
communication etc.

4) It stimulates creativity i.e. it encourages divergent thinking and makes employers to be

innovative.

5) It facilitates stability of the business organization because it has flexibility to adjust to

changes.

6) It encourages adoption to technology because it facilitates optimum use of technological

improvements.

7) It leads to executive development because it provides training opportunities.

8) It helps to ensure cooperation among workers because it entails communication reducing

conflicts.

9) It establishes responsibility and prevents buck passing

10) It eliminates disputes between individuals

11) It provides for easier communication and helps in developing executives

12) It assists in measuring a person’s performance against his or her responsibility

13) It aids in equitable distribution of work and functions

14) It permits expansion and contractions without seriously disrupting the existing structure

15) It prevents duplication of work

16) It makes organizational goals possible without adequate control and without literally
killing top executives through overworking.

Essential elements of a good organization

1. A good organization must be helpful in the achievement of objectives

This means that it must be c capable of overcoming the problems of an organization

2. There must be harmonious grouping of functions: meaning that a good organization
should divide the functions in the enterprise in such a way that they can be implemented easily
and successfully.

3. An organization must be complete in all aspects

It means that a good organization must include all the activities of the enterprise and there should
be no any repetition of the activities (duplication)

4. There must be perfect coordination in all the activities of the organization.

If the activities are not coordinated, the achievement of the objectives of an organization cannot
be thought off.

5. There must be reasonable span of control

Through means that each manager or supervisor must have is reasonable number of subordinates
under him or her.

6. There must be proper utilization of resources

This means optimal use of resources this minimizes wastage and maximizes profits.

7. There is provision of expansion

This means that the organization must provide for adequate flexibility so that necessary
adjustment may be made in accordance to the needs of the charging circumstances

8. There has to be employee satisfaction. This includes job satisfaction which minimizes
high staff turnover

9. There must be a policy which can be executed easily and economically.

The process of organizing

The building up of an organization is the most important function of management. The process
of organizing consist of the following steps
1. Determination and division of work

This is about determining the tasks required for the accomplishment of established objectives
via divided business activities into technical, commercial, financial, security, and accounting and
managerial. In a modern business enterprise manufacturing, marketing, financing, purchasing
and personnel are considered to be the main business activities.

2. Grouping activities

The various activities identified above are then classified into appropriate departments and
divisions according to similarities and common purpose.

Such grouping of activities is known as departmentalization. Activities may be grouped on the

basis of functions, territories, customers e.t.c

Each department may be further divided into sections and subsections to create a logical
structure.

3. Assignment of duties

The individual departments are being allotted to different positions and individuals. The duties of
every individual are defined on the basis of his abilities and aptitude

Clearly definition of the responsibility of each individual is necessary to avoid duplication of

work and overlapping of efforts. Every individual is made responsible for the specific job
assigned to him. In this way, duties are assigned to specific individuals.

4. Delegation of authority

One of the duties and responsibility of every individual have been fixed, he must be given the
authority necessary or equivalent to carry out the duties assigned to him

A chain of command is created from top to the bottom through successful delegation of
authority.
Conclusion

The process of organizing is a series of steps which must be undertaken to create logical
structure of authority responsibility relationship. This process involves division of work,
placement of individuals on jobs, delegation of authority, coordination of individual efforts and
execution of responsibility for the results.

Principles of organization

The following are the major principles of organizing:

1. Principle of objectives

It states that the objectives of the business concern formulating the organizational structure and
achieving the desired results with minimum costs and efforts.

2. Principle of specialization

It states that good organization must divide work into smaller activities and entrust each to
individuals with enough skills in better performance and quality.

3. Principle of span of control

This states that span of control should be minimized because there is a limit to the number of
persons that can be effectively supervised by one boss.

4. Principle of exception

This means that only exceptionally, complex matters should be referred to the executives for
decision making otherwise managers should handle matters relating to their levels.

5. Principle of scalar chain

This is sometimes known as the scalar principle. From the chief executive at the top of the
enterprise to the first line of the bottom which must be clearly be stated. This is also known as
chain of command. This is likely to minimize any confusion in organizational function
6. Principle of authority

This means that the responsibility and authority of each manager and supervisors should be
clearly defined. It also implies that the authority given must be equal to the responsibility
entrusted to the manager.

7. Principle of unity of command

This states that each subordinate should have only one supervisor to report to. This is likely to
minimize the disorders, delays and confusion. It also reduces conflicts

8. Principle of delegation of authority

According to this principle, the authority delegation should be equal to the responsibility so that
to enable the concerned person to accomplish the task assigned to him/ her by his or her
supervisor. This helps to minimize partial delegation.

9. Principle of responsibility

This states that the superiors should not be allowed to avoid responsibility by delegating
authority to his or her subordinates. The superiors therefore must be held responsible to the acts
of his or her subordinate to whom he or she has delegated authority.

10. Principle of flexibility

This states that the organization structure should be such which should be adaptable to the
changing circumstances, meaning that there should be room for expansion and replacement
without disrupting the basic design of the structure. It also means giving room for addition of
subtraction if need be.

11. Principle of simplicity

This states that the organization structure should be simple enough with minimum number of
levels. This is likely to reduce the problem of poor coordination and communication.

12. Principle of continuity

This states that the structure should be such that its serviceable for a long time. This is possible if
it’s dynamic and capable of adopting itself to the views of changing circumstances.

13. Principle of unity of direction

This states that for a group of activities having the same objectives there should be one plan and
one objective this facilitates verification and coordination of activities.

14. Principle of efficiency

This states that the structure that is formulated should enable the business concern to function
efficiently and achieve its objectives with minimum costs and efforts.

15. Principle of balance

It states that a good organizing must put balance on all types of factors of production so that
inefficiency is reduced.

Organizing is considered a process which contains the following key components and concepts

• Job design

• Grouping of jobs/departmentation

• Authority and responsibility

• Span management

• Organization structure

i. Job design

This is the process of determining what procedures and operations are to be performed by the
employees in each position based on qualification and experience. The basis for all job design
activities and job specialization which involves a definition of the task that distinguishes one job
from the others

ii. Departmentation (grouping of jobs)

This is the process of grouping jobs into logical sets in an organization.

It is also a process of grouping individual jobs into departments as well as equipments.

A department is a distinct area, unit or a subsystem of an organization over which a manager has
authority for performance of specific activities. It is also known as division, branch battalion etc.

DEPARTMENTATION IS REQUIRED DUE TO THE FOLLOWING REASONS.

1. Specialization- Departmention enables an enterprise to take advantage of specialization

since division of work becomes possible.
2. Expansion- With expansion only one manager can oversee a limited number of
subordinates. In the absence of departmentation the size of the enterprise remains limited.

3. Autonomy- Departmentation results in the division of the enterprise into semi-

autonomous units. In this units every manager is given adequate freedom. Autonomy provides
job satisfaction and motivation which in turn leads to higher efficiency of operations.

4. Appraisal- Appraisal of managerial performance becomes easier when specific tasks are
assigned to departmental personnel.

5. Fixation of responsibilities- Departments enables each person to know the specific part he
/ she is to play in the total organization. It provides a basis for building up loyalty and
commitment.

6. Management development- Departmentation facilitates communication, coordination and

control. It simplifies the training and development of executives by providing them opportunity
to take independent decisions and to exercise initiatives.

7. Administrative control- Grouping of activities and personnel into manageable units

facilitates administrative control. The standards of performance for each and every department
can be precisely determined.

Departmentalization usually groups jobs according to one of the following bases;

• Number

• Time

• Function

• Product

• Location

• Equipment/process

• Customer
a. Departmentation by simple numbers

This was once an important method in organization of tribes, clans, armies e.t.c the simple
numbers method of departmentation is achieved by tolling off people who are to perform the
same duties and putting them under the supervision of a manager.

The essential fact is not what these people do, where they work, or what they work with. It is that
the success of the undertaking depends on the number of people involved in it.

b. Departmentation by time

This is a form of grouping jobs which has generally at lowest levels of organization. The use of
shifts in many enterprises where for economic, technological or other reasons, the normal
working day would not be enough.

Example of this kind of department is the hospital where around the clock patient care is
essential. Similarly, deferent departments have to be ready to respond to the emergencies at any
time.

A factory operating for 24 hrs may have three departments, morning, day and night shifts.

c. Departmentation by function

Functional departmentation entails what enterprises typically do.

Employees who are involved in the same or very similar features are grouped together. The basic
enterprise functions are;

1. Production i.e. creating utility or adding utility to a good/ service

2. Selling i.e. finding customers, patients, clients, students, or members who will agree to
accept the services/ goods at a price

3. Financing i.e. raising and collecting, safeguarding and expanding the finances of the
enterprise

The coordination of activities may be achieved through the rules and procedures, various aspects
of planning such as budgeting the organization hierarchy e.t.c

Advantages of departmentation by function

1. It maintains power and prestige of major functions

2. It is logical and time proven method

3. It follows the principle of occupational specialization and thereby facilitating efficiency

into the utilization of people

4. It simplifies training

5. It provides a means of maintaining tidy control at the top because top managers are
responsible for the end results

6. Coordination is improved since work is not duplicated at specific functional levels

7. It provides better opportunities for growth and career development

Disadvantages of departmentation

1. Responsibility for profits is at the top level only

2. It results into slow adaptation to changes in environment

3. It reduces coordination between functions at overall level

4. It deemphasizes the overall company objectives i.e. it leads to sub optimization

5. It limits development of managers who need certain knowledge and experience in all
enterprise functions

6. The chain of command becomes excessively long as new levels are added this may slow
down communication

BOARD OF DIECTORS

MANAGING DIRECTOR
MARKETING PRODUCTION FINANCE

QUALITY CONTROL PROCESSING REPAIRS AND

MATERIALS MAINTENANCE

Chart showing departmentation by function.

d. Departmentation by product

The activities associated with individual products or closely related products lines are grouped
together. This structure permits top management to delegate to division executives authority over
the manufacture, sales and engineering.

Advantages

1. All activities associated with unique products are kept together

2. Profitability of the various products is more easily evaluated

3. Internal competition is promoted I.e. one product line competes with another

4. It uses specialized technology

Disadvantages

a) Some duplication of efforts may results i.e. each product line may require its own
accountant, engineer, marketing staff e.t.c

b) Coordination of departments mat be difficult

c) Additional management personnel may be required to handle different product lines

d) The firm may find it difficult to adopt itself to changes in demand and technology

e. Departmentation by location, territory/ geographical

Jobs are in one location or nearby locations are grouped together into one department and
allocated a manager.

Territory departmentation is very useful to a large scale enterprise whose activities are
geographically spread e.g. banks, insurance companies, transport companies, supermarkets;
distribution agencies e.t.c. the ultimate authority for performing the basic organizational
functions is still retained by the headquarters.

Advantages

1) It places responsibility at lower levels

2) It improves coordination within the region

3) It places emphasize on local market and problems

4) It improves face to face communication with the local people

5) It provides a measurable training ground for general managers

6) The managers can give special attention to the needs and problems of the local market

Disadvantages

1) It requires more persons with general manager ability

2) Coordination and control of a different branches from the head office becomes less
effective

3) There is duplication of resources especially the human resources.

4) The branches are expensive to run.

5) Due to the geographical

Authority and responsibility

 This involves the determination of how authority and responsibility are managed in the
organization.

 According to Koontz and O’ Donnell authority is the power to command others to act or
not to act in a manner deemed by the possessor of the authority to further enterprise or
departmental purpose.

 Herbert Simon regards authority as the power to make decisions which guides the actions
of others. The person who makes decisions is the “superior” and the person who accepts them
and is guided by them is called “subordinate”

 At the level of an individual manager and his subordinates, it involves the delegation
process while at the level of the total organization it relates to decentralization.

 Delegation is the process through which the manager assigns a portion of his work or task
to the subordinates.

 Decentralization on the other hand is where power is spread down the employees.

 Power is the ability of an individual or group to influence the believes or the actions of
other people or groups

 Authority in an organization is the right in a position and through it, the right of the
person occupying the position to exercise discretion in making affecting other persons.

 Responsibility is the obligation of the subordinates to carry out the duties assigned to
him. Responsibility is a personal attribute, it’s an obligation to ones’ own superior, and no person
can shift his responsibility by delegating his authority to others.

 Accountability is subordinates obligation to render an account as report of his activities to

the superior. To be accountable, is to be answerable in respect to obligations fulfilled or
unfulfilled.

 Accountability grows out of responsibility and goes hand in hand with it. A person who is
responsible for something is also accountable for the results.

Features of authority

i. The authority vested in a position is legitimate right having legal or social sanctions.
ii. Authority creates a relationship between the superior and the subordinate

iii. The purpose of exercising authority is to influence the behavior and performance of
subordinates so that organizational objectives are achieved.

iv. The authority enjoyed by a person is bound by certain limits. Higher is the rank of a
person, greater is his authority.

v. Authority is exercised by making decisions that are to be carried out by the subordinates.

Distinction between authority and power

• Authority is the right of a person to influence others while power is the capacity of a
person to influence others

• Authority is institutional in character while power is personal in nature.

• Authority is legitimate but power may have no legitimacy. Unlike power, authority has
legal sanctity.

• A manager may have more authority and more power or he may have little power and
more authority. Authority and power do not always go together.

Sources of power/ bases of power;

A. Legitimate power

This normally arises from a position and derives from our cultural system of rights, delegation
and duties when a position is accepted by people as being legitimate.

B. Reward power

This arise from ability of some people to grant rewards

C. Expert power
This is the power of knowledge, physicians, lawyers; university professor’s e.t.c. may have
considerable influence on others because they are respected for their special knowledge.

D. Referent power/ charismatic power

This is the influence that people or groups may exercise because people believe in them and their
ideas.

E. Coercive power

It is the power to punish, whether by firing a subordinate or withholding demerit. It arises from
legitimate power.

Types of authority in an organization

a) Formal authority

This is normally confined by the law or delegated within an organization based on the
organization structure. It has to be in writing and known to all managers or executives and
employees in an organization.

b) Line authority

This authority can be regarded as the main authority in an organization. It is the ultimate
authority to decide upon matters affecting others and it’s the main feature of superior subordinate
relationship.

Line authority is not absolute; it must be applied with discretion within the limits of delegated
authority and must relate to performance of jobs which leads to the attainment of the objectives
of the organization.

c) Staff authority
Its scope is very limited as there is no right to command. It is concerned with assisting and
advising and it is used where line authority becomes inadequate. Specialized skills are used to
direct or perform those activities which the line managers cannot effectively perform.

Staff authority is subordinate to line authority and its purpose is to aid the activities which are
directed and controlled by line managers

d) Functional authority

This authority is also subordinate to line authority but in comparison with staff authority, it
conflicts upon the holder the right to command in matters relating to the functions. It therefore
has limited right to command and help the superior to delegate authority to command to the
specialist without bestowing full line authority.

Where organizations have a central head office and branches, functional authority is often used
e.g. The head office, Human resource director renders staff functions for the whole company,
but he usually exercises functional authority on human resource matters in his relationship with
branch human resource officer.

Delegation

 It is the process whereby an individual or group transfers to some other individuals or

groups the duty of carrying out some particular action and at the same time taking some
particular decisions.

 To delegate means to entrust authority to a subordinate in certain defined areas and to

make him responsible for results.

• It means, in effect and entrusting some part of the work of management to subordinates

• It is the process of vesting decision making discretion to subordinates by the superiors

• Responsibility is not surrendered since no manager avoids ultimate responsibility by

delegating

• The work is delegated and the superior holds the subordinates accountable. The
subordinate is responsible for doing the job and the superiors’ responsibility to see the job is
done.

Features of delegation

i. Delegation occurs when a manager grants some right to a subordinate

ii. A manager cannot delegate authority unless he himself possesses the authority

iii. A manager never delegates all his authority to subordinates. He transfers only a part of
his authority.

iv. Delegation does not imply a reduction in the status of a manager. The manager retains the
right to exercise control over the subordinates. A manager can reduce, enhance or take back the
delegated authority.

v. Delegation never means abdication of responsibility. No manager can avoid his

responsibility by delegating authority to subordinates.

Elements/process of delegation

i. Assignment of duties to subordinates

ii. Granting authority to make commitments to the extent necessary to enable them carryout
those duties assigned

iii. Creating an obligation on the part of each subordinate; This enables satisfactory
performance of the job

Principles of delegation

 Functional definition: the functions to be performed by a subordinate must be defined

precisely and clearly. The limits of authority of every subordinate should be clearly defined.

 Unity of command: every subordinate must at a time receive orders and be accountable to
only one superior. No individual can serve more than one boss at a time.

 Delegation by results expected: authority should be delegated according to the results

expected of the subordinates. This will enable the subordinates to know by what standards their
performance will be judged.

 Absoluteness of responsibility: responsibility can never be delegated. By delegating

authority a manager, therefore, becomes responsible for the actions of his subordinates.

 Parity of authority and responsibility: authority and responsibility should be co-extensive

and coterminous. It is unfair to hold a person responsible for something over which he has no
authority. Responsibility without authority causes frustration and authority without responsibility
results in misuse of power. There need not be mathematical equality between authority and
responsibility but the two must go together if the results are to be achieved efficiently.
Types of delegation

1. General/specific delegation

General delegation is where any person is granted authority to perform the various functions his
department or division but the exercise of authority by each subordinate continues to be subject
to an overall regulation and supervision by his superior.

Specific delegation is functional in character, subordinates are given different specific functions
to perform i.e. the production manager may delegate the authority for production and the
accounts officer may delegate authority for accounting matters.

2. Written/unwritten delegation

Written delegation is made by written orders/ instructions. Unwritten delegation is based on

customs, conventions, agreements, usage e.t.c.

3. Formal/informal delegation

Formal delegation of authority is laid down in the organization structure on an enterprise e.g. the
sales manager is assigned the responsibility and the accompanying authority to maintain and
promote sales.

Informal delegation occurs when employees perform certain duties not because these are
assigned to them but because they feel that they can perform their tasks better and in time.

4. Downward, upward and sideward delegation

Downward delegation occurs where the superior assigns duties and delegates authority to his
immediate subordinates.
In upward delegation, a subordinate assigns some of his tasks to his immediate superior. This is a
rare kind of delegation.

In sideward delegation, a subordinate assigns some of his duties and tasks to another subordinate
of the same rank.

Guidelines to ensure effective delegation

1. Grant proper amount of authority

It means that responsibility should not be less than authority delegated. Enough authority should
always be delegated to achieve the desired results.

2. Make sure that authority is clearly stated.

Authority relationship should be clearly defined not only to the subordinates in question but all
others concerned as well.

3. Define the results expected

This will enable the subordinates to know by what standards their performance should be
charged

4. Consider the capability of the subordinates

Authority should be delegated to those who are competent and willing to accept delegation.
People should be selected in the right of the jobs to be done.

5. Follow unit of command and chain of command.

Every subordinate must at a time receive orders and be accountable to only one superior. In
delegating, it is also important to follow the chain of command where authority flows from the
highest manager to all the subordinates at all levels

6. Modify the authority whenever necessary

Managers should maintain flexibility attitude about what kind of and how much authority to
delegate. This is because the environment of the business is dynamic and authority relationship
needs to be altered from time to time

7. Develop a willingness to delegate

No organization can function without delegation, managers must be willing to let go and let
others make mistake if delegation is to work.

8. Develop effective communication

There should be a free flow of information between the superior and the subordinates. This
enables the superior to give clear instructions and the subordinates to seek necessary clarification

9. Establish an effective control system

Manager should put controls in place to ensure that the authority delegated is used properly. The
superior should set the performance standards and evaluate subordinates performance
periodically and help them improve.

10. Appropriate incentives

Suitable financial incentives are provided to reward subordinates for the successful assumption
of authority.

11. Allocate sufficient resources

Resources needed to carry out the delegated task should be availed.

Why managers do not delegate

1. Feeling of superiority- a manager may have a feeling that his subordinates are not capable
enough to do any work without close supervision. He may therefore concentrate all decision
making in his hands.

2. Fear of exposure- if the manger is himself not competent to plan ahead, and decode
which tasks should he delegate to whom he may avoid delegation of authority because doing so
will expose him for what he is incompetent and as a disorganized person

3. Risk avoidance- the feeling of insecurity may be a major reason for reluctance on the part
of the manager to delegate authority. Despite the delegation of authority, the manager will
continue to be accountable for the actions of subordinate and these might deter him from running
the risk of leaving decision making to subordinates.
4. Feeling of indispensability- if a manager has an inflated sense of his own worth, and
wants other s to realize his importance, he may not delegate authority such that everyone around
him is dependent on him for decision making.

5. Habit pattern- if as a result of a practice of close supervision, the manager has developed
personal contact with all aspects of work, he may avoid delegation of authority so as to sustain
the deep- seated habit pattern.

6. Loss of importance- a manager may feel that delegation of authority to subordinates may
lead to diminution of his authority and divest of the importance enjoyed by him as the centre of
whole authority. he may also have a lurking fear that if any subordinate proves himself to be
more competent, his own position in the department may be threatened.

Why subordinates fear delegation or why they do not accept delegation

a) Fear of criticism

The subordinates’ reluctance to accept delegation of authority may be due to fear of criticism of
mistakes. They may have a fear that even the slightest mistake on their part may lead to their
dismissal from service

b) Insecurity

If subordinates are afraid of accepting risk and responsibility, they may avoid delegation and be
content with the superior making all the decisions.

They consider it safe to carry out the decision handed down to them by the superiors than to
make decision themselves

c) Lack of self confidence

Sometime, the subordinates may avoid acceptance of delegation due to lack of confidence in
their capabilities to discharge new responsibilities

d) Inadequacy of information and resources

Subordinates may avoid acceptance of delegation in fear that adequate information and resources
may not be available to them to carry out their decisions. In other words they may fear that
delegation in their case will mean assignment of activities to them without a matching authority
over the relevant information to facilitate decision, making or the necessary human and physical
resources to carry out the decision.
e) Inadequate incentives

If delegation of authority is not accompanied by suitable incentives, subordinates may not be

motivated to accept it willingly

Advantages of delegation

a) Reduction in managerial load: delegation reliefs the manager of the need to attend to
minor or routine types of duties thus he is able to devote greater attention and efforts towards
broader and more important responsibilities.

b) Basis of effective functioning: it establishes relationships through the organization and

helps in achieving coordination of various activities in accomplishing enterprise objectives.

c) Benefit of specialized services: it enables the manager to benefit from specialized

knowledge and expertise of persons at lower levels e.g. purchasing may be delegated to the
purchase manager.

d) Efficient running of the branches: in the big organization, delegation can provide the key
to smooth and efficient running of the various branches of the business at places far and near.

e) An aid to employee development: delegation enables employees of the business to

develop their capabilities to undertake new and more challenging jobs. It also promotes job
satisfaction and high employee morale.

f) An aid to expansion and diversification of the business: with its employees fully trained
in decision making in various areas of the business, it can confidently undertake expansion and
diversification of its activities because it will already have a competent team of contented
workers to take on new responsibilities.

Barriers to delegation

• Reluctance to delegation may be traced to:

i. Organizational barriers

ii. Psychological barriers

• Organizational barriers: some organizations are traditionally opposed to delegation and

exercise a tight centralized control over decision making a military organization is a good
example of this category.
• Psychological barriers: the strongest barriers to delegation are psychological. A feeling of
insecurity, lack of ability or confidence in subordinates, indifference and lack of motivation are
some of the psychological barriers to delegation.

Decentralization

This is the process of transferring all the authority to all levels of management to enhance
efficiency in the performance of tasks. According to Koonts and O’ Donnel decentralization of
authority is a fundamental phase of delegation. According to Allen, decentralization is the
systematic effort to delegate to the lowest level of all the authority, except that which can only be
exercised at the top (central point).

Difference between delegation and decentralization

Delegation decentralization

1. It is an act/process 1.it is the end results of delegation and dispersion of authority to various
levels

2. It is vital to management process 2.it's optional in the sense that the top management favor a
deliberate policy to work for a general dispersal of authority

3. It refers to the relationship between two 3.it refers to a relationship

Individuals i.e. a superior and his immediate between the top management

Subordinate

4. Control over a subordinate performance is exercised 4.even the power to control may be
by his superior who constitutes the source of delegated to departments

delegation of authority. concerned

Guidelines determining the degree of decentralization of authority

Decentralization is not just physical dispersion of activities. An enterprise, whose activities and
function are confined to a small area, may have a greater decentralization than the ones whose
activities and functions are distributed over a wider area.

The degree of decentralization in an enterprise is determined by the combination of the following

factors:

a) Competence of the personnel available

The competence and the capacity of subordinates or managers is an important determinant of the
degree of decentralization. When the managers of the enterprise are capable and experienced
enough, to make important decisions decentralization could be easier.

b) Size and complexity of the organization

The larger the enterprise the more the authority the central manager is forced to delegate. With
growth in size and complexity of the organization, decentralization is necessary to ensure to
ensure speed and accuracy of decision making and flexibility of the operations.

c) History of the organization

A firm is likely to have a very centralized structure if it has grown primarily from may be
personal leadership

d) Adequacy of communication system

Managers may seek to avoid decentralization through the development of a good communication
system that provides for speed, accuracy and capacity of information needed for top management
to exercise centralized control.

e) Dispersion of the organization

Geographical dispersion of the organization tends to result in greater decentralization of

authority.
f) Uniformity of policies

The greater the need for uniformity of policies the greater will be the degree of centralization

g) Environmental influences i.e. tax policies, action of competitors, economic forces,

government policies, technology, customers’ e.t.c.

h) Philosophy of the top management

The attitude of the top managers has an important bearing on the degree of decentralization

i) Business dynamics

j) Desire for independence

k) Control techniques

The degree of decentralization tend to be greater where an effective control system is not
available

Advantages of decentralization

i. It can contribute to staff motivation by enabling the middle and junior staff to get a test of
responsibility and encouraging the use of initiative by all employees

ii. It encourages decision making and assumption of authority and responsibilities

iii. It results in the principles of democratic management

iv. It encourages smooth diversification of products and markets

v. It prevents the top management overload by freeing them from many operational
decisions enabling them to concentrate on their strategic responsibilities

vi. It speeds up operational decision making by enabling line units to take local actions
without reference back

vii. There is better communication

viii. It focuses attention into important matters of cost and profit centres within the total
organization these sharpens management awareness of cost effectiveness as well as revenue
targets
ix. It enables local management to be flexible in their approach to decisions, this is after
taking into account the local conditions and make decisions that are more adaptable in situations
of rapid change

Disadvantages of decentralization

i. It results into higher operational cost and duplication of resources

ii. It requires an adequate control and communication system if major errors of judgment are
to be avoided on the part of the operational management

iii. It requires greater coordination by senior management to ensure that individual units
within the organization are not working against the overall organization i.e. need to control sub
optimization

iv. It can lead to inconsistency of treatment of customers, clients or the public especially in
service industries

v. It requires plentiful supplies capable and well motivated managers who are able to
respond to the increased responsibility which decentralization brings about

vi. It may encourages a parochial attitude in subsidiary units, who may be inclined to look
more to their own needs then those of the colleagues in the organization

IV. Span of management/ span of control

This refers to the number of the people or employees that a superior can effectively supervise. It
is the number of subordinates or employees reporting directly to one person (a superior)
In practice, spans of management can vary between 1-40 or more subordinates directly
supervised, although the most likely range is between 3-20. Small spans of management tend to
be found among managerial, professional and technical groups.

Factors affecting the span of management

i. Location – incase of geographically scattered operations, the span has to be narrow

because one executive cannot effectively manage the distinct and distributed operations

ii. Competence of the superior – executives who are more capable can supervise large
number of subordinates than those who are less competent

iii. Caliber of subordinates – the more qualified and experienced subordinates are, the lesser
will e the pressure on the superior and the wider the span of management

iv. Nature of work - in case of routine repetitive operations, span can be wider since
subordinates do not frequent guidance from the superior. In case of specialized and frequently
changing of duties, and those involving constant interaction, the span of management has to be
narrow

v. Level of authority – at higher levels of management, span of control is generally narrow

than at lower levels.

vi. Clarity of plans – the more clear and understandable the plans are, the wide the span of
management.

vii. Communication techniques – more effective is the communication, lesser is the need for
face to face contact and wider may be the span.

viii. Staff assistance – an executive can supervise more subordinates when advice and
assurance of the staff specialists is available to him

ix. System of control – span of management has to be narrower where the control is
exercised through personal supervision

V. Organization structure

This may be defined as the prescribed pattern of work related behaviors which are deliberately
established for the accomplishment of organizational objectives. It serves as an instrument for
the introduction of logical and consistency relationship among the various decision function
which made up the organization.
Specialization and coordination are the key issue on the design of the organization structure.
Specialization relates to division of labour and use of special purpose machines and equipment.
Coordination means harmony in operations to achieve organizational objectives

Organizational structure shows different position and responsibilities attached to the post.

Types of organization structure

a) Line organization

b) Functional organization

c) Staff organization

d) Matrix organization

e) Project organization

f) Free form organization

g) Committee organization

h)

1) Committee organization

A committee is a group of persons constituted to deal with specific issues or problems of

organization. Committee can also be considered as formal groups with a chairman on agenda and
rules on conduct. Committee has specific tasks or set of tasks to achieve. These tasks are made
frequently although not always associated with decision making.

As a formal group the formality of a committee is expressed by the following features:

a) A chairman or chairperson who is responsible in ensuring

1) That the committee is conducted in accordance with the rule

2) The committee is supplied with necessary resources

3) A secretary who is responsible for taking the minutes of the meeting standing out the
agenda and other papers.

4) An agenda which is set out the agreed subject of matter of the meeting

5) The minutes of the meeting which are the official records of what has taken place

6) Committee papers and reports which provides the committee with the quality of
information which will enable it to make usual informed decisions or proposal
7) Rules of procedure which are designed to promote the smooth running of a committee
and ensure the consistency and fair play monitoring such rules includes procedures for:

a) Speaking in a debate

b) Voting

c) Proposing a motion

d) Adding emergency to the operations of the committee as a communication medium.

Types of committees

i. Standing and adhoc committees

The standing committee which is always present in the organization

Adhoc committee is a temporary special purpose committee which is appointed to deal with
many specific problems or issues. It is disbanded and dissolved as soon as the assignment given
is completed

ii. Executive and advisory committee

An executive committee s one charged with the responsibility of making and executing his
decisions.

An advisory committee only remains as specific problem in all the details and makes
recommendations

iii. Line and staff committees

A line committee is responsible for controlling and coordinating a specific business function
having executive over the subordinate within a formal chain of command.

A staff committee only acts in advisory capacity having no authority in its decisions

iv. Formal and informal committees

A formal committee is constituted as per the organization policies and rules deriving its authority
from the same policies and rules

An informal committee is not consolidated as per the formal policies or rules of the organization.
It has no formal authority.

Advantages of a committee in an organization

1) Discussion of proposal are based on group assessment of facts and ideas are not a very
small grouped working in isolation

2) Committee can encourage the proofing of special knowledge and talent possessed by
individual members

3) Precisely because they are organized groups, committee can undertake a large volume of
work than individuals or vey smaller groups working in isolating

4) Committee are very useful in achieving coordination and collaboration between worked
groups

5) Committees acts as a vocal point for information and customs within the organization

6) It’s a tool of managerial strategy i.e. the committee may serve as important tool for
delusion or consolidation of authority vested on a single individual or postponing actions.

7) It is a tool of training and development of the employee

Limitations of committee organizations

a) Decision making is on hold together slower process when dominated by committee

b) Committee works demand certain skills members who are unsure of themselves
unskilled in committee practice tend to leave the initiative to the good committee members

c) Committee sometimes have the tendency to be looked down in procedural matters which
reduce the time avoidable for the decision of substantive issues

d) Committee decision may often represent compromised solution rather than optimum
solution

e) Committee may represent the wishes of a certain group who one or more influenced and
not necessarily the riskiness of the members.

MAKING COMMITTES EFFECTIVE

1. The mandate of the committee needs to be clearly defined so as to keep the committee on
focus.

2. Committees should have specific agendas to work from.

3. The size of the committee should be appropriate. (not so large)

4. It should have the right membership.

5. The chairperson should be suitable.

6. They should be provided with the necessary resources to accomplish their tasks.

7. A committee should be provided with a reasonable deadline.

8. A final written report should be presented by the committee for action.

9. Members of the committees should not devote too much time on committee assignments
and forget their regular jobs.

2. Matrix organization/ hybrid departmentalization

This is normally the combining of functional and project or product patterns of departmentation
in the same organization structure. This kind of organization occurs frequently in construction
e.g. building a bridge, in aerospace designing and launching a weather satellite, in the installation
of an electric data processing system, in management consulting firms in which professional
experts work together on project.

In case of a two year project to produce a modified fashion of standard air craft, one project
manager will coordinate and be held accountable for the work to be undertaken by the project
team, and he will be the person who deals on a regular basis with the clients.

Functional managers provide technical expertise and organizational stability. Project managers
provide the drifting force and the day to day control required to steer the project its temporary
life.
The following is the illustration of a matrix organization structure.

General Manager

Chief engineer purchasing manager production

manager

Project manager

Project A

Project manager

Project B

Project manager

Project C
Guidelines for making matrix organization

1. Define the objectives of the project/ task

2. Balance the power of functional and project and project managers

3. Clarify roles, authority and responsibilities of managers and team members

4. Ensure that influence is based on knowledge and information rather than the rank.

5. Select an experienced manager for the project who can provide leadership.

6. Understand organisation and team development

7. Install appropriate cost, time and quality control that reposts’ derivations from standards
in a timely institution.

8. Reward project managers and team members fairly.

Advantages

1. It’s oriented towards the end result.

2. It helps to clarify who is responsible for the success of the project.

3. It encourages functional managers to understand their contributive role in their

organizations productive efforts.

4. It leads to shorter project development time

5. It pin points the project profit responsibility

6. It combines the relative stability and efficiency of hierarchical structure with the
flexibility and uniformity of an organic form structure.

Disadvantages
1. Conflicts can arise concerning the division of authority and the allocation of resources
between project groups and functional specialist.

2. It requires money time and consuming meetings

3. Too much shifting of staff from one project to another may hinder training of new
employees.

4. Relative dilation of functional management responsibilities throughout the organisation

mega exist

5. This type of organisation requires the manager to be more effective in human relational
and to have interpersonal skills which is not always passed by all managers.

EVALUATION

i. Describe the factors that determine the degree of centralization and decentralization.

ii. Explain the benefits of organizing.

iii. Explain the factors that influence the span of control.

TOPIC: STAFFING

Staffing function is concerned with acquisition, development and maintenance of an efficient and
satisfied work force in the organization.

It involves the recruitment training development and appraisal of personnel in the organization.

This staffing/personal management enables to contribute most effectively to the organization

purpose in the performance of their duties, as well as to attain those personal and social
satisfactions which they tend to naturally seek within their working environment.

Staffing is the acquisition and the maintenance of human resource necessary for the
organizational success.

OBJECTIVES OF STAFFING

 To build and maintain cordial relations between people working at different level.

 To ensure effective utilization of available resources.

 To provide fair working conditions, wages and amenities to employees.

 To achieve the development of employees to their fullest potential.

 To help other mangers in solving their personnel problems.

FUNCTIONS OF THE PERSONNEL DEPARTMENT

The function of the personnel department can be divided into two:-

Managerial Function

This is concerned with planning, organizing, directing and controlling the activities related to the
human resources..

Operative Function
This involves:-

• Procurement/employment

• Development.

• Compensation.

• Integration.

• Maintenance.

• Record & Research.

MANPOWER PLANNING

Also known as human resource planning manpower planning is the development of a

comprehensive staffing strategy for meeting organizational future human resource needs.

It is the process by which management determines how the organization should move from its
present/current manpower position to its desired manpower position.

Through planning the management strives to have the right number and the right kind of people,
at the right place and at the right time, doing things which result in both the organization and the
individual receiving maximum long-term benefit.

Features of manpower planning

1. It involves forecasts of the future manpower needs so that an adequate and timely
provisions may be made to meet those needs

2. The purpose of manpower planning is to determine the right number and the right type of
people required for effectively accomplishing the tasks and goals of the organization

3. It helps in ensuring effective utilization of present and future manpower

4. It has two aspects i.e. quantitative and qualitative aspects

5. It result in the development and policy programmes and procedures for the acquisition,
development, preservation and utilization of organizations human assets
6. It is a continuous process because the demand and supply of manpower are subject to
frequent change.

Significance of manpower planning

1. It helps management to avoid both shortage and surpluses of manpower and thereby to
control labour costs.

2. Manpower planning defines human resources required to meet the organizations

objectives. By ensuring the right people at the right time, it contributes significantly to the
success and growth of the enterprise.

3. It provides a sound basis for the selection and training of manpower

4. A long term and systematic manpower plan is necessary to ensure a stream of qualified
personnel flowing into the organization

5. Manpower planning is important for an organization and an economy. At the firm level, it
warns management of upcoming manpower shortage and surpluses. At national level, manpower
planning helps to ensure optimum utilization of the country’s human resources, to maintain
employment to improve productivity and to develop the human assets

6. Inventory of existing manpower helps in ascertaining the status of the available personnel
and to disclose untapped talent.

Objectives of manpower planning

1. Making the best use of human resources

2. Obtaining and retaining the quantity and quality of people an organization needs

3. Being able to anticipate the future term of potential surpluses and deficit of people

4. To promote and develop of existing personnel

5. To provide control measures so that human resources are available when required

Importance of manpower planning

1. Helps in correcting staff imbalances in time, thus management can reduce labour costs of
overstaffing and under utilization of talents is brought to light.
2. MPP provides a sound basis for development of personnel to make an optimum use of
available talents.

3. MPP identifies gaps in existing manpower so that suitable training programmes may be
developed for building specific skills required in future.

4. MPP enables the management to cope with uncertain environment.

5. MPP involves an inventory of current manpower to determine its status and therefore
untapped talents available in the organization can be identified.

6. Helps management to have the right people at the right jobs at the right time.

Manpower Planning Process

Manpower planning process involves four basic steps:-

1. Assess current staffing needs. This involves assessment of the current jobs needed the
organization, shortages and supplies should be identified in this step.

2. Forecasting future human resource needs. A systematic attempt to probe into the future
human resource needs should be done. This should put into consideration of the organization and
also technological changes.

3. formulate staffing strategy

A staffing strategy should be formulated based on the needs of the organization.

4. Implementation of the strategy

The strategy is adopted and put into use.

5. Evaluate and update

The implemented strategy is monitored evaluated and updated to ensure that the goals of
the enterprise are being met.

JOB ANALYSIS

Job analysis refers to the process of determining the fundamental elements of a job through
systematic observation and analysis. Job analysis occurs during the assessment of the
organizational manpower needs.
It involves breaking up of a job into its basic elements and studying them in details to obtain all
the pertinent facts about the job. e.g.

 what the worker is expected to do

 Methods and techniques used

 The working conditions

 Skills required. (Content, job duties and personal qualities)

Job analysis serves the following purposes.

1) It provides a basis for MPP and for recruitment and selection

2) Helps in matching the employee competencies and the job during selection

3) Facilitates job evaluation and performance appraisal which is necessary in wage

determination

4) Helps in devising training and development programmes for employees.

5) Facilitates proper allocation of authority

6) It facilitates job design.

The end result of job analysis is job description

JOB DESCRIPTION

This is a clear summary of duties and responsibilities of a specific job.

It describes the title of the job, its location, tasks to be performed and work conditions.

JOB SPECIFICATION

This is a statement of the minimum acceptable human qualities required for the successful
performance of a job.
It specifies the physical requirements, education and knowledge, work experience, aptitude
(ability to learn) and personal characteristic that one should possess in order to handle the duties
of a particular job effectively.

JOB EVALUATION/GRADING

This technique/process of establishing the relative merits of jobs within an enterprise in order to
establish pay differentials

It involves the assessment of the work content of all jobs in the organization and their
classification into broad categories called job grades.

Advantages of job evaluation

1. Helps in selecting new staff

2. Assists in transferring employees from one department to another

3. Ensures that staff doing the same job receives the same rates of pay thus avoid wage
anomalities.

4. Assist in evaluating new jobs and deciding on appropriate rates of pay

5. May improve relationship between management and workers

6. Provide data needed for collective bargaining

7. May result in improved staff morale and thus low labour turn over and increased output

8. Useful for estimating budgets.

Disadvantages of job evaluation

1. It may place all jobs into few grades and reduce chances of promotion

2. Job grades fails to take into account individual differences in workers abilities

3. There is a tendency to view workers in terms of their grades

4. Job grades are rarely evaluated while job content change time to time.
5. Salary scales are not solely based on job grading but also other factors such as trade
union influence etc

Question:

Describe the purpose of manpower planning in business organizations.

JOB RECRUITMENT

This is the acquisition of human resources to fill up particular positions in the organization

 Thus recruitment is to seek out, to explore to evaluate, to induce and to obtain

commitment from prospective employees so as to fill up positions required for the successful
operation of an enterprise.

 Each organization has its own policies and procedures that guide the recruitment e.g.

 When to declare a job vacant

 When to advertise for the job

 The source of recruitment

 How to advertise etc

 Recruitment is very important because it increases the number of applicants from which a
real choice can be made.

SOURCES OF RECRUITMENT

Sources of recruitment can be classified into two broad sources i.e.

1. Internal sources

 Transfers

 Promotions

2. External sources

 Advertisements

 Education institutions etc

INTERNAL SOURCES OF RECRUITMENT

Advantages

• Increases morale in the organization especially for the person being promoted.

• It’s easier to assess employees because you know them.

• it’s a form of rewarding good performance of work

• It is less expensive as it does not involve many procedures e.g. advertising short listing.

• There is no need for initiation/orientation as the person being recruited understands the
procedures & operations of the enterprise.

Disadvantages

• There is a danger of inbreeding in the organization

• There may be a problem of morale for those who were not promoted

• It may create infighting for promotions which may affect performance.

• It discourages the hiring of experts

• A strong manager development programme becomes necessary

• There may be need to retrain the employee so as to suit the new responsibilities.

Organizations do have policies that guide them on transfers and promotions in the organization.

For instance a good transfer policy should have the following characteristics.

• it should ensure that the transferred workers in their new positions are not given
completely new kinds of jobs

• Responsibilities for recommending and approving transfers should be clearly defined.

• How a transfer is going to affect security of the employee should be spelt out clearly.

• Complete accurate job description of the jobs to which transfer are under consideration.
Etc.
A good promotion policy should entail the following:-

• Promotions should be recommended by line managers and decided by their supervisors in

line management.

• Likely opening for promotion should be given wide publication.

• Accurate job description should be prepared for each job.

External sources of Recruitment

It involves acquiring manpower from outside the organization. The sources include:-

o Direct application from suitable candidates

o Through management consultants

o Academic institutions e.g. colleges, universities

o Employment bureaus and agencies

o Sister organizations

o Government departments

o Through recommendations and suggestions current employees

o Unsolicited applicants.

Merits of External recruitment

• It’s an inexpensive way of hiring qualified professionals.

• New blood is brought into the organization thus new insight

• There is no danger of inbreeding and favourism.

• There is a wider choice as the person is selected from among a large number of
applicants.

Demerits of external recruitment

• The person selected might not fit well in the organization

• There is a longer orientation and initiation programme.

• The person recruited may meet with resistance from the other employees

• There is a morale problem for those from within who have not chosen

• It may be time consuming and costly coz of the many procedures involved.

JOB ADVERTISEMENT

This is informing the public about existence of a vacancy position in an organization. It is a

usually done through the mass media or in meetings. The job advert should contain the following
elements;

-Details of the employing organization

-Position to be filled

-Location of the position

-Key duties and responsibilities of the position holder

-Essential requirements of the job

-The minimum personal qualifications

-Deadline of submitting applications

-To whom the application should be directed

PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE JOB ADVERTISEMENT

In order to make an effective job advertisement the following principles should be observed;

 Always provide brief but sufficient information about the position to be filled.

 Give brief but sufficient information about the employing organization.

 Provide details of all the essential personal requirements.

 Outline clearly the essential requirements of the position.

 Provide the main conditions of the position especially the salary.

 State clearly where or to whom the application should be directed.

 The advertisement should be presented in an attractive form.

JOB SELECTION

Selection is the process of offering jobs to one or more candidates from among those who
applied for the job.

It involves a series of steps which screens the candidates for choosing the most suitable person
for the vacant post

Benefits of selecting the right kind of people

• Proper selection and placement of personnel go along way towards building up a suitable
workforce. This in turn keeps the rate of absenteeism and labour turnover low.

• Competent employees will show higher efficiency and enable the organization to achieve
its objectives.

• The rate of industrial accidents will be considerably low if suitable employees are placed
on various jobs.

• When people get jobs of their choice and taste they get higher job satisfaction (contended
workforce)

• Saves the organization time, money and efforts of having recruit and select incase where
wrong selection was made.

Factors to consider when selecting employees: -

• Physical characteristics – sound body, limb, height, weight, sight etc

• Personal characteristics – age, sex, marital status, no of children, family background etc.

• Proficiency/skills and abilities – qualification and past experience.

• Competence – potentiality of an individual for learning and becoming proficient in a job.

Capacity to acquire knowledge.

• Temperament and character – emotional, moral and social qualities, loyalty etc high
intelligence can never serve as a substitute for qualities such as honesty and trustworthiness

• Interest – without interest, work is colorless and monotonous. With interest work seems
meaningful and worthwhile.

THE SELECTION PROCEDURE

The selection procedure usually varies from organisation to organisation and even from
department to department depending on the position to be filled. The number of steps in the
procedure and their sequence may also vary.

Selection procedure can involve the following process/steps.

1. Preliminary interview

Most organizations start with preliminary interview. They are used to eliminate the
obvious/unqualified candidates.

It offers advantage both to the applicant and organization as it saves time, costs and efforts of
both the applicant and the organization. Only those who are suitable are allowed to fill the
application blanks.

2. Receiving Applications

When a vacant has been advertised or enquiries are made from suitable sources, applications are
received from the candidates. This may be standard form or just ordinary application letters.

3. Evaluation of applications

The application blanks and letters and curriculum vitae are evaluated as per the individual
qualities and the vacant job. Only questions that have job relevance should be encouraged. E.g.
education, work experience and other specific job relate data.

4. Employment tests

Tests have become an integral part of the selection process. However certain conditions should
be met of tests are to be used for employee selection they include:-

• A test should be reliable – provide consistent retort

• Should be valid – measure what they are designed to measure (e.g. job performance)

• Should be objective – can be interpreted by different people in the same way

• Should be standardized

Advantages of tests
• They eliminate biasness in the selection personnel

• They can identify talents of individuals that can otherwise be overlooked.

• Reduce the cost of selection and placement as a large number of candidates can be listed
at the same place same time.

• Psychological tests can measure the aptitude of candidates and predicate their success.

• Provides health basis for comparing applicants’ background.

Classification of tests

• Intelligence tests. They judge mental capacity of the applicants.

• Aptitude tests. They measure an applicant’s capacity and potential for

• development

• Proficiency tests. This measure skills already acquired by the individual.

• Personality tests. They measure the total personality of the applicant.

• Interest tests. This reveals areas that an individual shows special concern and

involvement. This will suggest what type of job may be satisfying to employee.

5. Interviews

Interviews are the most widely used and probably the most important way of assessing the
qualification of a candidate. They are able to obtain additional information, provide information
about the firm etc.

Guidelines for effective interviews

• Plan for the interview (job specification & description)

• Create a good climate for the interview – friendly and open report with the applicant
should be established

• Allow sufficient time for uninterrupted interviews

• Conduct a goal-oriented interview – irrelevant details should be left out.

• Avoid certain types of questions leading questions or those that may imply discrimination
or embarrassing questions.

• Seek answers to all questions & check for unconsciousness.

• Record results of the interview immediately on completion.

Structured interviews

These are a series of job related questions with predetermined answers that are consistently
applied to all the candidates for a particular post/job.

Unstructured interviews

These are a series of questions asked by interview panels and which do not follow any format.

They have the following disadvantages

• Highly susceptible to distortion and bias

• Rarely job oriented

• Infringe on individual privacy

• Highly inconsistent

• The interviewee can only ask questions or look for details/qualities he/she likes and
ignore the others.

Significance of interviews in the selection process

• Since the candidate is physically present, the interviewer gets an opportunity to study
various aspects of his personality.

• Mental and social make up the candidate is manifested in the interview.

• Its cheaper and effective if properly planned

• Correct judgment of the candidate can be made

5. Reference Checking
A referee is potentially an important source of information about candidate’s abilities and
personality. Prior to final selection the prospective employer normally makes investigation on
the references supplied by the applicant.

6. Medical Examination

Physical and medical examination helps to determine if the applicant is fit for performing the
job. Contagious diseases are identified.

7. Placement on the job.

This involves making an employment offer. It involves assignment of duties and introduction of
other staff members.

STAFF TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT

Training implies the act of increasing the knowledge and skills required for efficient
performance. The major purpose of development is to improve managerial behaviour and
performance.

Staff development refers to the process of changing employee behaviour, altitudes and opinions
through some type of guided experience.

Objectives of training

 Increase knowledge and skills of worker in doing specific jobs

 To impart new skills and techniques among the workers

 To bring about change in attitude of the worker towards fellow workers, supervisors and
the organization

 To make workers handle materials, machines and equipments efficiently thus check on
wastage of time and materials.

 To reduce the number of accidents by providing safety training to workers

 To prepare workers for higher challenges

 To make workers adapt to changes in the environment quickly

TYPES OF TRAINING

1. Internal training (on the job training)

2. External training (off the job training)

Internal training programmes

They include:-

1. Orientation/induction training

Is a type of training meant to adopt workers to specific job requirements? Most organizations
have a formal orientation program for new employees who join the organization. Usually the
new employees could be put under old or senior employees.

Reasons for induction training

1. It helps to build up new employees’ confidence in the organization and himself so as to

become an efficient employee.

2. Helps to develop a feeling of belongingness and loyalty to the organization

3. Help to forge god relationship between newcomers and the old employees

4. Helps to give newcomers necessary information in the organization

5. Help to have a good impression of the organization

2. Apprenticeship

Apprentice is one of the oldest training methods. The worker is placed under a qualified senior
who he/she understudies. The worker learns by observing and assisting his senior. It is common
for trade jobs.
3. Delegation

Is a process where by the superior assigning certain responsibilities and authority to his/her
subordinates. The subordinate learns through performance of the job or duties delegated.

4. Refresher training/retraining

This helps worker to learn new ways of handling things while still line their jobs. It also assists
workers to refresh the knowledge and skill learned long time age. eg seminars, workshops etc

5. Job Rotation

In job rotation employees perform more tasks on a given schedule. The objective of job rotation
is to make workers conversant with different parts of their jobs. The worker may be assigned
duties in different departments on work observe different departmental head.

6. Membership to committees

Committees enable members to interact together, pool their experiences and ideas with an aim of
solving problem. The committee members as a result to develop some problem solving skills

7. Creation of “Assistant to” positions

A trainee is posted to a department as an assistant. He/she acquire actual managerial experience.

8. Vestibule Training

It is similar to apprenticeship. The only difference is that the line managers on the job floor itself
do not provide it. It is instead provided by special instructors outside/away from the job floor.

It has the following advantages: -

 Can be imported to a large number of people without affecting work at the work floor

 Relieve off the superior the responsibility of training

 Instructors are specialists and devotes full attention to training

 The trainees concentrate better as it’s away of self development.

Disadvantages of vestibule training.

 It is imported a place away from the shop floor so that trainees do not experience the
problems arising from actual work situation.

 In the case of deficient performance by a worker, the line supervisor may blame the
instructors and the instructor may blame the supervisor for ineffective supervision.

 It is costly because machines and equipments for training have to bought separately.

External training programmes

They include: -

1. Training institutions

Specialized institutions offer training specific field e.g. colleges, universities, polytechnics

2. Lectures, Conferences and seminars

These may be used to impart knowledge and develop analytical skills

3. Case study

Workers evaluate and analyze a real life situation suggesting alternative solution to prevailing
problems. Such analysis is used in solving problems at hand.

4. Brainstorming sessions

This consists of evaluating of ideas put forward by a group of people convened for that particular
purpose.

It encourage creative thinking among participants.

Members look forward brainstorming session as they enable them to talk freely.

Their deliberations are oriented to problem solving.

5. Role Play

It’s a training method under which participants assume certain role and enact them in a
classroom situation. The others act as observers and critics.

It enables participants to broaden their experience by trying various approaches to a problem

situation.

BENEFITS OF TRAINING TO THE EMPLOYER.

1. Less supervision – Adequately trained employees will need less supervision as they are
self reliant in work performance.

2. Economical operations.- well trained employees will use the organizational resources
prudently as there will be less wastage of materials and low rates of accidents.

3. High moral – training help to improve job satisfaction and morale of workers. Their
attitude toward the organization will also change positively.

4. Uniformity – training enhances uniformity of procedures as the best method of

performance can be standardized and taught to all employees.

5. High productivity – when skills of the employees are increased the performance of the
employee is enhanced in term of quality and quantity.

6. Manpower development – training enables the organization to have a study supply of

competent people to fulfill the organization’s human resource need.

7. Less learning period – training helps to reduce the learning time to reach acceptable level
of performance

BENEFITS OF TRAINING TO THE INDIVIDUAL

• Training creates a feeling of confidence in the mind of the workers.

• Training enable an individual acquire new skill which are an asset for the individual

• Trainings provides opportunities for quick promotion and self development

• Trained individuals are likely to earn more

• Trained individuals handle machines safely and are less prone to accidents

• Training and develops adaptability among workers.

JOB DESIGN

People spend a great deal of their time on job. This is the process of deciding the content of a job
in terms of its duties and responsibilities, work methods and on the relationship that should exist
between the jobholder and his superiors and subordinates.

WAGES AND SALARY ADMINISTRATION

This section is concerned with the dues paid as compensation for work performed.

Policies with regard towages and salary administration should be a vital component of the
personnel policy of the organization since it will enable the organization to attract capable and
competent individuals and also retain them in the organization.

A good personnel compensation policy should cover the following elements

- Level of adequacy of payment

- Equity in wage payment

- Recognition of efficiency

- Incentive payment

Compensation may take different forms:

 Wages. These are compensations paid to workers for task performed over a short
duration.

 Salaries. This is labour compensation paid out once a month

Factors determining labour compensation

 Cost of living
 Wages parity/market rates

 Employer paying capacity

 Degree of unionization

 Performance efficiency of the employee

 Government regulation

 Availability of worker for the particular job

METHODS OF LABOUR COMPENSATION

1. Time Rate

This refers to fixed compensation for a particular period of time e.g. week, a day or month or
even hours. This method has the advantage of:-

- Wages can be calculated easily

- Employee is assured of pay at the end of the period.

- It eliminates the need for measure performance

- Suitable for jobs that cannot be divided into smaller units.

2. Piece Rate

This refers to a fixed compensation per unit of output

This method motivates efficient workers and reduces the level of supervision in the organization

3. Commission Rate

This refers to compensation based on the % of sales made. It’s more common in insurance and
travel agency businesses.

4. Bonus Rates

This refers to labour compensation whereby one work on time rate but any extra production or
overtime worked, a higher rate is paid.

STAFF WELFARE & BENEFITS

This refers to any service or amenities provided to the employee. This includes:

 Transport services to and from work

 Staff housing plan

 Staff canteen/ rest places.

 Incentive tours

 Staff get-together/ parties.

 Credit plan e.t.c.

Staff welfare services serves to ensure that employees are as comfortable as possible at the work
place.

COLLECTIVE BARGAINING

It is essentially about reaching compromises in the face of conflicting interests, whereas

participation, is about reaching optimum decisions on matters of common interest. Collective
bargaining is carried out by employers and trade unions.

Collective bargaining can be used to be a private process of negotiation between union and
management aimed at settling disputes before they turn into conflict and industrial lobour unrest.

Negotiations here are supposed to submit disputes to mediation or arbitration.

Mediation is an attempt to settle disputes through a neutral third party. The mediator may be a
professional acceptable by both the union and the management.

Arbitration is the process by which a grievance or dispute is dissolved by an important third

party.

Arbitration takes two types:

• Conciliators – where both the management and the union agree to call for 3rd party.

• Compulsory – where the law provides for a 3rd party to interview.

Types of collective bargaining relationship

One of the important factors that determine the relationship between the union and management
is the attitude of management towards unions.
i. Conflict

ii. Power bargaining

iii. Armed truce

iv. Cooperation

v. Collusion

vi. Accommodation

Conflict

Under this, strategic management takes totally uncompromising views attitude, the management
adopts the old western movie phase the only good union is “a dead one”.

Armed truce

The management representative take the position thus the vital interest of the company and the
union is poles away and will always be so.

However the management realizes that the union is not likely to disappear and so will not force a
head on collision.

Power bargaining

The management realizes also the power of the union, the management tasks is to impose its
power and then use their power where possible to offset the power of the union.

Accommodation

Accommodation involves learning to adjust to each other and attempting to minimize conflicts to
conciliate.

This strategy in no way suggests that management goes out of its way to help organize labour.

Cooperation

It involves full acceptance of the union and an active partner in a formal plan is a relatively rare
occurrence in cooperation, management supports not only the right but the desirability of union
participation in decision making.

Collusion
This is a form of mutual service monopoly and is unconcerned with interest except under the
collusion strategies where the union and management engage in industrial price fixing designed
to inflate wages at the expanse of the general public.

The process of collective bargaining

The process of collective bargaining contains a number of stages however, over time each union
and management develop slight modification that are necessary for effective bargaining to occur.

Preparation

Both labour and management representative spend extensive time preparing negotiation to
follow. Data on wages, working conditions, management and union rights, benefits, productivity
and absenteeism is gathered and analysed. Each party outline its priorities and tactics to use to
get what they want.

Initial demands

These are expectations of either party presented during negotiation.

Continuing negotiations

Each party attempts to determine what this other party (side) values highly and to reach the best
bargaining possible.

Bargaining impasses

Labour and management do not reach an agreement always on all issues. In such case dead lock
cases may result on strikes by the union or lock out by management.

Settlement and contract

After initial agreement on the issue being negotiated the two parties usually return to their
constituencies to determine if what they have generally agreed on is acceptable.

The crucial stage thereafter, negotiation is ratification or getting a vote of acceptance.

After ratification of the agreement then the agreement is formalized with a contract.

INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS
This describes the formal relationship between employers and trade unions or other groupings of
employees together with the institutional arrangement which arise from these relationships.

Industrial relations attempts to bridge the gap between management goals/employers goals and
the goals of the employees.

Objectives of industrial relations

• To safeguard interests of labour and management by securing understanding

• To avoid industrial conflicts and develop harmonious relationships

• To raise productivity

• To establish and nurse growth of industrial democracy

• To eliminate possible strikes

• To establish government control over such plants which operate at losses

Significance of Industrial Relations

• Smooth industrial relations help secure economic progress

• It helps establish and maintain true democracy

• Results in collective bargaining

• It helps the government in framing laws

• Results in less number of disputes in the organization

• Promote orderliness

PARTIES INVOLVED IN INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS

In industrial relations three parties are involved,. The workers represented by trade unions, the
employers represented by employee associations or management and the government as the
arbitrator.

The agreement reached by the three parties is usually referred to as a triplet agreement.

Employers Associations
They represent the interests of the employers e.g. Association of Kenya Manufacturers,
Federation of Kenya Employers (KFE)

Function Employers Associations

1) Represent employers in collective bargaining

2) Develop machinery for avoiding industrial disputes

3) They provide information and advice on employee’s affairs.

4) Represents employers on national issues.

Trade Unions

This refers to an association of workers whose major aim is to protect and promote the interests
of members, through collective bargaining with the management/employers and sometimes in
presence of the government.

Functions of trade unions

• They demand for higher wages for their members

• They demand for better working conditions for members

• Protect members against unfair dismissal and victimization

• They educate the workers on their rights

• They serve the interaction function with other trade unions in the field which improves
their bargaining power

• Serves the political function i.e. can be used as stepping stone to ones political ambitions.

Types of Trade Unions

• Company unions – comprises employees of only one organization

• Craft unions – covers workers with a particular skill irrespective of the organization.

• Professional unions – caters for people in the same profession e.g. doctors./teacher,
lawyers etc

• General union – cater for workers from various fields occupations and organizations e.g.
C.O.T.U.
Factors that have slowed down union growth

• Political dominance and influence

• Existence of about surplus

• Lack of sufficient funds to run union offices incase of strike

• Multiplicity of trade reduces their bargaining power.

• Legal restriction which makes it difficult to organize strikes

• Hostile attitude of the employers whereby they don’t want to hear anything about trade
unions

• Lack of good organization due to poor leadership

• Poor policies inherited from colonial government

• Lack of awareness on the part of the employee.

ACHIEVEMENTS OF TRADE UNION

• They have fought for revision of minimum wages and better working conditions.

• They have successfully challenged management power to dismiss employees

• They have provided to their members security and protection from management.

• Have been able to train their workers on labour

Union Membership

a) Closed shop – it arrangement whereby organization only employ workers afflicted to

unions.

b) Union shop – is whereby a compromise is made between the unions and employer in the
employer can hire can hire anyone whether union member or not provided he/she joins the union
at a particular time
c) Preferential union shop- here an agreement is made between the worker union and
employer first to hire union members before considering other job applicant. Incase of layoff,
members are laid of last.

Advantages of trade unions

1. They help to negotiate with the management instead of the whole labour force on behalf
of the workers.

2. The play a vital role in determining wages of the workers.

3. They help employees to have job satisfaction.

4. They help to maintain uniform wages throughout the industry.

5. They have a professional approach in handling disputes between workers and

management.

6. They are of help to management because they help in avoiding unnecessary disruption of
workers and settle disputes.

Disadvantages of trade unions.

1. Some unions have been too powerful for the members thus they are specialized to huge
salaries which their employers may not be able to offer.

2. The union uses workers in order to achieve some selfish goals and this results in some
optimal operations.

3. The unions have known to cause workers to support their opinions and therefore call for
strikes not for the workers grieves but because of the policy of the union.

4. The union tend to encourage inefficiency especially when they negotiate for higher wages
and other benefits in comparison to the input of the workers.

CENTRAL ORGANISATION OF TRADE UNIONS (COTU)

It was established in 1966 as a result of the ministerial committee set up to communicate/

investigate the activities of trade unions. It was also as a result of the strike in the year 1963 by
the Kenya distributing workers union.

COTU is headed by a secretary general.

OBJECTIVES OF COTU

a) To improve economic and social conditions of all the workers in all parts of Kenya and to
render to the assistant whether or not such members are employed or all ceased to be employed.

b) Assist in the complete organization of workers in all Trade unions movements in Kenya.

c) Organize the structure and spheres of influence among nations of trade unions officiated
with COTU.

d) Assist in settling disputes between members of the trade unions and the employers or
between the trade unions and their or between two or more trade unions.

FUNCTIONS OF INDUSTRIAL COURTS

 Promotion of harmonious industrial relations in the country.

 To ensure compliance with labour laws, international labour standards and codes of
practice as well as review of labour standards and domestication of international conventions
and recommendations.

 Promotion of best practices of occupational safety and health in all workplaces.

 To plan, development and promotion of effective utilization of human resources.

 Judicial determination of trade disputes and judicial and registration of collective

bargaining agreements (CBAs)

 Facilitation of the development of micro and small enterprises.

 Provision of labour market information.

 To ensure availability of skilled manpower for the industry.

 Promotion of productivity improvement.-Provision of social security through National

Social Security Fund (NSSF)

PERSONNEL RECORDS
The personnel department keeps records which are necessary to help the top management in the
formulation of appropriate personnel policies and procedures.

The records need to be:

• Accurate

• Relevant

• Comprehensive

• Simple

• Accessible

The data collected by the department helps in finding solutions for personnel problems such as
absenteeism, labour turn over etc.

Information provided include: -

• Personal data

• Position and experience

• Salary scale

• Medical background

• Record of absenteeism

• disciplinary letters

• Promotion letters

• Labour turnover

• Industrial accidents

• industrial disputes

• Wages

Usually individuals have individual files in which information that relates to a particular person
is kept.
USES OF PERSONNEL RECORDS

• It helps in promotion and transfer of employees

• Its necessary for salary and other computation of other benefits

• Indicates when individuals leave is due

• Help in formulating inventive plans and other strategies to correct personnel problems

• Serves as evidence and references in court of law

• Serves as reference when handling staff disputes especially in collective bargaining

• It is a legal requirement that organization keep records.

LABOUR TURNOVER

This refers to the number of employees that leave the organization within a specified period. It’s
expressed as a percentage

For example. No of leaver x 100

No of employees

CAUSES OF LABOUR TURNOVER

Causes can be internal or external

Internal causes of labour turnover. e.g.

• Low wages

• Unsuitable work or working conditions

• Inability to perform

• Breach of discipline

External causes of labour turnover. e.g.

• Lack of transport
• Retirement age

• Natural attrition

• Health reasons

EVALUATION

i. Explain the benefits of recruiting the right people in an organization

ii. Outline the principles of job advertisement.

iii. Describe the selection procedure.

iv. Explain the Reasons why organizations conduct induction training

v. Outline reasons why trade unions in developing countries have not been successful.

TOPIC: DIRECTING

Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:

a) explain the meaning of leading/directing function

b) describe the various leadership styles

c) explain various motivation theories

d) explain the importance of coordination in management

e) explain the importance of communication and supervision in management

DIRECTING

Directing literary implies moving into action. When any administrative decision is taken, it must
be converted into action by proper implementation otherwise it is of use.

DEFINITION OF DIRECTING

It is the function of management that involves instructing, guiding and inspiring human factor in
the organization to achieve organizational goals.

It covers the following elements

• Communication/ supervision

• Leadership

• Motivation

• Coordination

PROCESS OF DIRECTION

The process of directing should include the following steps:

1. Determine what is to be done.

2. Issue specific orders and precise instructions.

3. Provide guidance and supervisions.

4. Motivate the subordinates.

5. Maintain constant communication with subordinates.

6. Maintain discipline and reward those who perform efficiently.

7. Provide effective leadership to the subordinates so that they work with zeal.

PRINCIPLES OF DIRECTING

1. Effective leadership¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬¬-focused and supportive.

2. Direct supervision – personal contact with subordinate.

3. Unity of command-an employee should receive directions from only one superior.

4. Harmony of objectives – between individuals & group objectives.

5. Strategic use of informal organization.

6. Principle of follow through.

7. Managerial communication – two-way communication.

MOTIVATION

This is an act of stimulating someone or oneself to get a desired course of action. It is that inner
state of mind that channels workers behavior and energy towards the attainment of desired goals.

Factors Affecting or Determining Motivation

 The Nature of the job: - A job that is challenging and good enough will motivate an
individual and use versa.

 The Work environment: - When the work environment is conducive, worker will be
motivated e.g. a spacious office will motivate an employee.

 Participation in planning: - When employees are given an opportunity to participate in

planning & implementation the highly motivated.

 Better reward system: - When the employees are well compensated they become more
motivated.
 Security: - When employees are provided with security at work and have security of
tenure, they are highly motivated.

 Recognition by management: - When the management recognizes the efforts of the

workers, they will be highly motivated.

 Trust and loyalty: - When there is trust and loyally between the subordinates & the
management motivation becomes high in the organization.

 Room for advancement. : - career growth and development.

 Delegation of authority: - transfer of authority from upper to lower level.

 Good management practices.

Importance of Motivation

• Through motivation high performance in the organization can be realized.

• Motivation enhances willingness of people to work thus minimizes conflicts and

resistance to change.

• Sound motivation minimizes chances of absenteeism and labour turnover.

• Increases motivation reduces the need of close supervision which may be expensive to
the organization

• Effective motivation leads to cordial relationship between workers and management, as

there is increased job satisfaction.

• Good motivation may lead to improvement of skills of individuals within the

organization.

Methods of Motivating employees

A motive is a need or driving force within a person. The management can motivate their
employees through:

 Fair remuneration – Fair & reasonable reward for the services rendered.

 Incentives – Bonuses, pension scheme & profit sharing opportunities.

 Security of tenure – Assure continues employment

 Good working conditions- working hours, medical, etc.

 Recognition

 Participation- In decision making

 Communication – Adequate upward & downward

 Safety programmes – Compensation / hospital expenses

 Health programmes – protection against health hazards

 Education & development programmes.

Features of a Sound Motivation Programmes

 It should be productive – Must result into positive increase of productivity of labour.

 Must be competitive – The costs of the motivation system /programme must be justified
in its benefits.

 Should be comprehensive. It should provide for both physiological and psychological

need and cover all employees at all levels.

 Should be flexible – It should be capable of being adjusted easily in case of changes in

the environment and knowledge.

• It should be acceptable to the employees.

• It’s a psychological concept i.e. its concerned with intrinsic forces operating within an
individual which compels him to act in a particular way. A motive is a personal and individual
feeling.

• It is dynamic and continuous process i.e. it deals with human beings which are error
changing and modifying themselves every moment with their needs being unlimited.

• Motivation is a complex and difficult function. In order to motivate people a manager

needs to understand and satisfy a multiplicity of human needs, but needs are mental feelings
which cannot be described and measured accurately. They are vague and have to be deduced
from external behavior of needs. Moreover needs are basically subjective.

• It is a circular process- feeling of unsatisfied needs causes tension and an individual takes
action to reduce these tension.
When the needs are satisfied, tension is removed and the person feels inspired to work in a
particular direction. This in turn leads to revaluation of the situation and thebirth of the new ideas
or needs.

• Motivation is different from satisfaction- motivation is the process of stimulating an

individual or a group to take a desired action. Satisfaction implies contentment arising from the
satisfaction of the need. Motivation is the drive towards an outcome whereas satisfaction refers
to the outcome experienced by person.

MOTIVATION PROCESS

A person feels motivated when the available incentive lead to satisfaction of his needs. The
following are steps in motivation process

1. Awareness of needs

When a person realizes a need or motive that is not satisfied, it creates tension in his minds. Thus
motivation process starts with awareness of a need.

2. Search for action

The person looks for suitable action to relieve his tension and satisfy his needs.

He thus develops certain goals and attempt to fulfill them.

3. Fulfillment of needs

The suitable action is undertaken and therefore the need is satisfied or fulfilled.

4. New need arises.

Once the need has been satisfied, another need begins to dominate the mind.

THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

Motivation theories are divided into three main categories:-

1) Content theory

2) Process theory
Content theory

These theories attempt to explain the specific things that actually motivate an individual at work.
They are concerned mainly with identifying people’s needs, their relative strength and the goal
people pursue in order to satisfy their needs.

These theories include: -

1) Abraham Man slow’s hierarchy of needs.

2) Harzbergs two factor theory.

3) Alderfers modified need hierarchy ERG (Existence need, Related need and Growth
need)

4) Mc Cleland achievement motivation

Process Theories

These theories concern themselves with identification of dynamic variables that makes up
motivation. Mainly process theories focus on how behavior is initiated, directed and sustained.
These theories include:-

1) Expectancy based model of Vroom .

2) Lawler’s and Porter equity theory.

CONTENT THEORIES

ABRAHAM MASLOW NEED HERARCHY OF NEEDS THEORY

Maslow developed a theory of motivation on the basis of human needs. The main arguments of
Maslow’s theory are:

1. Man is a perpetually wanting animal and his needs are never fully satisfied. The moment
a need is satisfied another one starts to dominate the minds of an individual.

2. Human needs differ in importance and therefore can be arranged in a hierarchy.

3. An individual need in the hierarchy emerge only when the lower level needs are
reasonably well satisfied.
4. Satisfied needs to not motivate behaviour.

5. Lower order needs are more fifth then higher level needs

Maslow’s studies into human motivation led him to propose a theory of needs based on a
hierarchical model with basic needs at the bottom and higher needs at the top.

Self actualization

Esteem needs

Love needs

Safety & security needs

Physiological needs

These needs are as follows:-

1. Psychological needs

These are the needs for food, drink, water, sleep, clothing and shelter. These are for the survival
of human life. They are the most basic fundamental needs and must be satisfied by all other
needs.

A man live by bread alone where there is bread, personal satisfaction of these needs is essential
for the presentation and efficient operation of human body.

An organization can help individuals satisfy their needs by providing good pay, proper working
conditions and other benefits.
Characteristics of physiological needs

 They are relatively independent of each other.

 They can be indentified with specific location of the body.

 To remain satisfied, they must be met repeatedly within a short time.

 Unless these needs are satisfied to the degree necessary to sustain life other needs will not
motivate people.

2. Safety /security needs

This is the need for stale environment relatively free from accident, fire, murder, threats e.t.c. it
also touches an aspects of economic security, unemployment, theft, sickness and disability. An
organization can influence safety needs either positively by providing (job security, pension
plans, insurance plans, safety and healthy working conditions).or negatively by growing fear of
being fired or laid off through management action.

3. Love needs/ social needs

Man is a social being; therefore he has the needs of belonging and be accepted by others. Social
needs includes need for love and affection, association and acceptance by various social groups
an organization can help achieve social needs through group decision making, team building
activities, engagement in corporate social responsibility and sporting activities.

4. Esteem needs

These are needs for self fulfillment, self confidence, feeling of personal worth and independence,
esteem for others i.e. recognition, status, power, prestige achievement e.t.c.

An organization can help to satisfy such needs through job titles, praises, promotion,
performance appraisal, provision of spacious offices and prestigious packages given to
employees.

5. Self-actualization needs

These needs according to maslow emerge after all other needs have been satisfied. Self
actualization need needs include the realization of one’s potentialities, self fulfillment, self
development andf creativeness. This refers to the needs for becoming what one is capable of
becoming and for accomplishing more and more.

The form these needs take varies from person to person just as human personalities vary.

Self actualization can be satisfied through any of these ways, athletics, politics, academics,
family, religion, hobbies or business.

The most and central point of Maslow’s theory is that people tent to satisfy their needs
systematically starting with the basic physiological needs & then moving up the hierarchy until a
particular group of needs is satisfied, a persons behavior will be dominated by them. Thus a
hungry person is not going to be motivated by consideration of safety or affection, until after his
hunger as been satisfied.

Maslow’s later modified this argument by stating that there was an exception to the rule in
respect of self actualization need. For this group of needs, it seems that satisfaction of need gives
rise to further needs for realizing one’s potential.

MC GREGOR’S THEORY X AND Y

Mc Gregor has classified the basic assumptions about human nature into two parts.

Theory X and theory Y.

THEORY X

This is based on the assumption that people don’t want to work and are forced to work. It
assumes that:

1. The average human being has an inherent dislike of work and will avoid it if he can
(lazy)

2. He lacks ambition, dislike responsibilities and prefers to be led-incapable of directing his

own behaviour & is not interested in achievement (lack creativity)

3. People are inherently self-centered and are indifferently to organizational needs.

4. People are naturally/ by nature resistant to change thus have a conservative nature.
5. People are not by nature very bright and are prove to be influenced by others.

6. Motivation only occurs at physiological and safety levels.

THEORY Y

Under this theory people love work and enjoy it .The theory assumes:

1. Work is as natural as play or rest provided the conditions are favorable.

2. The average human being love work provided it’s meaningful and can be a source of
satisfaction.

3. Commitment to objectives of an organization is a result of the rewards associated with

the achievements.

4. The average human being is dynamic and adopts to change when is brought in a logical
manner.

5. The average human being love responsibility.

6. People are creative and self-directed.

Management under theory X

• They should be directly supervised and controlled

• They should receive specific instructions, written where possible

• They should be given deadlines

• There should be close communication between the management and employees

• They should not participate in decision making at any level.

Management under theory Y

• People should be involved in decision making

• Delegate work to them

• They do not need to be coerced.

• No close supervision is needed

• Recognize their contribution and reward them appropriately

HERZBERRG’S TWO-FACTOR THEORY

(Motivation hygiene theory)

Hertzberg collected data on job attitudes through interviewing engineers and accountants.

He concluded that there are two categories of needs that are independent of each other and affect
behaviour in different ways.

When people feel dissatisfied with their job they were concerned by the environment in which
they job, this had to do with the job itself.

1. Hygiene / dissatisfiers

They tent to being job dissatisfaction. Their removal or making them favourable does not
motivate work or improve production but only reduce dissatisfaction.

They include:

• Supervision

• Administrative polices

• Working conditions

• Interpersonal relationships with supervisors

• Job security Status

• Money /Salary

2. Motivation/Satisfies

These are factors, which improve on motivation of individuals. They build strong motivation.
There absence does not cause dissatisfaction but bring about a condition of not satisfied.

They include: -
• Recognition for accomplishment

• Feeling of achievement

• Promotion

• Challenging work

• Increased Responsibility

• Opportunity for growth

Motivators are job centered, inherent to the job while hygienes are extrinsic. The theory
highlights that the most effective technique of intrinsic motivation in job enrichment.

The theory also points out that the opposite of job satisfaction is not job dissatisfaction but no job
satisfaction. Likewise the opposite of job dissatisfaction is not job satisfaction but job
dissatisfaction.

ALDERFERS MODIFIED NEED HIERARCHY (ERG,Exsistenceneed, Related need, and

Growth need.)

Alderfers condenses Maslow’s five levels of needs into three levels based on the core needs of
existence, relatedness, and growth.

Existence needs are concerned with sustaining human existence and survival and cover
Maslow’s physiological and safety needs. They include all the various forms of material desires
such as food, water, pay and good working conditions.

Relatedness needs are concerned with relationships to the social environment and cover love,
belonging, affiliation, and meaningful interpersonal relationships of a safety or esteem nature.

Growth needs are concerned with the development of potential and cover esteem and self
actualization.
MC CLELLAND ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION

He said that human beings have three basic needs (motivational) power, affiliation and
achievement.

Power is shown in strong desire to alter the course of events.

Affiliation is need for friendship, love, and group approval.

Achievement is shown by desire to succeed not to fail.

He found out that scientists, business men and professionals have above average desire for
achievement motivation. He suggested that a person with high achievement motivation possesses
certain characteristics.

 He prefers tasks in which he can take personal responsibility for the outcome.

 He sets moderate goals and takes calculated risks.

 Wants precise feedback concerning his successes or failures.

PROCESS THEORIES

EXPECTANCY THEORY

V room models

Victor H Vroom holds that people will be motivated to do things to reach a goal if they believe
in the worth of that goal and if they see that what they do will help them in achieving it.

Vroom theory is that people motivation towards doing anything will be determined by the
value they place on the out come of their effort (whether positive or negative) multiplied by the
confidence they have that their effort will materially aid in achieving a goal.

In other words Vroom make the point that motivation is the product of anticipated worth
that an individual place on a goal and the chance that he or she sees of achieving that goal.
.

Porter and Lawler model

Their model is based on assumption that rewards cause satisfaction and that sometimes
performance produce rewards.

They made the hypothesis that satisfaction and performance are linked by rewards. They see
good performance leading to rewards which are either be intrinsic or extrinsic. Intrinsic rewards
are given to the individual by himself for good performance and they include: - feeling of
accomplishment and satisfaction of higher level needs.

Extrinsic rewards are given by the organization and they include pay, promotion, job security,
good working condition etc.

MOTIVATING FACTORS

1. Participation in planning

When employees are given a choice to plan their own work and contribute in organizational
planning, the plans, are more acceptable to them.

2. Challenging work

When work is not challenging, boredom sets in and this is likely to cause laziness and
dissatisfactions at the place of work

3. Recognition of status

Most people want approval by peers, friends or supervisors. Benefits that show status may
increase motivation.

4. Authority, responsibility and power

Some people are motivated greatly by being responsible for the work of others. Many people
stay in the organization with the hope of rising to upper levels

5. Independence to action

Being allowed to work without close supervision motivates a person.

6. Security

This includes financial and non financial incentives that are given to the employee will be
motivating
7. Advacement

People are motivated by upward mobility in their job

8. Personal growth

People want to grow wholesomely both in aspects related to the job of those outside the job

MORALE

This is a term used to describe the overall climate prevailing among workers. Its an attitude of a
satisfaction with desire to continue in willingness to strive for goals for a particular enterprise.

Lack of morale can result in:-

 Increased cases of Absenteeism

 Antagonism towards rules and supervision

 Excessive complains & grievances

 High labour turnover

 Friction between employees and the management or the employer

 Lateness at work

 Increased accidents at work

 Alcoholism as a result of frustration

LEADERSHIP

According to Chester Barnard, leadership is the ability of a supervisor or manager to influence

the behavior of his subordinates and persuade them to follow a particular course of action.

IMPORTANCE OF LEADERSHIP

1. Efficient leadership motivates the members of staff.

2. Efficient leadership helps in directly group activities.

3. Leadership helps to reduce resistance and conflicts in the organization.

4. Good leadership assists in bringing change and increase interpersonal communication.

5. Leadership ensures cohesiveness among group members.

6. Leadership helps to develop talents of individuals.

7. Good leadership enables optimal utilization of the organizational personnel.

THREORIES OF LEADERSHIP

1. Trait theory

According to this theory leadership behaviour is the sum total of the traits that an individual
posses. A successful leader must therefore posses certain tracts or qualities.

These qualities include:-

• Intelligence.

• Initiative and creativity.

• Open mind

• Self confidence

• Vision and foresight

• Maturity

• Sense of responsibility

• Physical fitness

2. Situational theory

According to this theory, leadership is a function of the situation in which the leader works &
emerges. It argues that a leader may be successful in one situation and fail in another.

3. Behavioural theory

According to this theory, leadership is a function of effective role behaviour. A leader should
posses’ favourable leader behaviour to inspire and guide subordinates.

LEADERSHIP STYLES

1. Autocratic / Authoritarian Leadership

This is whereby power is highly centralized. The subordinates are not allowed to make or
participate in decision-making.

An acrobatic leader demands complete loyally and unquestionable obedience from the
subordinates.

Advantages of Autocratic Leadership

 Tasks are accomplished on time.

 Decision-making is not delayed.

 Communication is fast

Disadvantages of Autocratic Leadership

• There is social distance between the leader & the being led.

• May lead to high labour turnover because of job insecurity.

• Members lack commitment to organization goals.

• The work may not be effectively done in the obscene of the leader.

• Workers initiative is suppressed.

2. Democratic /Participative Leadership

This is a subordinate centered leadership whereby the leader involves the total participation of
the subordinates in decision-making process. He leads by consent of the group rather than by use
of authority.

Advantages of Democratic Leadership

• Effective consultation between the leader & subordinates.

• Effective delegation since then is trust confidence between sub & the leader.

• There is openness & Friendliness.

• High motivation within workers leading to cooperation.

• High productivity & quality of work.

• New ideas & change are welcome.

• Open communication.

Disadvantages of Democratic Leadership

• Decision-making is time consuming since a lot of consultation is required.

• The job may not be perfectly done, as the leader may not be able to oversee directly.

• Concept may develop due to familiarity.

• Some workers may take advantage of the freedom and trust given to them.

• May allow for even unfair critism by the workers

• Over delegation may lower the quality of work

3. Pseudo Democratic or Manipulative Leadership

This leader makes his desires known & then appoints a committee to deliberate but primarily to
approve his proposal.

Group members go through the nation of cooperative action but to no avail since the decisions
have been reached before hard.

The leader may be very successfully being tolerated when he rewards those who support him.

4. Bureaucratic Leadership

The leader depends upon the rules and regulations developed by him. The rules specify the
functions and duties of every member of the organization. The leaderships therefore reduced to a
routine job. There is limited scope pr initiative and subordinates like to play. The leader is
centered leading to total inefficiency.

5. Laissez faire/ free rein Leadership.

Under this type of leadership, the leader leaves it to subordinates to decide and controls
themselves believing that they are competent and motivated. He does not lead and avoids using
power.

He leaves the group to itself. He rarely acts or takes a consultancy position of the group without
any influence of authority.

He does not interfere in the activities of his subordinates. He believes that people will perform
better if they are left free to make and enforce their own decisions. Such a leader may be
successful where the subordinates are highly competent and fully dedicated to the organization.
6. Charismatic Leadership

This is where the leader has total loyalty and support of the subordinates. It may be as a result of
special qualities that he/ she posses and as such the followers strongly believe in his/her ideas. A
Charismatic leader posses natural, inborn unique traits and attributes that distinguishes him/her
from other leaders. He may be kind, forceful, persevering, sincere, humble, etc.

LEADERSHIP STYLE ACCORDING TO LICKERT

Likert has classified leadership styles into four types. They include:

1. Exploitative / Authoritative

This is a system that is highly autocratic. It has very little trust in subordinates. People are
motivated through fear and punishment with occasional rewards. Communication is downward
and decision-making is limited to the top.

2. Benevolent Authoritative

The manager has patronized confidence in the subordinates and motivates with some rewards
some fear and punishment. The manager permits some upward communication and solicits some
ideas and opinions and also allows some delegation of decision making but with close policy
control.

3. Consultative Leadership

The manager has substantial but not complete trust and confidence in subordinates. He tries to
use subordinates ideas and opinions and he use rewards for motivation with occasional
punishment. Upward & downward communication is allowed and the general policy is made at
the top, but specific decisions are made at lower levels.

4. Participative Leadership

The leaders have complete trust and confidence in subordinates. He gets ideas and opinions from
the subordinates. Rewards are given on the basis of group participation. Subordinates engage in
communication and also in decision making throughout the organization.
Factors affecting effectiveness of leadership/ choice of leadership style:

1. Factors related to the manager

• Self knowledge and experience

• Managers personality

• Academic and professional background

• Personal capacity

• Managers values

• Managers goals and aspirations

2. Factors related to subordinates

• Attitude towards authority

• Their work ethics

• Maturity level of subordinates i.e. task related maturity and not age

• Employment value system

• Workers experience and skill level

• Employees academic and professional background

• Employees expectations

• Employees need for independence

• Employees loyalty to the organization

3. Factors related to the situation

• Size of work groups

• Task structure

• Objective of the organization

• Leadership styles of the managers/ suppliers

• Leader subordinate relationship

• Whether or not the company has a trade union

• Impact of technology

COMMUNICATION.

Communication is commonly defined as the process by which a person (sender) transmits

information (message) to another (receiver).it’s the transfer of information, ideas, understanding
or feelings between people.

An organization must keep in touch with its environment e.g. customers, suppliers the
government dealers etc.

The purpose of communication in an enterprise is to effect change i.e. to influence action

towards the welfare of an enterprise. Communication is essential for the internal function of the
enterprise, because it integrate the managerial functions.

Communication is especially need to:-

1) Establish and disseminate the goal of an enterprise.

2) Develop plans for achievement of an organization goal.

3) Organize human and other resource in the most effective and efficient way.

4) Select, develop and apprise members of the organization.

5) Lead, direct, motivate and create a climate in which people want to contribute.

6) Control performance.

Communication process

The process traces the movement of information from the sender to the receiver. The process has
the following elements of steps:-

1) Sender – This is anyone who wants to communicate something to someone else. The
sender has a thought or an idea which must be put into a language understood by the receiver and
the sender (encoding).

2) Message – This is the information the sender wants to communicate.

3) Channel / media- This is the link between the sender and the receiver of the message. It
refers to the model of transmission of the message e.g. a letter, telephone, television, a computer,
gestures etc

4) Receiver – This is the person the sender wants to react with the message. Once the
receiver gets the message he/ she must decode it. This is the process by which the message and
attaches meaning to it.

5) Feedback -The action taken by the message receiver once the message has been
conveyed. Its only trough feedback that the sender can know the process was successful

Communication process is represented diagrammatically as follows

NOISE HINDERING COMMUNICATION

Unfortunately communication is affected by noise which is anything / whether in the sender, the
transmission that hinders communication, for example:-

1) A noise or a confined environment may hinder the development of a clear thought.

2) Encoding may be faulty because of the use of ambiguous symbols.

3) Transmission may be interrupted by static in the channel, such as may be experienced in

poor telephone connection.

4) Inaccurate reception may be caused by in attention.

5) Decoding may be faulty because the wrong meaning may be attached to the words and
other symbols.

The process of communication is affected by many situational and organizational factors. Factors
in the external environment may be; Educational, sociological factors, legal factors, political
factors, economic factors etc.

Communication is also affected by internal factors such as structure of the organization,

managerial styles changes in technology etc.

TYPES OF COMMUNICATION

Communication in an organization is either internal or external. In an effective organization,

communication flows in various directions i.e. down word, up word or crosswise. This various
types of communication in an organization may include:-

1) Types of communication according to flow of direction

1. Vertical up word communication

In this type of communication, the information flows from the lower levels (subordinates) to the
higher levels (superiors) trough the chain of command.
2. Vertical down words communication

In type of communication, information flows from the higher levels (superiors) to the lower level
(subordinates). This type of communication exist especially in organization with an authoritarian
atmosphere

3. Direct horizontal communication

This involves an individual from one department communicating to another person in another
department at the same level

4. Indirect communication

This communication occurs between people of different organizational levels of different

department

2) Type of communication on the basis of relationship between the parties in the organization

a) Formal communication

This type of communication follows the course laid down in the organization structure of the
enterprises. Members of the enterprise are supposed to communicate with each other strictly as
per channels laid down in the structure.

b) Information communication

In this type of communication the transmission of information is not through any structure or any
pattern of relationship provided in the organization. This type of communication is through the
grapevine where there is no approval of the management.
Types of communication on the basis of the method used

a) Written communication

This is the form of a letter, memos, manuals, or minutes. In a formal organization such as a
business enterprise, written communication is the most important media for conveying ideas,
information etc.

b) Oral/ verbal communication

This provides immediate feedback and unclear issues can be clarified immediately. It gives
communication a personal and intimate touch. Verbal communication can be in the following
forms:-

• Face to face contact.

• Interviews.

• Joint consultations.

• Public communication which may be used to announce a policy decision of workers.

• Broadcasts which relates to statement from the management to the staff generally or to
certain section of it also relates to public announcement and communication address to
shareholders.

c) Non verbal communication

In this form of communication, gestures rather than words are used to convey feeling of
emotions. Facial expressions, postures, gestures, tone of voice and other body movements are
made

BARRIERS AND BREACK DOWNS IN COMMUNICATION

The communication problems or barriers whether arising from mechanical, organizational or

personal factors, may often result in distortion of meanings or filtering of information by
suppression or with holding.

Broadly, the distortion or filtering of information may be due to the following:-

i) Mechanical barriers
ii) Organizational barriers

iii) Personal barriers

i) Mechanical barriers

Causes

a) Distortion- It may be due to noise in the transmission or because the communicator does
not use the right words to give meaning and precision to his ideas and interpretations.

b) Filtering – It is caused due to a distance between the communicator and the receiver. As a
message passed through different points in the communication channels, it may be attached or
twisted by the persons in between whether intentionally or unintentionally.

c) Overloading- It is caused by over working of the communication channels due to an

increase in the number of messages to be cleared.

ii) Organizational barriers

They may be caused by inadequate or improper arrangements for various intra-organizational

communication activities.

Causes

a) Inadequate of facilities that pertains to meetings, conference and other mechanisms for
hearing and sorting out suggestions as well as complaints.

b) Inadequate policies, rules and procedures in an organization. Thus rigidity in

communication procedures and rules should be avoided.

c) Status pattern – problems in communication arise from relative position of the superior
subordinates in the organization.

iii) Personal barriers

Sometimes the failure in communication is due to personal problems of the person to whom the
communication is being addressed or the person who is giving out the information.

Causes

a) Lack of attention or interest

b) Hasty conclusion i.e. the receiver may be by nature a person in hurry such that without
going through the message carefully, he may jump to hasty conclusion according to his own
opinion or believe.

c) Lack of confidence in the communication.

d) Improper state of mind i.e. emotional mentally upset.

e) Love for the status quo i.e. if the communication tends to disturb the existing scheme of
things, or is otherwise seen to be against the interest of the receiver, it may create
misunderstanding and resistance.

ESSENTIALS OF A SOUND COMMUNICATION SYSTEM (PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE

COMMUNICATION / WAYS OF OVERCOMING BARRIERS

Effective communication is the responsibility of all people. In the organization managers as well
as subordinates who work towards a common aim. Whether communication is effective can be
evaluated by the intended results.

A good system of communication must fulfill the following requirements.

1) Senders of the message must clarify in their minds what they want to communicate. This
means that one of the first steps of communication is clarifying the purpose of the message and
making a plan to achieve the intended end.

2) Effective communication requires that encoding and decoding be done with symbols that
are familiar to the sender and receiver of the message.

3) The information must be send off at the proper time and should reach the receiver when
he or she requires.

4) All the messages and information should be formed and transmitted to support the
integrity of the organization. The communication system should reflect the objective and policies
of the organization.
5) Participation: – The receiver must be involved in the planning and transmission of the
information, such participation helps to promote mutual trust and confidence.

6) The management should use informal communication to supplement and strengthen

formal channels. The grapevine can be used to transmit information not considered appropriate
for formal communication.

7) A good communication system must contain feedback mechanism where the sender
should try to know the reaction of the receiver. This will enable the management to certain
whether or not the messages was properly understood and acted upon by the subordinate.

8) Economy: - The communication system should be cost effective. The cost of

communication should be controlled by avoiding unwanted messages and communication
overload.

9) Flexibility: - The system of communication must be flexible enough so that it can be

adjusted to the changing requirements of the organization.

10) Attention:- The receiver of the communication must be attentive and have an opened

CONFLICT MANAGEMENT

Conflict is the struggle against status and power in which the aims of the parties conflicting are
not only to gain the desired values but also to neutralize, injure or eliminate their rivals.
Competition is where two parties are purely involved in a win and lose button. Competition may
arise where both parties aim at achieving the same goal.

Causes of management conflict

a) Breakdown in communication

b) Change in organizational culture

c) Alienating nature of the job and work environment

d) Personality traits-some characters whether senior or junior are highly aggressive. They
cause trouble anywhere which results in conflict

e) Conflict of economic interests- joint interests of the organization. E.g. profits for both
workers and management since for the works its reward for the efforts and if paid, it’s a cost to
the management
f) Status and power within the organization- people will look themselves into whatever
status they think they belong. Workers say that they work with their hands while the
management works with their heads

How to solve the conflict

Strategies for resolving conflicts can be grouped according to the likely outcomes

i. Win- lose method

One party wins while the other loses. This method includes dominance through power
(suppression) ignoring majority of opinion. The winning party uses this power unilaterally.

ii. Lose- lose method

This method is based on compromise

Understanding that half of the loaf is better than nothing therefore, this method results into
arbitration incase of collective bargaining

Common features of win- lose and lose- lose methods

• There is a clear “we- they” distinction between the parties e.g. management verses the
workers

• Parties direct their energies towards each other in an atmosphere of victory and defeat

• Parties raises a score run view of issues

• Parties only see the issue from their own point of view

iii. Win- win method

In this method both the conflicting parties gain from the conflict. It includes consensus and
decision making. Each party treats the problem as something which they have common interests
to solve. Each party considers the interests of the owner as important as his own and work
towards the solution which helps both sides.
Conclusion

The first two methods i.e. supervision and total war are completely restrictive since hey limit
communication between both sides. The results are satisfactory to only one side, leaving the
basic conflicts unresolved.

Limited wars and bargaining methods can be described to be neutral where satisfaction to both
sides depends to some extent on how the dispute is handled by the parties concerned

Problem solving is the most constructive approach and allows both parties to communicate freely
with common purpose.

SUPERVISION

Supervision refers to the expert overseeing of workers performance to ensure that workers are
efficiently instructed, guided and assisted to ensure effective and efficient performance of their
tasks in the organization.

Functions of Supervision

1. The supervision guides and instructs his subordinates on work performance.

2. He/she communicates important information to the subordinates

3. Maintains effective reporting about work performance in his/her respective section

4. Trains the workers on specific skill of work performance

5. Maintains discipline within his/her section

6. Organizes work within his/her respective sections to ensure order.

Guidelines to Effective Supervision

 Maintain an appropriate span of control. The supervisor should not supervise too many
employees or very few employees

 Ensure that the supervisor posses the relevant skill As per their duties are concerned

 Motivate the supervisors well so as to ensure that they perform their duties with zeal

 Continuously upgrade the skill and knowledge of the supervisor as per as modern
technology is concern

 Manager should offer necessary support to the supervisors to ensure that they realize the
objectives of their section

 Maintain a good system of reporting and ensure regular follow up on the reports and
especially recommendations made by supervisors

 Managers should provide all the relevant information about the organization and the
specific section that the supervisor is responsible for

 Utilize the ideas of the supervisors and allow them some degree of creativity and
initiative

 Establish the characteristics of the group being supervised in order to determine the
degree of supervision. This means that implies that more closer supervision is required for a less
motivated workforce and the vise-versa

Importance of Supervision

 Ensures order and discipline in the organization.

 Leads to effective and efficient performance of work at the organization

 Workers learn new skills that are essential for work performance.

 Effective supervision leads to improved morale in the organization

 Effective supervision enhances proper flow of information and therefore enhances
effective communication

 It ensures timely delivery of services and products to the clients.

COORDINATION

This may be defined as an on going process whereby manager develop an integrated orderly and
synchronized pattern of group effort among the subordinates and tries to attain unity of effort in
the pursuit of common objectives.

NEEDS FOR COORDINATION

The following are reasons that make coordination necessary.

1. Increase in size and complexity of operation- coordination becomes necessary when

operations become multiple & complex.

2. Clash of interest help to avoid conflict between individual and Organizational goals.

3. Specialization- when there is a lot of specialization in the organization coordination

becomes necessary.

4. Interdependent of units

The various units & department that depend on each other need to be coordinated

5. Conflicts- In order to minimize potential conflicts coordination is necessary especially

between the line & staff offers

STEPS FOR ACHIEVING EFFECTIVE COORDINATION

1. Clearly defined goals of the organization and units/ departments.

2. Simplified organization whereby the lines of authority and responsibility from top to
bottom of the organization are clearly defined.

3. Effective leadership and supervision.

4. Establishment of an effective communication system within the organization

5. Establishment of liaison departments or employing a liaison officer

6. Introduction of staff groups, task force committees etc to take over some of the
coordinative functions of line managers.

TOPIC: CONTROLLING

Specific Objectives

By the end of this sub-module unit, the trainee should be able to:
a) explain the meaning of controlling function

b) describe various systems and processes of control

Control is that function of management that involves monitoring, measurement and correcting
performance of employees and other organizational resources according to the plan.

The aim of control is to develop a feedback and to establish any deviations from the plan so as to
take corrective action.

IMPORTANCE OF CONTROL

1. To ensure that resources are optimally utilized

2. To ensure the organization objectives are met

3. It limits accumulation of error as they are corrected on time

4. Control has a positive physiological impact on the subordinate i.e. when employees know
they are being monitored, they become vigilant.

5. Control facilitate the decision making process. The organization can verify the quality of
various policies.

6. Enables the organization to adopt to environmental changes ie properly designed control

system can help managers anticipate, monitor and respond to charging environmental
circumstances.

7. It can be used as an evaluation tool

8. It enables an organization achieve an optimal level of productivity

9. It ensures tasks are completed within the given time

10. It improves communication in the organization

11. Facilitates decentralization of authority duties can be delegated when there is effective
control system.

ESSENTIAL REQUIREMENT FOR A GOOD CONTROL SYSTEM/FEATURES

1. Economy
A good control system should be affordable and worth the cost.

2. Simplicity

It should be understandable and simple to administer. It should not be complicated.

3. Suitability

It should be suitable to the nature and requirement of the activities being controlled.

4. Promptness

It must detect and report deviations as soon as possible, thus should have time reporting of
deviations.

5. Flexibility

It should be able to adjust according to changes in need and circumstances.

6. Suggestive of remedial action.

A good control system should disclose where failures are occurring, who is responsible and what
should be done about them.

7. Organizational pattern

It should conform to the basic structure of organization.(authority responsibility relationships of

the organization)

8. Objectivity

Control should be objective verifiable and specific it shouldn’t be influenced by personalities.

THE CONTROL PROCESS

The control process involves four major steps.

1. Establishing the standards

The setting of standards against which actual performance/results are to be evaluated is essential
in managerial control. The standards should be clearly and precisely stated, accurate acceptable
and attainable as they serve as the criteria against which the results are evaluated. They should
also be communicated effectively.
2. Measurement of actual performance.

The actual performance is measured against the set standard. That is comparing the performance
with the standards. The major question here is what have we achieved.

3. Compare the performance

Deviation/gaps from the expected standards are established through comparing the results and
the expected performance. Critical deviation should be identified and diagnose their causes and
their impacts on the organization.

4. Taking corrective action.

This implies taking a remedial action in order to bring back actual results in the line wit the
standards. This may involve review of the plan/standards or putting in place steps to prevent
deviations.

TYPES OF CONTROL

BUDGETARY CONTROL

A budget is a plan expressed in numerical terms for a specific period of time in future. There are
several types of budgets. They include:-

• Sales budget – this shows the volume of sales expected

• Production budgets – shows the quantity and quality of goods to produced

• Material budgets – quantity & quality of raw materials

• Labour budgets – labour requirements

• Capital expenditure budgets – capital investment in assets

• Overhead budget – shows the estimates of overhead costs expected

• Master budget –shows the expected expenditure for the whole enterprise.

Budgetary control is therefore the process of defining desired performance through the
preparation of budgets, measuring and comparing actual results with the corresponding budget
data and taking appropriate actions to correct any deviations.

The use of budgets to coordinate, evaluate and control day to day operations in accordance with
the specified goals in the budget.

The following are characteristics of budgetary control

i. Establish a budget or target performance

ii. Record the actual performance

iii. Compare the actual performance with the budgeted

iv. Calculate the differences and analyze the reasons for them

v. Act immediately, if necessary for corrective actions to be taken

vi. Follow up

ADVANTAGES OF BUDGETARY CONTROL

• Improved planning – expression of plans and policies in quantitative terms gives an

overall view of operations and the relative importance of different activities.

• Budgetary controls promote efficiency by eliminating wasteful expenditures.

• Budget provides useful information for preparing quotations and filling tenders.

• Budgeting promotes cooperation and team spirit since all activities of various
departments together.

• Budgets serve as a yardstick with which performance of employees can be evaluated and
controlled.

• Helps management to delegate authority more freely over specified functions.

• It helps in determination of capital requirements and controlling the cash position of the
organization.

• It indicates where executive action is necessary in order to secure desired performance.

DISADVANTAGES OF BUDGETARY CONTROL

• Budgeting is time consuming process and also expensive.

• Budgets may be used to hide efficiencies, as past precedents often become evidence

for the present

• Rigid adherence to budgets discourages initiative.

• Budgets are estimates and can never be one hundred percent accurate.

• Budgets are only tools to efficient management and not a substitute for it.

NON-BUDGETARY CONTROLS

1. BREAK EVEN ANALYSIS

Break-even analysis is frequently used in business and economics to analyze the implication of
various pricing and production decisions. This is an important planning and control device as it
depicts the relationship between revenue and the total costs (fixed and variable). The break-even
point is the point where the sales revenue is equal to the total costs.

Therefore below the break-even point losses occur and above it profits occur. The fixed and the
variable costs are also indicated.

Break-even chart

Although the break-even analysis is an important control tool, it ignores.

- Price changes

- Time gap between production and sales

- Plant size

- Technology

2. PERSONAL OBSERVATION
Personal observation is a very important control tool as it supplements the other control devices
such as budgets, audits reports etc. a manager who sits in his office and depend

only on the scientific devices hardly realizes a thorough job.

Personal observation allows the manager a better involvement in all the operations of the
organization.

However, personal observation suffers the following limitations,

• Manager has to be present thus it consumes a lot of time.

• There may be bias in the assessment of individual performance.

• It requires to be supplemented by other devices personal observation cannot give all the
details.

• Some critical areas in the organization cannot be effectively evaluated through

observation.

• Hawthorne effect may affect the efficiency of personal observation.

3. AUDITING

Auditing can either be external or internal, external auditing is carried out by an external
chattered accountant and is enforced by law in respect to all joint stock companies and
cooperatives. It ensures that the stakeholders and any interested parties are safe guarded against
any manipulations and malpractices of management. The external out for certifies that the profit
and loss account and the balance sheet of the firm gives a true and fair picture of profit or loss
and the picture of Financial state of affairs of the company respectively.

For internal audits and a member of staff is appointed specifically for this function in the
organization to verify all financial transactions and records and also analyze the overall control
system in the organization.

4. REPORTS (Special)

Some complex operations in the organization require special analysis and reporting. This system
of control can help supplement other control techniques especially where routine accounting and
statistical reports falls to give adequate information.
SYMPTOMS OF INADEQUATE/ DEFECTIVE CONTROLS

i. Unexplained declines in revenue and profits

ii. Degradation of services e.g. increase in customer complaints

iii. Employee dissatisfaction. This will be evidenced by increase in grievances

iv. Working capital shortage

v. Idle facilities and personnel

vi. Disorganized operations

vii. Excessive costs

DISTINCION BETWEEN PLANNING AND CONTROL

Planning

1) It’s deciding and present what is to be done

2) Planning is a decision making activity

3) Planning uses estimates

4) Planning is less structured

Control

1. Control rounds off the process of managing organizational resources by measuring results
and checking them against previously agreed standards

2. Controlling places more reliance on measured data from specific cases

3. Control is a monitory process

4. Controlling is highly structured.

SIMILARITIES

i. Both are concerned with identifying and quantifying standards of performance.

ii. Measures used for planning purposes are frequently the same with one used for
controlling purposes are frequently the same with one used for controlling purposes e.g. targets

iii. Both makes use of quantitative techniques

LEARNING RESOURSES

i. Principles and practice of management by Saksena

ii. Management dynamics by Sagimo

iii. Management by Harold Koontz.

iv. Management principles by A Cole

EVALUATION

i. Explain the purpose of control in business organizations.

ii. Describe the control process.

iii. “Planning is looking ahead while control is looking back” Discus

iv. Explain the advantages of budgetary controls in the organization.

v. Describe five forms of non-budgetary controls.

vi. Explain the limitations of personal observation as a control system.

vii. Explain the major requirements of an effective control system

METHODS OF COOKING

Cooked food is that food which has been changed in various ways by means of heat treatment so
that it can be palatable. The heat can be applied to the food in various ways:

-application of dry heat as in baking, roasting, grilling e.t.c

-application of moist heat as in boiling, stewing, poaching, steaming e.t.c

-use of hot fat as in frying

-microwave oven cooking

WAYS OF HEAT TRANSFER

When cooking food, heat can be transferred by the following ways:

-conduction

Conduction is the process in which heat is transferred to the food by direct contact with the
cooking vessel (e.g. pot, pan, solid top). The heat passes through a solid or from one solid to
another. For food to be cooked by conduction, it must be in direct contact with a heated item.
This process relies on the use of good conductors, which allow the heat to transfer through them
to the food. Metals are generally good conductors of heat, which is why the cooking equipment
in a commercial kitchen is mostly metallic.

Cooking equipment that uses the process of conduction to cook food includes brat pans, solid
grill plates and stove hotplates. Methods of cooking by conduction include stir-frying, shallow-
frying and sautéing or searing.

-convection

When food is cooked through the convection process, the heat passes through another medium-
either liquid or gas. When liquids or gases are heated, the heat is distributed throughout the
cooking medium and food by convection currents. For example, in baking, the air in the oven
gradually heats up until the heat is transferred to the product being baked. When food is boiled,
the water (the cooking medium) is gradually heated by the process of convection. Once the water
is heated, it transfers the heat to the food. The same principle applies to deep-frying, except that
oil is the cooking medium.

Cooking equipment that uses the process of convection to cook food includes deep-fryers,
stockpots, steamers, boilers, poachers, cooking pots and ovens. Methods of cooking by
convection include poaching, boiling, stewing, braising, baking and roasting.

-radiation

Radiation is the process of heat transference directly on to the food being cooked. The heat is
transferred by electromagnetic waves, such as microwaves and infrared waves. These waves go
directly to the food being cooked, and any object in the path of the rays will also become hot,
such as a salamander. When food is micro waved, the cooking process is due to the action of
electromagnetic waves produced from the magnetron in the microwave oven; these
electromagnetic rays cause the food molecules to vibrate; this is called molecular disturbance
and the friction cause by the vibration creates steam from the water present and thus cooks the
food. Infrared waves are produced from the grill. These waves cause the food, which is located
close to the heat source, to heat then cook. Cooking equipment that uses the process of radiation
to cook food includes microwaves, salamanders, grills and toasters. Methods of cooking by
radiation include grilling, toasting, baking and microwaving.

REASONS FOR COOKING FOOD

-To make it safe to eat by killing harmful germs and toxins present in the food.

-To increase the storage life of the food for short time e.g in milk

-To make the food palatable i.e make hard food like cereals soft to chew.

-To reduce the bulk of some foods.

-To provide foods which are hot in cold season.

-To add variety to the meal.

-To enhance the flavour of the food.

-To render it pleasing to the eye.

-To facilitate and fasten digestion.

The following are the common ways of cooking food

 boiling

 poaching

 steaming

 stewing/casserole

 braising

 Sous vide

 baking

 roasting

 Pot roasting (poêlé)

 tandoori

 grilling(griddling)

 frying(shallow and deep)

 Paper bag (en-papillotte)

 microwave.

1.0 BOILING

It is the cooking of food with a liquid at boiling point. True boiling leads to bubbling and
evaporation of the liquid. The food being cooked is lifted up by the bubbling liquid thus
preventing it from sticking on the base of the pan e.g when cooking pasta. There are two
methods of boiling:

1. Place the food into boiling liquid, re-boil, then reduce the heat for gentle boiling to take place,
this is known as simmering

2. Cover foods with cold liquid, bring to the boil, and then reduce heat to allow food to simmer.

(a)The advantages of food started slowly in cold liquid, brought to the boil and allowed to boil
gently are that it:

-it helps to tenderise the fibrous structure (meat), extracts starch (vegetable soups) and flavour
from certain foods (stocks)

- can avoid damage to foods that would lose their shape if added to boiling liquid, e.g. whole
fish.

(b)Adding food to boiling liquid:

- is suitable for green vegetables as maximum colour and nutritive value are retained, provided
boiling is restricted to the minimum time

-seals in the natural juices, as with meat.

Effects of boiling
Gentle boiling helps to breakdown the tough fibrous structure of certain foods that would be less
tender if cooked by other methods. When boiling meats for long periods the soluble meat
extracts are dissolved in the cooking liquid. Cooking must be slow in order to give time for the
connective tissue in tough meat to be changed into soluble gelatine, so releasing the fibres and
making the meat tender. If the connective tissue gelatinises too quickly the meat fibres fall apart
and the meat will be tough and stringy. Gentle heat will ensure coagulation of the protein without
hardening.

Safety points when boiling

-use the correct size of the pan to fit the quantity of food to be cooked.

-move pans carefully.

-handles for pans should be well positioned away from gangways to avoid accidents.

-take extra care when handling with boiling liquid.

- When cooking in boiling liquid ensure there is sufficient liquid and that it is at boiling point
before adding food.

-Frequently skim during the cooking.

- Simmer whenever possible so as to minimise evaporation, maintain the volume of liquid and
minimise shrinkage.

-Lower foods gently into the boiling liquid to avoid splashes.

- When removing the lid, tilt it away from your face, to allow the steam to escape safely.

Advantages

-easy method of cooking

-economical in that large quantities of food can be cooked at the same time

-the method does not require a lot of attention thus allowing dovetailing

-it is labour saving

-nutrients are well preserved if the liquid is to be served together with the food

Disadvantages

-The flavour of the food is not well developed.

-There’s loss of flavour and nutrients to the cooking liquid and through evaporation.
-It’s a slow method of cooking.

-Leads to extreme loss of nutrients through over boiling.

2.0 STEWING

Is the cooking of food in a small amount of liquid whereby the liquid is not allowed to boil but to
simmer. In stewing the liquid is always served together with the food. This means that any
vitamins and minerals leached into the cooking liquid are not lost. Stews also have little wastage,
shrinkage and loss of flavour, and they reheat easily. Stewing is a good method when cooking
tough cuts of meat and for soft foods such as fruits which easily break up when cooking. Stewing
may be preceded by frying (for tender cuts to seal in the juices) or fat steaming for vegetables.
All foods should b e cut into small pieces before they are cooked using this process of cooking.

Stewing is a very slow and long process of cooking which can also be done in the oven by use of
a casserole.

Effects of stewing.

In the slow process of cooking in gentle heat, the connective tissue in meat and poultry is
converted into a gelatinous substance so that the fibres fall apart easily and become digestible.
The protein is coagulated without being toughened. Unlike boiling, less liquid is used and the
cooking temperature is approximately 10 degrees lower.

Advantages

- The meat juices that escape from the meat during cooking are retained in the liquid, which is
part of the stew.

- Correct slow cooking results in very little evaporation.

- Nutrients are conserved.

- Tough goods are tenderised.

- It is economical in terms of labour because foods can be cooked in bulk.

Disadvantages

-It is a long and slow method of cooking.

-Care must be taken to ensure that the liquid does not boil.

Techniques associated with stewing

 Setting and browning-this involves rapid shallow frying of food in hot fat to seal-in the
goodness and enhance flavour and colour.

3.0 STEAMING

This involves cooking food by use of steam. In This case, the food being cooked is not allowed
to come in to contact with the cooking liquid. Steaming is a suitable method for cooking cake
mixtures, puddings, fish, tomatoes and potatoes.

There are several methods of steaming:

Atmospheric steaming

With atmospheric steaming, steam may be produced by placing water in the bottom of a
Saucepan and bringing it to a rapid boil. Food is kept in cooking vessels placed above the boiling
water. The steam from the boiling water heats the vessel, and thus the enclosed food.

High-pressure steaming

Steaming can also be carried out in high-pressure steamers, such as pressure cookers. These
steamers work on the principle that higher pressure will produce higher temperatures, causing the
food to cook faster. Steam enters the cooking chamber and builds up pressure. A safety valve is
used to control the amount of pressure that builds up. The highest pressure that the unit is
allowed to go to is predetermined and preset.

Combination steaming

Steaming can also be carried out in an oven. The oven combines dry heat and steam in the oven
chamber; this helps to add a little moisture to the cooking process

Purpose

The purpose of steaming food is to cook it so that it is:

- easy to digest.

- of an edible texture, pleasant and safe to eat.

- as nutritious as possible (steaming minimises nutritive loss).

Effects of steaming
The structure and texture is changed by chemical action and it becomes edible. The texture will
vary according to the type of food, type of steamer and degree of heat; sponges and puddings are
lighter in texture if steamed rather than baked.

Advantages of steaming

-Retention of goodness (nutritional value as the food does not come into contact with water).

- Makes some foods lighter and easy to digest, e.g. suitable for invalids.

- Low-pressure steaming reduces risk of over-cooking protein.

-High-pressure steaming enables food to be cooked or reheated quickly because steam is forced
through the food, thus cooking it rapidly.

- Labour-saving and suitable for large-scale cookery.

- High-speed steamers used for batch cooking enable the frequent cooking of small quantities
of vegetables throughout the service, keeping vegetables freshly cooked, retaining colour,
flavour and nutritive value.

-with steamed fish, the natural juices can be retained by serving with the fish or in making the
accompanying sauce.

- steaming is economical on fuel as a low heat is needed.

Disadvantages

-it’s a long and slow method of cooking.

-when using ordinary pans, the temperature can not be adjusted.

-the flavour of the food is not well developed.

4.0 BAKING

It is the cooking of food by use of dry heat in the oven. The presence of moisture helps the food
to cook and also prevents it from drying. When baking, food may be covered or not.

There are three methods of baking:

• Dry baking: when baking, steam arises from the water content of the food; this steam
combines with the dry heat of the oven to cook the food (e.g. cakes, pastry, baked jacket
potatoes).
• Baking with increased humidity: when baking certain foods, such as bread, the oven
humidity is increased by placing a bowl of water or injecting steam in to the oven, thus
increasing the water content of the food and so improving eating quality.

• Baking with heat modification: placing food in a container of water (bain-marie), such as
baked egg custard, modifies the heat so that the food cooks more slowly, does not over heat and
lessens the possibility of the egg mixture overcooking.

Effects of baking

Chemical action caused by the effect of heat on certain ingredients, such as yeast and baking
powder, changes the raw structure of many foods to an edible texture (pastry, cakes).However,
different ingredients, methods of mixing and types of product required will cause many
variations.

Advantages of baking

- A wide variety of sweet and savoury foods can be produced.

- Bakery products yield appetising goods with visual appeal and mouth-watering aromas.

-Bulk cooking can be achieved with uniformity of colour and degree of cooking.

-Baking ovens have effective manual or automatic temperature controls.

- There is straight forward access for loading and removal of items.

Disadvantages

-It is a slow method of cooking.

-It requires a lot of skill.

Techniques involved in baking

 Greasing-involves smearing the baking tray or tin with fat to prevent the food from
sticking.

 Dusting –it is the light sprinkling of flour on the tin after greasing.

 Loading –refers to the economic use of the oven chamber to ensure that maximum
amount of food is organised to be baked thus minimising time and energy.
 Brushing-it is the application of egg-wash, melted margarine or milk-wash on the food
prior to baking, during baking or after baking.

Before baking- to give colour especially in yeast products

During baking – to ensure that the food does not dry up.

After baking- to give a shiny glaze to the food.

 Cooling- involves placing of baked foods on wire grids/racks so that air circulates and
prevents the base from becoming soggy.

 Recovery time- time required for the oven temperature to reach the correct degree before
loading the food to be cooked.

General rules when baking

-Ovens must always be heated to the required temperature before the food is added.

- In general-purpose ovens, shelves must be placed according to the food being cooked, because
the hotter part of the oven is at the top. With convection ovens the heat is evenly distributed.

-Accurate timing and temperature control are essential to baking. The required oven temperature
must be reached before each additional batch of goods is placed in the oven. This is known as
recovery time.

-Always pre-heat ovens so that the required cooking temperature is immediately applied to the
product, otherwise the product will be spoiled.

- Accuracy is essential in weighing, measuring and controlling temperature.

- Trays and moulds must be correctly prepared.

- Minimise the opening of oven doors as draughts may affect the quality of the product, and the
oven temperature is reduced.

- Utilise oven space efficiently.

- Avoid jarring of products (fruitcake, sponges, soufflés) before and during baking as the quality
may be affected.
Safety precautions when baking.

-use thick, dry and sound oven gloves when handling hot objects.

- jacket sleeves should be rolled down to prevent burns from hot trays and ovens.

-trays and ovens should not be over-loaded.

-extra care is needed to balance hot objects in and out of the oven.

-pull out the rack when removing hot trays and tins from the oven instead of trying to reach them
far inside the oven.

5.0 FRYING

Frying refers to the cooking of food using pre-heated fat. There are two methods of frying:

 Shallow frying

 Deep frying

5.1 Shallow frying

Definition: is the cooking of food in a small quantity of pre-heated fat or oil in a shallow pan or
on a flat surface (griddle plate).

The purpose of shallow-frying is:

- To give variety to the menu and the diet by making food palatable, digestible and safe to eat.

-To brown food, giving it a different colour and an interesting and attractive flavour.

The following are the methods of frying using shallow amount of fat:

 Shallow frying.....cooking of food in a small amount of fat/oil in a pan. The presentation

side is first fried as it will give a better appearance. The food is then turned on the other side so
that it cooks.

 Sauté.....this is a French term used when cooking vegetables, potatoes or kidneys. When
they are cut into slices or shredded and tossed in hot fat in a pan till they are cooked.
 Griddle.....this is the cooking of food using fat on a flat thick pre-heated flat surface. The
food is cooked on one side then turned to the other side.

 Stir-fry.....is a fast frying method using little fat in a wok or a frying pan.

Effects of shallow-frying : The high temperature used in shallow-frying produces almost instant
coagulation of the surface protein of the food and prevents the escape of the natural juices.

Advantages

-its a quick method of coking and for this reason, foods can be cooked to order.

Disadvantages

-it requires a lot of skill.

-it is a very risky method and care should be taken when cooking.

General rules when shallow frying

- When shallow-frying continuously over a busy period, prepare and cook in a systematic way.

- Pans should be cleaned after every use.

-foods to be fried should not be more than one inch thick.

-Meats to be fried should be coated with a starchy substance that will form a crisp coating that
will prevent moisture and nutrients from escaping.

-The fat should be at the correct temperature for the food to be fried e.g. if the fat is too cool, the
food will absorb the fat and become greasy and if its too hot it will just burn.

-The food must be lowered gently onto the pan to avoid splash.

-Most food should be drained on an absorbent paper to dry excess fat.

Safety precautions when shallow frying

- Select the correct type and size of pan: not too small, as food, such as fish, will not brown
evenly and may breakup; not too large, as areas not covered by food will burn and spoil the
flavour of the food being cooked.

- Always keep sleeves rolled down as splashing fat may burn the forearm.

- Avoid being splashed by hot fat when placing food in the pan, add it carefully, away from you.
-Use a thick, clean, dry cloth when handling pans.

- Move pans carefully in case they jar and tip fat onto the stove.

Techniques involved

• Browning......this is the cooking of food until it attains the appetising brown colour under
proper temperature control.

• Tossing......is the turning over of the contents of the pan by means of raise and turn
manipulation.

• Turning.....is the lifting and placing of the other side of the food to cook after the
presentation side is cooked.

5.2 Deep- fat frying

Its the cooking of food in deep pre-heated fat or oil. The food is fully immersed in the fat when
cooking.

The purpose of deep-frying is:

• To cook appetising foods of various kinds, thus giving variety to the diet and the menu.

• To produce food with an appetising golden- brown colour, that is crisp, palatable and safe
to eat.

Methods

Conventional deep-fried foods- with the exception of potatoes, are coated with either milk and
flour, egg and crumbs, batter or pastry to:

• Protect the surface of the food from intense heat;

• Prevent the escape of moisture and nutrients;

• Modify the rapid penetration of the intense heat in to the food.

In this case, the food is carefully placed into deep pre-heated fat/oil and then fried till its golden
brown in colour. Its then well drained and served.

Partial deep-frying- is also known as blanching and this method may be used with chipped
potatoes. The purpose is to partly cook in advance of service and to complete the cooking to
order.
General rules

-Never over fill fryers with fat or oil or food to be cooked. The oil should not be more than two
thirds (2/3) full. This will ensure that the fat/oil does not spill down when frying when it bubbles.

- Never allow smoke to rise from the fat; this will give a disagreeable taste and smell to food
being fried.

- The normal frying temperature is between 175°C and 195°C; this is indicated by a slight heat
haze rising from the fat.

-Do not attempt to fry too much food at one time.

- Allow fat to recover its heat before adding the next batch of food.

-Ensure a correct oil/fat ratio to food. If too much food is cooked in too little fat, even if the
initial temperature of the fat is correct, the effect of a large amount of food will reduce the
temperature drastically and spoil the food.

- Reduce frying temperatures during slack periods to conserve fuel.

- Restrict holding time to a minimum -fried foods soon lose their crispness.

- Oil and fat should be strained after use, otherwise remaining food particles will burn when the
fat is next heated thus spoiling the appearance and flavour of the food.

- Always cover oil or fat when not in use to prevent oxidation.

-Systematic preparation and cooking are essential.

-Boiling water should never be placed near frying pans when cooking.

-All meats should be coated with a starchy substance before deep frying.

Advantages

-Blanching enables certain foods to be cooked and held for final cooking later saving on time
during busy sessions.

-Coating enables a wide variety of meat dishes to be cooked using this method.

-Its a quick method of service.

-Coated foods are quickly sealed thus preventing the food from becoming greasy and loss of
nutrients.

Disadvantages
-it requires a lot of skill.

-it is a very risky method and care should be taken when cooking.

Techniques used

-coating.

-blanching

-draining

Safety rules

- Only half fill the fryers.

-Never overload fryers.

- Dry food thoroughly before frying.

- Ensure that fire fighting equipment are at hand and you are familiar with how it works and also
first aid procedures.

-Use dry thick cloth when handling hot pans.

-Keep sleeves rolled down when handling fryers.

-Always place food carefully away from you in the fryer to avoid splash and burning by fat.

6.0 Roasting

Is the cooking of food in dry heat with the aid of fat or oil in an oven. Radiant heat is the means
of cooking. Oven roasting is a combination of convection and radiation heat transfer.

Purpose :

-To cook food so that it is tender, easy to digest, safe to eat and palatable.

-To give variety to the menu and the diet.

Methods:

-Placing prepared foods (meat, poultry) on a rotating spit over or in front of fierce radiated heat.

- Placing prepared foods in an oven with either: applied dry heat; forced air-convected heat;
convected heat combined with microwave energy.
Effects of roasting

The surface protein of the food is sealed by the initial heat of the oven, thus preventing the
escape of too many natural juices. When the food is lightly browned, the oven temperature is
reduced to cook the inside of the food without hardening the surface.

Advantages

- Good-quality meat and poultry is tender and succulent when roasted.

- Meat juices issuing from the joint can be used for gravy and to enhance flavour.

- Both energy and oven temperature can be controlled.

- Ovens with transparent doors enable cooking to be observed.

- Access, adjustment and removal of items is straightforward.

-Minimal fire risk.

Rules

- Keenness in time and temperature control.

- Oven must be pre-heated.

- Oven temperature in recipes should be well followed.

-The shape, size and quality of the food will affect the cooking time.

Techniques used in roasting

• Boning out or deboning- its the removal of bones from the raw beat to facilitate carving.

• Trussing- is the sewing of meat with a kitchen string and trussing knife/needle.

• Basting- is the application of pre-heated fat or oil over food to aid roasting of meat or
poultry.

Testing for cooking: to test food if its cooked, press or squeeze the meat. If the juices run out red,
then the meat is underdone. If the juices are pink it is underdone and if it is clear then it is
cooked.

7.0 Braising
Is a method of cooking on a bed of vegetables referred to as mirepoix (roughly cut vegetables
e.g. carrots, tomatoes, turnips, onions e.t.c.). There are two methods of braising namely white
and brown braising. Braising if done in the oven it is a combination of pot-roasting and stewing.

Cooking by braising causes the breakdown of the tissue fibre in the structure of certain food
which softens the texture thus making it tender and edible. The texture is also improved by being
cooked in the cooking liquid.

Advantages

-tougher and less expensive meats and poultry can be used,

-maximum flavour and nutritional value are retained.

-variety of presentation and flavour is given to the menu.

Disadvantages

-its a very slow method of cooking

-some skill is required.

8.0 Grilling (broiling)

Its a fast method of cooking using radiant heat. Grilled foods can be cooked:

- overheat (charcoal, barbecues, gas or electric heated grills/griddles)

- under heat (gas or electric salamanders (over fired grills)

-between heat (electrically heated grill bars or plates).

Effects of grilling

Because of the speed of cooking there is maximum retention of nutrients and flavour.

Terms used when grilling

Rare (au bleu)...........................................red and bloody

Under done ( saignant).............................reddish pink

Just done (a’ point)...................................pink

Well done (bien cui’t)...............................clear

Advantages

- Speed of grilling enables food to be cooked quickly to order.

- Charring foods gives a distinctive appearance and improves flavour.

- Control of cooking is aided because food is visible while it is being grilled.

- Variety is given to menu and diet.

- Grills may be situated in view of the customer.

General rules for efficient grilling

- Smaller, thinner items require cooking quickly.

- Seal and colour food on the hot part of the grill then move to a cooler part to complete cooking.

- Slow cooking results in the food drying out.

- Basting of food and oiling of bars prevents dryness.

Tongs are used for turning and lifting cutlets and steaks. Palette knives and slices are used for
turning and lifting tomatoes, mushrooms and whole or cut fish from trays.

9.0 Poaching

Definition: it is the cooking of food in a liquid at just below boiling point. For most foods, the
poaching liquid is heated first. When the desired temperature is reached, the prepared food is
lowered into the barely simmering liquid, and allowed to cook in the gentle heat. Unlike boiling,
with poaching there should be no sign of the liquid moving, except for the occasional bubble
rising to the surface. Poaching is a slow and very gentle method of cooking, most suitable for
delicate foods such as eggs and fish. A health benefit of poaching is that foods can be cooked in
water alone, which is excellent for reduced-fat diets.
Court bouillon:is a poaching liquid that must first be prepared. It contains water and an acid
(wine, vinegar or lemon juice). The acid in the water acts to stabilise the protein of the food
being poached. Vegetables, herbs, spices and sugar may also be added to make the court
bouillon.

Purpose

The purpose of poaching is to cook food so that it is:

- easy to digest

- of a suitable, tender texture

- safe and pleasant to eat because, where appropriate, an agreeable sauce is made with the
cooking liquid.

Methods

There are two ways of poaching:

• Shallow-cooking using shallow or small quantity of water whereby the food is not fully
covered.

• Deep- cooking using large quantity of water whereby the food is fully covered.

Effects of poaching: Poaching helps to tenderise the fibrous structure of the food, and the raw
texture of the food becomes edible by chemical action.

10.0 Tandoori cooking

Definition: Tandoori cooking is by dry heat in a clay oven called a tandoor. Although the heat
source is at the base of the oven, the oven heat is evenly distributed because of the clay, which
radiates heat evenly.

Method : Meat (small cuts and small joints), poultry (small cuts and whole chickens) and fish,
such as prawns, are usually placed vertically in the oven. No fat or oil is used. The food is
cooked quickly and the flavour is similar to that of barbecued food.

Advantages

- The distinctive flavour of tandoori-cooked food comes from both the marinade and the cooking
process.
- Marinating tenderises and also adds flavour to foods.

- Colour change may occur depending on the spices used: and colouring agent is used in some
marinades, also onions, garlic, herbs, spices and oil, wine or lemon juice.

11.0 SOUS VIDE

This is a professional cooking method that makes use of plastic oxygen barriers and precise
temperature control to reduce oxidation and extend the shelf life of the food. In this method, the
food is prepared in sealed plastic bags. This is one of the oldest methods of cooking. In this
method, vacuum packaging is also used.

12.0 Microwave cooking

Definition :This is a method of cooking and reheating food using electromagnetic waves in a
microwave oven powered by electricity. The microwaves activate the water molecules or
particles of food and agitate them, causing heat by friction, which cooks or reheats the food.

Purpose

• Raw, pre-prepared or pre-cooked foods are cooked quickly and made palatable and
digestible.

• Foods are safer to eat, particularly reheated foods, because the total food is heated at the
same time.

Application: Microwave cooking can be used for cooking raw food, reheating cooked food and
defrosting frozen foods.

Advantages

• A saving of between 50 and 70 per cent over conventional cooking times on certain
foods.

• A quick way to cook and reheat foods.

• A fast method of defrosting foods.

• Economical in terms of: electricity-less energy required; labour-less washing up as foods

can be cooked in serving dishes.
• Hot meals can be available 24 hours a day and completely operated on a self service
basis, thereby increasing consumer satisfaction and reducing costs.

• Food is cooked in its own juices so flavour and goodness are retained.

• Minimises food shrinkage and drying out.

• When used with conventional cooking methods, production can be more flexible.

Disadvantages

• Not suitable for all foods.

• Limited oven space restricts use to small quantities.

• Many microwave ovens do not brown food, although browning elements are available
within certain models.

• Not all containers are suitable for use in microwave ovens.

• Microwaves can penetrate only 5cm (1.5 inches) into food (from all sides).

Points for special attention

• Correct selection of cooking and time controls is essential.

• Certain foods must be removed when underdone to finish cooking, so standing time is
important.

• Baked potatoes and whole unpeeled apples must have their skin pierced in order to
release pressure and prevent them from bursting.

• Eggs must not be cooked in their shells or they will burst.

• Cover foods when possible to reduce condensation and spluttering.

Factors that affect efficient cooking

• Only use suitable containers: glass, china, plastic. Only use metal or foil if the particular
cooker has been developed to take metal without causing damage.

• Even-shaped items cook uniformly; arrange uneven-shaped items with the thickest part
to the outside of the dish.

• Keep food as level as possible; do not pile into mounds.

• Allow sufficient space to stir or mix.

• Turn items, such as corn on the cob, during cooking because dense items take longer to
cook than porous items.

• Foods with a high water content cook faster than those that are drier.

• Most foods should be covered when cooked in a microwave oven.

Safety

 Should the door seal be damaged, do not use the oven.

 Do not operate the oven when it is empty.

 Remember to pierce foods and cover foods that are likely to burst.

 Regular inspection is essential and manufacturer’s instructions must be followed.

MENU PLANNING

MENU- Is a list of food/dishes to be served. In food service, it is referred to as a selling aid, that
is, a list which displays the dishes which are available in a catering outlet for the customer. The
menu may tend to illustrate the dishes, how they will be served, the side dish to accompany the
main dish as well as the price of each particular dish.

MEAL-refers to the food to be taken at any one time of the day and is differentiated by the time
it is to be taken.

COURSE- foods/ or dishes served and taken at any one time of a meal.

REASONS FOR MENU PLANNING

 Provides an opportunity to take an advantage of best buys and sells in the market

 Allows time to look for new ideas in books, magazines, journals extra about new dishes
and their recipes.

 It results to variety in meal planning.

 It reduces the number of shopping lists.

 It saves time, energy, money and ensures good nutritive value for the dish

 It enables one to use a variety of foods leading to varied colours and texture.
THE STRUCTURE OF A MENU

Length

The number of dishes on a menu should offer the customer an interesting and varied choice. In
general, it is better to offer fewer dishes of good standard than a long list of mediocre quality.

Design

This should complement the image of the dining room and be designed to allow for changes
(total or partial), which may be daily, weekly, monthly, etc. An inset for dishes of the day or of
the week gives the customer added interest.

Language

Accuracy in dish description helps the customer to identify the food they wish to choose.

Avoid over-elaboration and flowery choice of words. Wherever possible, use English language.
If a foreign dish name is used then follow it with a simple, clear English version.

Presentation

Ensure the menu is presented in a sensible and welcoming way so that the customer is put at ease
and relaxed. An offhand, brusque presentation (written or oral) can be off-putting and lower
expectations of the meal.

Planning

Consider the following:

• type and size of establishment – pub, school, hospital, restaurant, etc.

• customer profile – different kinds of people have differing likes and dislikes

• special requirements – kosher, Muslim, vegetarian

• time of the year – certain dishes acceptable in summer may not be so in winter

• foods in season – are usually in good supply and reasonable in price

• special days – Christmas, Hogmanay, Shrove Tuesday, etc.

• time of day – breakfast, brunch, lunch, tea, high tea, dinner, supper, snack, special function

• price range – charge a fair price and ensure good value for money; customer satisfaction can
lead to recommendation and repeat business
• number of courses

• sequence of courses

• use menu language that customers understand

• sensible nutritional balance

• no unnecessary repetition of ingredients from dish to dish

• no unnecessary repetition of flavours and colours

• be aware of the Trade Descriptions Act 1968 – ‘Any person who in the course of a trade or
business: applies a false trade description to any goods or supplies or offers to supply any goods
to which a false trade description is applied shall be guilty of an offence.’

ESSENTIAL CONSIDERATIONS PRIOR TO PLANNING A MENU

• Competition: be aware of any competition in the locality, including prices and quality. It may
be wiser to produce a menu that is quite different.

• Location: study the area in which your establishment is situated and the potential target market
of customers.

• Analyse: the type of people you are planning to cater for (e.g. office workers in the city
requiring quick service).

• Outdoor catering: are there opportunities for outdoor catering or takeaway food?

• Estimated customer spend per head: important when catering, for example, for hospital staff
and patients, children in schools, workers in industry. Whatever level of catering, a golden rule
should be ‘offer value for money’.

• Modern trends in food fashions: these should be considered alongside popular traditional
dishes.

• Decide the range of dishes to be offered and the pricing structure. Price each dish separately, Or
offer set two- to three-course menus, Or a combination of both

• Space and equipment in the kitchens will influence the composition of the menu (e.g. avoiding
overloading of deep-frying pan, salamanders and steamers).

• Number and capability of staff: overstretched staff can easily reduce the standard of production
envisaged.
• Availability of supplies and reliability of suppliers: seasonal foods and storage space.

• Food allergies

• Cost factor: crucial if an establishment is to be profitable. Costing is essential for the success of
compiling any menu. Modern computer techniques can analyse costs swiftly and on a daily basis.

TYPES OF MENUS

The main types of menu in use are as follows.

• Table d’hôte or set-price menu: a menu forming a meal, usually of two or three courses at a set
price. A choice of dishes may be offered at all courses.

• À la carte: a menu with all the dishes individually priced. Customers can therefore compile
their own menu, which may be one, two or more courses. A true à la carte dish should be cooked
to order and the customer should be prepared to wait.

• Special party or function menus: menus for banquets or functions of all kinds.

• Ethnic or speciality menus: these can be set-price menus or with dishes individually priced,
specialising in the food (or religion) of a particular country or in a specialised food itself – e.g.
ethnic (Chinese, Indian, kosher, African-Caribbean, Greek), speciality (steak, fish, pasta,
vegetarian, pancakes).

• Hospital menus: these usually take the form of a menu card given to the patient the day before
service so that his or her preferences can be ticked. Both National Health Service and private
hospitals cater for vegetarians and also for religious requirements.

• Menus for people at work: such menus vary in standard and extent from one employer to
another due to company policy on the welfare of their staff and workforce. There may also be a
call-order à la carte selection charged at a higher price. Employees who are happy, well
nourished and know that the company has their interests and welfare at heart will tend to be
well motivated and work better.

• Menus for children: in schools there is an emphasis on healthy eating and a balanced diet,
particularly in boarding schools. Those areas with children of various cultural and religious
backgrounds have appropriate items available on the menu. Many establishments provide special
children’s menus that concentrate on favourite foods and offer suitably sized portions.

Cyclical menus
These are menus that are compiled to cover a given period of time: one month, three months, etc.
They consist of a number of set menus for a particular establishment, such as an industrial
catering restaurant, cafeteria, canteen, directors’ dining room, hospital or college refectory. At
the end of each period the menus can be used again, thus overcoming the need to keep compiling
new ones. The length of the cycle is determined by management policy, by the time of the year
and by the different foods available.

Advantages

• Cyclical menus save time by removing the daily or weekly task of compiling menus, although
they may require slight alterations for the next period.

• When used in association with cook-freeze operations, it is possible to produce the entire
number of portions of each item to last the whole cycle, having determined that the standardised
recipes are correct.

• They give greater efficiency in time and labour.

• They can cut down on the number of commodities held in stock, and can assist in planning
storage requirements.

Disadvantages

• When used in establishments with a captive clientele, the cycle has to be long enough so that
customers do not get bored with the repetition of dishes.

• The caterer cannot easily take advantage of ‘good buys’ offered by suppliers on a daily or
weekly basis, unless such items are required for the cyclical menu.

Pre-planned and pre-designed menus

Advantages

• Pre-planned or pre-designed menus enable the caterer to ensure that good menu planning is
practised.

• Before selecting the dishes that he or she prefers, the caterer should consider what the customer
likes, and the effect of these dishes upon the meal as a whole.
• Menus that are planned and cost in advance allow banqueting managers to quote prices
instantly to a customer.

• Menus can be planned to take into account the availability of kitchen and service equipment,
without placing unnecessary strain upon such equipment.

• The quality of food is likely to be higher if kitchen staffs are preparing dishes they are familiar
with and have prepared a number of times before.

Disadvantages

• Pre-planned and pre-designed menus may be too limited to appeal to a wide range of
customers.

• They may reduce job satisfaction for staff that has to prepare the same menus repetitively.

• They may limit the chef’s creativity and originality.

SPECIAL DIETS

Vegetarian/ vegan and other ethical diets

Vegetarians do not eat meat or fish, or any type of dish made with or containing the products of
animals. Check for vegetarians who:

 Occasionally eat fish and/ or meat semi.......vegetarian or demi-vegetarian

 Do not eat milk and dairy products...............ovo- vegetarian

 Do not eat eggs...............................................lacto-vegetarian

 Do not eat any food of animal origin (including honey, dairy products and eggs); such
people are known as ............................vegans (note that vegetables, fruits, grains, legumes,
pasta made without eggs, soya products and other products of plants are acceptable)

 Eat only fruit, nuts and berries..........................fruitarian or fructarian.

Religious diets

Adherents of the religions listed below do not eat the following foods:
 Hindu: meat, fish or eggs (orthodox Hindus are usually strict vegetarians; less strict
Hindus may eat lamb, poultry and fish, but definitely not eat beef as cattle have a deep religious
meaning- milk, however, is highly regarded).

 Jewish: pork, pork products, shellfish and eels, meat and milk served at the same time or
cooked together; strict Jews eat only kosher meat; milk and milk products are usually avoided at
lunch and dinner (but are acceptable at breakfast).

 Muslim: pork, meat that is not halal (slaughtered according to custom), shellfish and
alcohol (even when used in cooking).

 Rastafarian: all processed foods, pork, fish without fins (eels), alcohol, coffee, tea.

 Sikh: beef, pork, lamb, poultry and fish may be acceptable to Sikh men; Sikh women tend
to avoid all meat.

Medical diets

For medical reasons, the people on the special diets below do not eat the foods listed:

 Dairy/milk free: milk, butter, cheese, yoghurt and any prepared foods that include milk
products (check label).

 Diabetes: dishes that are high in sugar and/or fat (low-calorie sweeteners can be used to
sweeten desserts).

 Gluten free: wheat, wholemeal, whole wheat and wheat meal flour, wheat bran, rye,
barley and oats (some doctors say oats are permitted, the Coeliac Society advises against) and
any dishes made with these, including pasta, noodles, semolina, bread, pastries, some yoghurts
(e.g. muesli), some cheese spreads, barley-based drinks, malted drinks, beer, some brands of
mustard, proprietary sauces made with flour (use corn flour to thicken; rice, potato, corn and
sage are also acceptable).

 Low cholesterol and saturated fat: liver, egg yolks and shellfish (which are high in
cholesterol), beef, pork and lamb (which contain saturated fats), butter, cream, groundnut oil,
margarine (use oils and margarines labelled high in poly unsaturated fats).

 Low fat: any food that contains fat, or has been fried or roasted.

 Low residue: whole meal bread, brown rice and pasta, fried and fatty foods.

 Low salt/low sodium: foods and dishes that have had salt added in the cooking or
processing (including smoked and cured fishes and meats, and hard cheeses) or contain mono
sodium glutamate.
 Nut allergy: nuts, blended cooking oils and margarine (since these may include nut oil;
use pure oils or butter) and any dishes containing these (check label).

SAUCES

SAUCE-may is defined as a well flavoured and thickened liquid. A sauce may be served with
food for the following reasons:

 To enhance the flavour of the food with which it accompanies.

 To provide a contractive flavour to an otherwise mildly flavoured food.

 To provide a contrasting texture to particularly solid food e.g poultry or fish.

 To bind ingredients together for dishes such as fish cakes or croquettes.

 To add colour to a dish e.g jam sauce with a steamed sponge pudding.

 To contribute to the nutritional value of a dish

 To counteract the fatty nature of some foods e.g orange sauce with roast duck or apple
sauce with roast pork.

 To add interest and variety to a meal.

Consistencies of sauces

The thickness or thinness of a sauce may vary according to how it will be served with the food.
They can be classified in to three main categories:

 Pouring sauce

 Coating sauce

 Binding sauce

Pouring sauce
At boiling point, it should just glaze the back of a wooden spoon and should flow freely when
poured. For keeping cold, cover with a grease-proof paper or cling film to prevent a skin from
forming.

Coating sauce

At boiling point, it should coat the back of a wooden spoon and should be used as soon as it
ready to ensure even coating over the food.

Binding sauce

The sauce should be thick enough to bind ingredients together so that they can handled easily to
be formed in to cakes

THICKENING AGENTS

 Beurre manié (kneaded butter)

 Egg yolks

 roux

 corn flour, arrowroot or starch

 cream and/or butter added to reduced stock

 rice (in the case of some shellfish bisques)

 reducing cooking liquor or stock.

Beurre manié

Beurre manié is used chiefly for fish sauces. This a paste made from equal quantities of soft
butter and flour then added to a simmering liquid while whisking continuously to prevent
lumping.

Egg yolks

This is commonly known in the trade as a liaison and is traditionally used to thicken a classic
velouté. Both egg yolks and cream are mixed together and added to the sauce/velouté off the
boil; this mixture is intended to thicken, however it is essential to keep stirring it as, otherwise,
the eggs will curdle. Once thickening is achieved the sauce/velouté must be removed and served
immediately. The liquid must not be allowed to boil or simmer.

Corn flour, arrowroot or starch

Corn flour, arrowroot or starch (such as potato starch) is used for thickening gravy and sauces.
These are diluted with water, stock or milk, then stirred into the boiling liquid, allowed to re-boil
for a few minutes and then strained. For large-scale cooking and economy, flour may be used. If
the starch is mixed with cold water, it will not dissolve however on heating at 60°c,water is
absorbed by the granules and they begin to swell. As the temperature increases, so does the
swelling. Until at 80°c, the granules would have swollen five times (×5 times) their original size
and the liquid thickened.

If heating continues, some of the granules will rapture releasing starch which will form gel with
the water. On heating the gel will set and the sauce will become solid.

Roux

A roux is a combination of fat and flour, which are cooked together. There are three degrees to
which a roux may be cooked depending on the sauce being made:

 white,

 blond and

 Brown.

A boiling liquid should never be added to a hot roux as the result may be lumpy and the person
making the sauce may be scalded by the steam produced. If allowed to stand for a time over a
moderate heat a sauce made with a roux may become thin due to a chemical change
(dextrinisation) in the flour.

MOTHER SAUCES

These are sauces used as ingredients to make other types of sauces e.g

 velouté -made from white stock and blond roux

 espagnot’e –basic brown sauce

 demi-glace –brown stock reduced to a light consistency

 béchamel- basic white sauce

 sauce Hollandaise

Sauces made from béchamel

Anchovy sauce accompanies fried or boiled fish

Egg sauce accompanies fried or boiled fish

Sauce mornay (cheese sauce) accompanies fish or vegetables

Onion sauce Accompanies roast mutton

Parsley sauce Accompanies grilled steak, poached or boiled fish or vegetables.

Mustard sauce Accompanies grilled herring

Cream sauce Poached fish and boiled vegetables

Soubise sauce Roast lamb or mutton

Sauces made from velout’e

Sauce Served with:

Caper Boiled leg of mutton

Supreme Chicken or vol-au-vent

Aurore Chicken and poached fish, poached eggs

Mushroom sauce Boiled or boiled chicken, sweetbreads

White sauce Fish

Shrimp Shrimps

Ivory Poached or boiled chicken

Sauces made from demi-glaze

Sauce Served with:

Devilled Grilled or fried fish

Italian Fried cut leg of beef or lamb

Brown onion Vienna steaks, fried liver

Madeira Braised ox-tongue

Piquant Grilled meats

RobertFried ox-chops, pork chops

Reform Lamb cutlets

Bordelaise Fried steaks

Chasseur Fried steak, fried chicken

Compound butter sauces

Compound butters are made by mixing the flavouring ingredients into softened butter, which can
then be shaped into a roll 2cm in diameter, placed in wet grease proof paper or foil, hardened in a
refrigerator and cut into 1 -2 cm slices when required.

 Parsley butter: chopped parsley and lemon juice.

 Herb butter: mixed herbs (chives, tarragon, fennel, dill) and lemon juice.

 Chive butter: chopped chives and lemon juice.

 Garlic butter: garlic juice and chopped parsley or herbs.

 Anchovy butter: few drops anchovy essence.

 Shrimp butter: finely chopped or pounded shrimps.

 Garlic: mashed to a paste.

 Mustard: continental-type mustard.

 Liver pâté: mashed to a paste.

Compound butters are served with grilled and some fried fish, and with grilled meats.

Clarified butter- it is butter that has been melted and skimmed. After that, the fat element of the
butter is carefully poured off, leaving the milky residue behind. This gives a clear fat that can
reach higher temperatures than normal butter without burning, but that can also be used to nap
over steamed vegetables, or poached or grilled fish.

Miscellaneous sauces

 Curry sauce-can be served on its own or used to cook other dishes e.g beef, chicken or
vegetables.
 Roast gravy- made to accompany roast meats.

 Red sauce- served with roast chicken or roast game.

 Apple sauce-accompanies roast pork, duck, goose and turkey.

 Tomato sauce-served with spaghetti, eggs, fish and meat.

 Melted butter- for boiled fish and vegetables.

 Hollandaise sauce- used for salmon, trout, and vegetables like asparagus.

 Béarnaise sauce-for grilled meat and fish.

Sauces served cold (cold sauces)

 Tar tare sauce- for fish.

 Green sauce-for cold salmon and salmon trout.

 Mayonnaise –for cold salads, fish and cold buffets.

 Tyrorene sauce- for fried fish or cold fish.

 Horseradish sauce – for roast meat and smoked trout.

 Mint sauce- for roast lamb.

 Camber land sauce-for cold ham.

SOUPS

The term soup is basically used to refer to a form of food in a less diluted consistency and which
is well flavoured and seasoned.

Purpose of soup in the diet

 It is a refreshing drink which provides the body with some form of energy and body
building nutrients; however this depends on the kind of ingredients used.

 It acts as an appetizer especially when served before the main meal.

 It acts as a digestive, that is, it aids in digestion because it hastens the flow of gastric
juice.
 When served in larger amounts, it can act as a main dish if in its own.

Amount of soup to serve

This will depend on whether it is only a starter or a main dish. For a starter, serve ¼ pint (150
ml) per person where as if it to be served as the main dish serve ½ pint (250 ml) per person. It is
also recommended to serve an average portion of between 200 250ml depending on the type of
soup and the number of courses to follow.

Types of soups

Most soups derive their name from the main ingredient used to make it e.g: Tomato soup from
tomatoes, carrot soup from carrots e.t.c. Soups are classified according to consistency and the
ingredients used. Common classes are as follows:

 Bisque: a very rich soup with a creamy consistency; usually made of lobster or shellfish
(crab, shrimp, etc.).

 Bouillabaisse: a Mediterranean fish soup/stew, made of multiple types of seafood, olive

oil, water, and seasonings like garlic, onions, tomato and parsley.

 Consommé: a definitively clear double or triple broth (broth added to another broth) with
a meat, rather than bone, base; consommé is painstakingly strained to make it clear. Note: A
consommé should be crystal clear. The clarification process is caused by the albumen of the egg
white and meat coagulating, rising to the top of the liquid and carrying other solid ingredients.
The remaining liquid beneath the coagulated surface should be gently simmering. Cloudiness is
due to some or all of the following:

• poor-quality stock,

• Greasy stock,

• Unstrained stock,

• Imperfect coagulation of the clearing agent

• Whisking after boiling point is reached, whereby the impurities mix with the liquid,

• Not allowing the soup to settle before straining

• Lack of cleanliness of the pan or cloth

• Any trace of grease or starch.

 Potage: a French term referring to a thick soup.

 Puréed soup: a soup of vegetable base that has been puréed in a food mill or blender;
typically altered after milling with the addition of broth, cream, butter, sour cream or coconut
milk.

 Velouté: a velvety French sauce made with stock; synonymous with soup in many cases
and thickened with a liaison.

 Broths: have the base ingredient as stock and well cut vegetables. Are un passed and
should be garnished with chopped parsley before service e.g minestrone and scotch broth.

 Cream soup: base ingredient: stock and vegetables or vegetables puree and béchamel or
veloute’. are passed. Finish with cream, milk or natural yoghurt e.g cream of tomato soup, e.t.c.

 Miscellaneous soup: these are soups which not classified under any of the above
headings e.g kidney soup.

The above classes of soup can be simply divided into:

a) Clear soups or broth

b) Thick soups which may be pureed and thickened soups.

c) Nationals soups e.g minestrone.

Ingredients used in soup making.

The liquid used is majorly stock i.e water in which meat bones, vegetables, pulses e.t.c have been
boiled. Water or milk can be used as liquid. Stock gives better flavour than the water if good and
fresh ingredients have been used. The stock for soups should have all the fat in it removed before
using.

Terms related to soup making

1) Bouquet garni: is a mixture of herbs tied together in a muslin cloth or leek and used in soups
making or stews for flavouring purposes. Herbs used: Bay leaves, thyme dried parsley

2) Stock: Water in which vegetables, meat, pulses, cereals have been boiled in. Used as the main
liquid. The liquid contain soluble nutrients and flavours of food that are extracted from the
ingredients used as a result of long and gentle simmering. Salt should not be added to the stock
as it acts (The stock) as a base of many dishes. If salt is added and since it should be reduced
when cooking, the end product is going to be over salted.

3) Reducing: Term used to refer to the prolonged simmering of soups and sauces so as to
lower/reduce the amount of liquid used in cooking by more than half. Reducing the cooking
liquid leads to the thickening of the soup.

4) Liaison: Is a thickening agent used for thickening soups and sauces e.g eggyolk, cornflour,
arrowroot, roux e.t.c

5)Broth : is a clear soup with small bits of rice, meat and vegetables cut into tiny pieces.

Qualities of a well made soup

-should have the right consistency according to the type being made.

-should have the right flavour according to the type being made.

-should have the right colour as per the main ingredient being used.

-should not be greasy.

-should be served at the correct temperature.

KITCHEN PLANNING

Factors that influence kitchen planning and design include:

• The size and extent of the menu and the market it serves

• Services – gas, electricity and water

• Labour, skill level of staff

• Amount of capital expenditure, costs

• Use of prepared convenience foods

• Types of equipment available

• Hygiene and the Food Safety Act 1990/91/95

• Design and decor

• Multi-usage requirements.
The size and extent of the menu

Before a kitchen is planned, the management must know its goals and objectives in relation to
market strategy. In other words, what markets are you aiming at and what style of operation are
you going to operate?

The menu will then determine the type of equipment you will require in order to produce the
products that you know from the market research the customer is going to buy. You also need to
know the target numbers you intend to service.

Services

The designer must know where the services are located and how efficient use can be made of
them.

Labour and skill level

What kind of people and how many does the company intend to employ? This will have an effect
on the technology and equipment to be installed.

Amount of capital expenditure

Most design has to work with a detailed capital budget. Often it is not always possible to design,
then worry about the cost afterwards. Finance will very often determine the overall design and
acceptability.

Because space is at a premium, kitchens are generally becoming smaller. Equipment is therefore
being designed to cater for this trend, becoming more modular and streamlined and generally
able to fit into less space. This is seen as a cost-reduction exercise.

Labour is a significant cost factor, so equipment is being designed for ease of operation,
maintenance and cleaning.

Use of prepared convenience foods

A fast-food menu using prepared convenience food will influence the planning and equipping
very differently than for an à la carte or cook-chill kitchen. Certain factors will have to be
determined.

• Will sweets and pastries be made on the premises?

• Will there be a need for a larder or butcher?

• Will fresh or frozen food, or a combination of both be used?

Types of equipment available

The type, amount and size of the equipment will depend on the type of menu being provided.
The equipment must be suitably sited.

Hygiene and the Food Safety Act 1990/91/95

The design and construction of the kitchen must comply with the Food Safety Act 1990/91/95.

The basic layout and construction should enable adequate space to be provided in all food-
handling and associated areas for equipment as well as working practices, and frequent cleaning
to be carried out.

Design and decor

The trend towards provision of more attractive eating places, carried to its utmost perhaps by the
chain and franchise operators, has not been without its effect on kitchen planning and design.
One trend has been that of bringing the kitchen area totally or partially into view, with the
development of back-bar type of equipment – for example, where grills or griddles are in full
public view and food is prepared on them to order.

Multi-usage requirements

Round-the-clock requirements such as in hospitals, factories where shift work takes place, the
police and armed forces, have also forced kitchen planners to consider the design of kitchens
with a view to their partial use outside peak times. To this end kitchen equipment is being made
more adaptable and flexible, so that whole sections can be closed down when not in use, in order
to maximise savings on heating, lighting and maintenance.

Kitchen design

Kitchens must be designed so that:

• They can be easily managed.

• Managers must have easy access to the areas under their control.

• Managers i.e. head cooks have good visibility of all the areas that have to be supervised.

• There is no backtracking of staff thus saving on time and energy.

• There is good work flow i.e. there is good movement of raw materials to the finished
product.

• There is proper staff movement i.e. staff working in dirty areas do not enter food
preparation areas or those of finished products.

• Refuse is kept separated and does not pass into other areas in order to reach storage areas.

• There is maximum use of space.

• The kitchen equipment is well sited and is easily accessible by the appropriate staff.

Kitchens can be divided into sections; these must be based on the process. For example:

• Dry areas – for storage

• Wet areas – for fish preparation, vegetable preparation, butchery, cold preparation

• Hot wet areas – for boiling, poaching, steaming; the equipment needed will include
atmospheric steamers, bratt pans, pressure steamers, steam jacketed boilers, combination oven
 • Hot dry areas – for frying, roasting, grilling; equipment needed will include cool zone fryers,
salamanders, pressure fryers, induction cookers, bratt pans, halogen cookers, roasting ovens,
microwave, charcoal grills, cook and hold ovens

• Dirty areas – for refuse, pot wash areas, plate wash; equipment needed will include
compactors, dishwashers, refuse storage units, glass washers, pot wash machines.

The size of the kitchen may depend upon:

• Nature and design of equipment;

• The volume of the operations based on the menu and the extent of the market it is to
serve;

• The number of workers/staff working in the kitchen;

• Materials being used e.g. processed (convenience) or fresh goods.

Planning and layout of the cooking area

Kitchen equipment should be arranged (sited) in a way to reduce backtracking and facilitate the
flow of materials from the store (raw materials) to the servery (finished product).

Layout is not, however, concerned with equipment siting and selection, but also depends on the
type of management policy on use of prepared foods and the operating cycle.

The cooking section should contain no through traffic lanes (used by other staff to travel from
one section to another). The layout should be planned so that raw foodstuffs arrive at one point,
are processed in the cooking section and then despatched to the servery. There should be a
distinct progression in one direction.

• Island groupings

In an island arrangement, equipment is placed back to back in the centre of the cooking area.
Sufficient gangways should be provided around the equipment while space to place other items
along the walls.

• Wall siting

An alternative arrangement involves siting equipment along walls. This arrangement is possible
where travel distances are reduced, and normally occurs in smaller premises (or sections
thereof).
These plans can take the form of gallery or one–sided kitchen plan. In the gallery layout, the
equipment is arranged in two straight lines parallel to each other where as in the later, the
equipment is just arranged on one side of the kitchen forming one straight line.

• L- or U-shaped layouts

L- or U-shaped arrangements create self-contained sections that discourage entry by non-

authorised staff; they can promote efficient working, with distances reduced between work
centres.

Note that:

The kitchen operations must work as a system. It is advisable to site items of equipment used for
specific functions together. This will help increase efficiency and avoid shortcuts.

Hand basins must be sited strategically to encourage frequent hand washing in all food
preparation areas.

When choosing a kitchen location or environment, you should consider the following:

• Space available for efficient working.

• Humidity- high temperatures reduce the productivity level of staff where as low
temperatures can lead to food spoilage and slippery floors and walls.

• Temperature-they should be between 20°c-26°c for maximum working efficiency and

comfort.

• Noise- high level of noise causes distractions to the staff when working.

• Light- there should be proper ventilation and illumination in the room.

Ventilation systems

There are three basic types of ventilation system.

1 Extract: this system only removes air, thereby creating a negative pressure in the space.
Outside air will come into the space wherever it can, usually through doorways, window areas or
specially prepared openings.

2 Inlet: this system is concerned only with the supply of outside air. In this case, the space is
under positive pressure, with the air leaving through doorways or windows. This system is used
mostly in clean spaces, thus preventing contaminants coming in from other areas. It is not a
suitable system for a catering kitchen but may prove useful in areas such as storage rooms and
larders, where it is desirable to prevent contaminants from reaching the foods stored.

3 Combined: this balances the flow of air in and out the space.

KITCHEN EQUIPMENT AND TOOLS

These are tools and equipment used for different functions in the kitchen. They are divided into
three major categories:

(a) Large equipment:- this category comprises of the larger equipment used in the kitchen
e.g. tables, side boards, boiling pans, sinks, fryers, gas ranges, steamers e.t.c.

(b) Mechanical equipment:- this refers to those items of equipment which aid in making
work easier. They use either gas or electricity to operate e.g. peelers, mixers,
mincers, dish wash washers, vacuum cleaners e.t.c.

A vertical food mixer

(c) Small equipment:- this category comprises of the small hand manipulated tools e.g. spoons,
plates, chopping boards, hand held whisk, graters e.t.c.

CATERING SERVICES AND ENERGY

The supply of gas, electricity and water are of vital concern and importance to a caterer. These
services should be made available for the ease of doing work in the catering premises. Such
services include: water, gas, electricity, charcoal and solar.

Water

It is one of the most essential requirements in a catering premise. It is mostly supplied by the
local authorities in the region e.g. the municipal or county council. It can also be obtained from
bore-holes, wells, springs, rivers, harvested rain water, e.t.c. The water supplied by the local
authorities can either be in the form of direct or indirect supplies:
• Direct supply is when the water is supplied straight to the various terminals from the
main pipe and no storage points are used.

• Indirect water supply is when the water, upon reaching the establishment, it is first
pumped in to storage tanks then supplied to the different user terminals.

Each of the above supply ways has its own advantages and disadvantages.

The water should be clean, free from suspended matter, colourless, odourless and tasteless. Fresh
water produces better results than salty water.

Water can be used for the following: cleaning equipment and surfaces, drinking, washing,
recreation, cooking, aesthetics e.t.c.

Electricity

It is one of the most common types of fuel in a catering premise especially in urban areas.
Electricity cannot be seen, heard, stored or smelled. If well installed and used, it is a very safe
and efficient type of fuel but if badly used, it can kill or cause a serious injury. It is mostly
produced from water in hydro-power stations, thermal energy and nuclear energy.
Advantages

• Its clean i.e. it does not pollute the environment.

• It’s easily controlled with immediate switch on or off.

• Labour saving.

• It does not interfere with the environment (it is environment friendly)

• There’s little heat loss.

• Does not require storage space nor facilities.

• Low ventilation requirements.

Disadvantages

• Time taken to heat up in few instances

• Particular items of equipment are required for some hobs.

• More expensive than gas.

GAS

It is also another type of fuel available to most caterers. Obtained from petroleum products and
also decomposed bio-waste.
Advantages

• Convenient and labour saving.

• Produces no dirt or smoke.

• No special utensils are required as in for electricity.

• Can be stored in cylinders.

• Easily controlled with immediate full flames which are visible.

• Cheaper than electricity.

Disadvantages

• Heat is lost to the environment.

• Regular cleaning is required for efficient working.

• Needs adequate ventilation since gas needs oxygen for combustion. Good ventilation also
ensures that the waste gas (co2) is extracted and that satisfactory working environment is
achieved.

• Requires some skill when using.

• Less efficient compared to electricity when running machines.

In case you smell gas, you should:

• Open all windows and doors,

• Check whether a gas tap has been left on, or if a pilot light ha gone out. If so, then turn
off the appliance.

• If in doubt, turn off the gas supply at the meter and phone for emergency service.

Charcoal/ wood

It is the earliest and the most common source of fuel. It is widely used in the rural areas and in
the low class establishments. Charcoal is mostly used in barbeques and grills.

Advantages

• More safe to use

• Readily available

• Very cheap

• Does not require any special skill for one to use

Disadvantages

• Very dirty

• Less efficient than the other types of fuel

• Requires a storage space to keep

• Adequate ventilation is a must because of much smoke it produces

• Environment unfriendly i.e. leads to destruction of trees

Energy conservation

The following are some of the ways which can be applied in relation to energy conservation:

• Replacing high voltage equipment with low voltage ones by referring to their wattage and
running costs.

• Ensuring that all machinery is maintained at its optimum efficiency. This can be achieved
by regular cleaning and servicing of the equipment in accordance with the maintenance manual
requirements.

• Scaling down or omitting certain procedures on the menu when revising them and
replacing equipment.

• Check all pre-heating equipment; overlong pre-heating wastes fuel.

• Constantly review all heating and cooking procedures

• Reducing operating hours if need be or if possible.

• Checking ventilation systems regularly.

• Checking lighting systems regularly-replace bulbs with the energy-efficient bulbs.

• Training the staff on to conserve energy.

Safety precautions when using different types of energy

Various safety precautions should be put into consideration when using different types of energy.
Some of these precautions may apply to almost all the types of energy where as others are
specific e.g.

When using gas:

• Light the burner immediatsely you turn on the gas tap,

• Keep the gas cylinder in cool areas i.e. away from high temperatures,

• Keep off gas appliances from the reach of small children e.

HYGIENE

DFN: normally it is used to refer to the science and practice high standards of cleanliness and
health. It divided in to three broad categories:

• Personal hygiene

• Kitchen/environmental hygiene

• Food hygiene

1.0 Personal hygiene

Germs or bacteria are to be found in and on the body and can be transferred onto anything with
which the body comes in contact. For this reason, personal cleanliness is essential to prevent
germs getting onto food.

Personal cleanliness
Self-respect is necessary in every food-handler because a pride in one’s appearance promotes a
high standard of cleanliness and physical fitness. Persons suffering from ill-health or who are not
clean about themselves should not handle food.

Bathing

It is essential to take a bath or a shower every day (or at least two or three times a week),
otherwise germs can be transferred onto clothes and so onto food, particularly in warm weather.

Hands

Hands must be washed thoroughly and frequently, particularly after using the toilet, before
commencing work and during the handling of food. They should be washed in hot water, with
the aid of a nail brush and bactericidal soap. This can be dispensed from a fixed container, in
liquid or gel form, and is preferable to bar soap, which can accumulate germs when passed from
hand to hand. After washing, hands should be rinsed and dried on a clean towel, suitable paper
towel or by hot-air drier. Hands and fingernails can be a great source of danger if not kept clean,
as they can so easily transfer harmful bacteria to food.

Mouth

There are many germs in the area of the mouth, therefore the mouth or lips should not be touched
by the hands or utensils that may come into contact with food. No cooking utensils should be
used for tasting food, nor should fingers be used for this purpose as germs may be transferred to
the food. A clean teaspoon should be used for tasting, and washed well afterwards.

Coughing over foods and working areas should be avoided as germs are spread long distances if
not trapped in a handkerchief.

Ears

The ear cavities should not be touched while in the kitchen as, again, germs can be transferred.

Teeth
Sound teeth are essential to good health. They should be kept clean, and visits to the dentist
should be regular so that teeth can be kept in good repair.

Feet

As food handlers are standing for many hours, care of the feet is important. They should be
washed regularly, and the toenails kept short and clean. Tired feet can cause general fatigue,
which leads to carelessness, and these results in a lowering of standards of hygiene.

Fingernails

These should always be kept clean and short as dirt can easily lodge under the nails and be
dislodged when, for example, making pastry, so introducing bacteria into food. Nails should be
cleaned with a nail brush; nail varnish should not be worn.

Hair

Hair should be washed regularly and kept covered where food is being handled. Hair that is not
cared for is likely to come out or shed dandruff, which may fall into food. Men’s hair should be
kept short as it is easier to keep clean; it also looks neater. Women’s hair should be covered as
much as possible. Both men’s and women’s hair can be kept in place using a hair net. The hair
should never be scratched, combed or touched in the kitchen, as germs could be transferred via
the hands to the food. Beards should be covered with beard nets.

Nose

The nose should not be touched when food is being handled. If a handkerchief is used, the hands
should be washed afterwards. Ideally, paper handkerchiefs should be used and then destroyed,
and the hands washed afterwards. The nose is an area where there are vast numbers of harmful
bacteria; it is therefore very important that neither food, people nor working surfaces are sneezed
over, so spreading germs.

Cuts, burns and sores

It is particularly important to keep all cuts, burns, scratches and similar openings of the skin
covered with a waterproof dressing. Where the skin is septic (as with certain cuts, spots, sores
and carbuncles) there are vast numbers of harmful bacteria that must not be permitted to get onto
food; in most cases people suffering in this way should not handle food.

Cosmetics

Cosmetics, if used by food handlers, should be used in moderation, but ideally their use should
be discouraged. Cosmetics should not be put on in the kitchen and the hands should be washed
well after applying them; they should be put on clean skin, not used to cover up dirt.

Smoking

Smoking must never take place where there is food, because when a cigarette is taken from the
mouth, germs from the mouth can be transferred to the fingers and so on to food. When the
cigarette is put down, the end that has been in the mouth can transfer germs to work surfaces.
Ash on food is most objectionable and it should be remembered that smoking where there is
food, or in public places, is an offence against the law.

Spitting

Spitting should never occur, because germs can be spread by this objectionable habit.

Clothing and cloths

Clean whites (protective clothing) and clean underclothes should be worn at all times.

Dirty clothes enable germs to multiply and if dirty clothing comes into contact with food the
food may be contaminated. Cloths used for holding hot dishes should also be kept clean as cloths
are used in many ways, such as wiping knives, and wiping dishes and pans.

All such uses could convey germs onto food.

Outdoor clothing, and other clothing that has been taken off before wearing whites, should be
kept in a locker, away from the kitchen.

General health and fitness

The maintenance of good health is essential to prevent the introduction of germs into the kitchen.
To keep physically fit, adequate rest, exercise, fresh air and a wholesome diet are essential.

Sleep and relaxation

Persons employed in the kitchen require adequate sleep and relaxation as they are on the move
all the time, often in a hot atmosphere where the tempo of work may be very fast.

Frequently, the hours are long or extended over a long period of time, as with split duty, or they
may be extended into the night. In off-duty periods it may be wise to obtain some relaxation and
rest rather than spend all the time energetically. The amount of sleep and rest required depends
on each person’s needs –the variation between one person and the next is considerable.

Exercise and fresh air

People working in conditions of nervous tension, rush, heat and odd hours need a change of
environment and particularly fresh air. Swimming, or walking or cycling in the country may be
suitable ways of obtaining both exercise and fresh air.

Wholesome food and pure water

A well-balanced diet, correctly cooked, and pure water will assist in keeping kitchen personnel
fit. The habit of ‘picking’ (eating small pieces of food while working) is bad; it spoils the
appetite and does not allow the stomach to rest.

Meals should be taken regularly; long periods without food are also bad for the stomach.

Pure water is ideal for replacing liquid lost in perspiring in a hot kitchen, or soft drinks may be
taken to replace some of the salt as well as the fluid lost in sweating.

Kitchen clothing

It is most important that people working in the kitchen should wear suitable clothing and
footwear. Suitable clothing must be:

• Protective

• Washable
• Light in weight and comfortable

• Strong

• Absorbent.

Protective

Clothes worn in the kitchen must protect the body from excessive heat. For this reason chef’s
jackets are double-breasted and have long sleeves; these protect the chest and arms from the heat
of the stove and prevent hot foods or liquids burning or scalding the body.

Aprons

These are designed to protect the body from being scalded or burned and particularly to protect
the legs from any liquids that may be spilled; for this reason the apron should be of sufficient
length to protect the legs.

Chefs’ hats

These are designed to enable air to circulate on top of the head and thus keep the head cooler.
The main purpose of the hats is to prevent loose hairs from dropping into food and to absorb
perspiration on the forehead. The use of lightweight disposable hats is both acceptable and
suitable.

Washable

The clothing should be of an easily washable material as many changes of clothing are required.
White clothing is readily seen to be soiled when it needs to be changed and there is a tendency to
work more cleanly when wearing ‘whites’. Chefs’ trousers of blue and white check are a
practical colour but also require frequent changing.

Light and comfortable

Clothing must be light in weight and comfortable, not tight. Heavy clothing would be
uncomfortable and a heavy hat in the heat of the kitchen would cause headaches.
Summary of personal hygiene

The practice of clean habits in the kitchen is the only way to achieve a satisfactory standard of
hygiene. These habits are as follows:

• Hands must be washed frequently and always after using the toilet; food should be handled as
little as possible

• Bathing must occur frequently

• Hair must be kept clean and covered in the kitchen; it should not be combed or handled near
food

• The nose and mouth should not be touched with the hands

• Cough and sneeze into a handkerchief, not over food; people with colds should not be in
contact with food

• Jewellery, rings and watches should not be worn

• Smoking and spitting must not occur where there is food

• Cuts and burns should be covered with a waterproof dressing

• Clean clothing should be worn at all times and only clean cloths used

• Foods should be tasted with a clean spoon

• Tables should not be sat on

• Only healthy people should handle food.

Kitchen hygiene

2.0 Kitchen (environmental ) hygiene

Cleaning can be defined as the application of energy to remove dirt, grease and other soiling.
Cleaning is essential to food safety as well as being a legal requirement for food businesses.
Kitchen hygiene is generally concerned with the overall cleanliness of the food production area
as well as that of the surrounding area.
The need for cleaning

• It reduces the risk of food spoilage and food poisoning.

• It removes materials and food that could provide harbour and nourishment for pests.

• It helps the prompt identification of pest infestation.

• It prevents the physical contamination of food.

• It assists in maintaining a comfortable working environment that is safe and attractive, assisting
in promoting economical and effective working methods.

• It reduces the risk of accidents to customers and staff affected by the work.

• It promotes a quality image to customers.

• It assists in reducing maintenance costs and reduces damage to equipment.

If cleaning is not carried out or is ineffective, various problems can arise stemming from the loss
of product quality, leading to:

• Customer complaints

• Loss of reputation

• Food poisoning and food-borne disease

• Loss of sale

• Legal action

• Increase in food waste

• Contaminated and tainted food

• Corrosion and premature replacement of equipment

• Incorrect use of chemicals, which could damage equipment, floors, walls and food-
preparation surfaces.

Neglect in the care and cleaning of any part of the premises and equipment could lead to a risk of
food infection. Kitchen hygiene is of very great importance to:
• those who work in the kitchen, because clean working conditions are more agreeable to work in
than dirty conditions

• the owners, because custom should increase when the public know the kitchen is clean

• the customer – no one should want to eat food prepared in a dirty kitchen.

Understanding cleaning

Cleaning requires energy. This consists of:

• Physical energy – provided by manual labour (e.g. scrubbing)

• Mechanical energy – provided by machines (e.g. vacuum cleaner)

• Turbulence – used for liquids, and often used in a cleaning place, CIP systems

• Thermal energy – provided by hot water or steam

• Chemical energy – provided by detergents.

Usually, a combination of two or more forms of energy is used.

Disinfectants

The process of disinfection reduces pathogenic bacteria, but not spores or toxins, to levels that
are neither harmful to human health or to the quality of food. Disinfection may be carried out
using:

• heat, preferably moist heat at a temperature above 82°C

• steam

• chemicals, either separately or in combination.

What to disinfect

Surfaces where the levels of bacteria present may have an adverse effect on the quality or safety
of food should be disinfected regularly.

Examples of surfaces
• Direct food contact surfaces: such as chopping boards, knives, work surfaces, mixing bowls,
serving dishes and slicing machines.

• Hand contact surfaces: such as taps, door handles, oven doors, refrigerator doors, light
switches, telephones.

• Hands: disinfection achieved by bactericidal soap, alcohol-based disinfectant.

• Cleaning materials and equipment: mops, cleaning cloths, scrapers, brushes.

Disinfection needs to be carried out carefully to ensure that it is successful and safe.

All chemicals in kitchens and food premises must be food-safe. Manufacturers’ instructions must
always be followed. Careless use of chemicals can be dangerous. After use all detergent must be
well rinsed from food surfaces before disinfecting them, otherwise the disinfectant will not be
able to work properly.

Always use a fresh solution of disinfectant every time a new cleaning task is carried out. Do not
top up existing solutions. Mops and cloths should not be soaked in disinfectant solutions for long
periods, as the solution will weaken and may allow bacteria to grow. The disinfectant must be
allowed to remain on the surface for the contact time recommended by the manufacturer. Always
cleanse thoroughly, unless the manufacturer’s instructions state that rinsing is unnecessary.

Six basic steps for cleaning and disinfection

1 Pre-clean: removal of loose soil by wiping, scraping, rinsing or soaking.

2 Main clean: loosening the remaining soil by use of detergents.

3 Intermediate rinse: removal of soil and chemicals.

4 Disinfection: reduction of the remaining bacteria to a safe level.

5 Final rinse: removal of the disinfectant.

6 Drying: natural (e.g. air drying); physical (e.g. using disposable paper towels or a clean dry
cloth).

If soiling is light, the pre-clean may be combined with the main clean. Disinfection may not be
necessary on all surfaces; when disinfectants are used, disinfection may be incorporated in the
main clean using a chemical sanitiser. This creates a four-stage process: pre-clean; main clean;
disinfection; rinse and dry.

Some types of equipment need to be completely or partly dismantled to allow satisfactory

cleaning. Electrical safety must be checked before machines are cleaned.

Cleaning schedules

It is important for every kitchen and food premises to have a cleaning schedule. This is a plan of
how the cleaning should be carried out. It informs everyone of what is required of them in the
way of cleaning. Cleaning schedules communicate standards and ensure that cleaning is carried
out and managed effectively. A cleaning schedule should include details of:

• what needs to be cleaned – surfaces, items, equipment

• who is to clean them and how often

• when the cleaning should be done

• the methods of cleaning and standards required

• how long the cleaning should take

• what chemicals should be used and the equipment needed to do the cleaning

• what safety measures need to be taken into account and what protective clothing needs to be
worn, e.g. gloves, goggles

• what warning signs are needed while the cleaning is going on

• the signature of the person who carries out the task

• a signature confirming that the work has been checked.

The cleaning process must be monitored regularly and inspected to ensure that the schedule is
being followed, in order to maintain standards. Checking should include the use of rapid
bacterial tests or swabbing.

Technical terms

• Bactericide: a substance that destroys bacteria.

• Cleaning: the removal of soil, food residue, dirt, grease and other foreign matter.

• Detergent: a chemical or mix of chemicals that help(s) to remove grease and food particles so
that surfaces are prepared for the action of disinfectants.

• Disinfectant: a chemical, or heat in the form of water or steam, used for disinfection.

• Disinfection: the reduction of micro-organisms to a level that will not lead to harmful
contamination or the rapid spoilage of food. The term usually refers to the treatment of surfaces
or premises, but may also be applied to aspects of personal hygiene, such as disinfecting the skin.

• Sanitizer: a chemical used for cleaning and disinfecting surfaces and equipment.

• Sterilisation: a process that kills all micro-organisms.

Cleaning materials and equipment

To maintain a hygienic working environment a wide range of materials and equipment is needed.
These are some of the items that need to budgeted for, ordered, stored and issued:

• brooms • buckets • brushes

• cloths • dusters • dustbin powder

• dustbins • floor cleaner • mops

• fly spray • sponges • oven cleaner

• squeegee • plastic sacks • scrubbing machine

• scouring powder • wet suction cleaner • soap • disinfectant.

• dry suction cleaner • steel wool • ammonia • washing powder

Ventilation

Adequate ventilation must be provided so that fumes from stoves are taken out of the
kitchen, and stale air in the stores, larder and still-room is extracted. This is usually effected by
erecting hoods over stoves and using extractor fans.

Hoods and fans must be kept clean; grease and dirt are drawn up by the fan and, if they
accumulate, can drop onto food. Windows used for ventilation should be screened to prevent the
entry of dust, insects and birds. Good ventilation facilitates the evaporation of sweat from the
body, which keeps one cool.
Lighting

Good lighting is necessary so that people working in the kitchen do not strain their eyes.
Natural lighting is preferable to artificial lighting. Good lighting is also necessary to enable staff
to see into corners so that the kitchen can be cleaned properly.

Plumbing

Adequate supplies of hot and cold water must be available for keeping the kitchen clean,
for cleaning food and equipment, and for staff use. For certain cleaning hot water is essential,
and the means of heating water must be capable of meeting the requirements of the
establishment.

There must be hand-washing and drying facilities, and suitable provision of toilets, which
must not be in direct contact with any rooms in which food is prepared or stored. Hand-washing
facilities (separate from food-preparation sinks) must also be available in the kitchen, with a
suitable means of drying the hands (hot-air drier or paper towels).

Cleaning of toilets and sinks

Toilets must never be cleaned by food handlers. Sinks and hand basins should be cleaned and
thoroughly rinsed.

Floors

Kitchen floors have to withstand a considerable amount of wear and tear, therefore they must be:

• capable of being cleaned easily

• even

• smooth, but not slippery

• without cracks or open joints

• impervious (non-absorbent).
Thorough cleaning is essential: floors are swept, washed with hot detergent water and then dried.
This can be done by machine or by hand, and should be carried out at least once a day. As a
safety precaution, suitable warning signs should be used to alert staff if the floor is wet.

Walls

Walls should be strong, smooth, impervious, washable and light in colour. The join between the
wall and floor should be rounded for ease of cleaning. Suitable wall surfaces include ceramic
tiles, heat-resistant plastic sheeting, stainless-steel sheeting, and resin-bonded fibreglass.

Clean with hot detergent water and dry. This will probably be done monthly, but the
frequency will depend on circumstances.

Ceilings

Ceilings must be free from cracks and flaking. They should not be able to harbour dirt.

Doors and windows

Doors and windows should fit correctly and be clean. The glass should be clean inside and out so
as to admit maximum light.

Food lifts

Lifts should be kept very clean and no particles of food should be allowed to accumulate as lift
shafts are ideal places for rats, mice and insects to gain access to kitchens.

Hygiene of kitchen equipment

Kitchen equipment should be so designed that it can be:

• cleaned easily

• readily inspected to see that it is clean.

 Failure to maintain equipment and utensils hygienically and in good repair may cause
food poisoning. Manufacturers’ instructions must always be followed. Material used in the
construction of equipment must be:

• Hard, so that it does not absorb food particles

• Smooth, so as to be cleaned easily

• Resistant to rust

• Resistant to chipping.

Routine cleaning of materials

• Metals: as a rule all metal equipment should be cleaned immediately after use.

• Portable items: remove food particles and grease. Wash by immersion in hot detergent water.
Thoroughly clean with a hard bristle brush or soak until this is possible. Rinse in water at 77°C,
by immersing in the water in wire racks.

• Fixed items: remove all food and grease with a stiff brush or soak with a wet cloth, using hot
detergent water. Thoroughly clean with hot detergent water, rinse with clean water, disinfect and
dry with a clean cloth.

• Abrasives: should be used only in moderation as their constant scratching of the surface makes
it more difficult to clean the article next time.

• Marble: scrub with a bristle brush and hot water and detergent, then sanitise and leave to dry.

• Wood: scrub with a bristle brush and hot detergent water, rinse and dry.

• Plastic: wash in reasonably hot water.

• China/earthenware: avoid extremes of heat and do not clean with an abrasive. Wash in hot
water, disinfect or sanitise, and leave to dry.

• Stainless steel: stainless steel is easy to clean. Soak in hot detergent water. Clean with a brush,
sanitise, rinse and leave to dry.

• Tin: tin that is used to line pots and pans should be soaked, washed in detergent water then
immersed in very hot water (82°C) and dried. Tinned utensils, where thin sheet steel has a thin
coating of tin, must be thoroughly dried; otherwise they are likely to rust.

• Zinc: This is used to coat storage bins of galvanised iron and should not be cleaned with a hard
abrasive.
• Vitreous enamel: clean with a damp cloth and dry. Avoid using abrasives.

• Equipment requiring particular care in cleaning (e.g. sieves, conical strainers, mincers and
graters): extra attention must be paid to these items, because food particles clog the holes. The
holes can be cleaned by using the force of the water from the tap, by using a bristle brush and by
moving the article, particularly a sieve, up and down in the sink, so causing water to pass through
the mesh. Whisks must be thoroughly cleaned where the wires cross at the end opposite the
handle as food can lodge between the wires. The handle of the whisk must also be kept clean.
The use of detergents/sanitizers is recommended.

• Saws and choppers/mandolins: these items should be cleaned in hot detergent water, dried and
greased slightly.

• Tammy cloths, muslins and piping bags: after use they should be emptied and food particles
scraped out, scrubbed carefully and boiled. They should then be rinsed and allowed to dry.
Certain piping bags made of plastic should be washed in very hot water and dried. Nylon piping
bags should not be boiled.

Procedure for cleaning of large electrical equipment (ovens, mincers, mixers, choppers, slicers)

1 Switch off the machine and remove the electric plug.

2 Remove particles of food with a cloth, palette knife, needle or brush as appropriate.

3 Thoroughly clean with hand-hot detergent water all removable and fixed parts. Pay particular
attention to threads and plates with holes in mincers. Disinfect using a sanitizer or equivalent.

4 Rinse thoroughly.

5 Dry and reassemble.

6 While cleaning, see that exposed blades are not left uncovered or unguarded, and that the
guards are replaced when cleaning is complete.

7 Any specific maker’s instructions should be observed.

8 Test that the machine is properly assembled by plugging in and switching on.

All equipment, once cleaned, should be stored properly.

Washing up
The correct cleaning of all equipment used for the serving and cooking of food is of vital
importance to prevent the multiplication of bacteria. This cleaning may be divided into the pan
wash (plonge) or scullery, and the china wash-up.

Scullery

For the effective washing up of pots and pans and other kitchen equipment the following method
of work should be observed:

• pans should be scraped and all food particles placed in a bin

• hot pans should be allowed to cool before being plunged into water

• pans that have food stuck to them should be allowed to soak (pans used for starchy foods, such
as porridge and potatoes, are best soaked in cold water)

• frying pans should be thoroughly wiped with a clean cloth; they should not be washed unless
absolutely necessary

• trays and tins used for pastry work should be thoroughly cleaned with a clean dry cloth, while
warm

• pots, pans and other equipment should be washed and cleaned with a stiff brush, steel wool or
similar article, in hot detergent water

• pan scrubbers are electrically driven with a hydraulic or flexible drive transmission; brush-type
heads can be varied to suit differing surfaces or types of soiling; pan scrubbers can either be wall
mounted near the pot wash or free standing mounted on mobile dollies to assist with equipment
cleaning

• the washing-up water must be changed frequently; it must be kept both clean and hot

• the cleaned items should be rinsed in very hot clean water to sterilise

• pans that have been sterilised (minimum temperature 82°C) dry quickly; if it has not been
possible to rinse in very hot water they should be dried with a clean cloth

• equipment should be stored on clean racks; pans should be stacked upside down.

China wash-up

The washing up of crockery and cutlery may be done by hand or machine.

 Hand washing

• Remove scraps from plates with a scraper or by hand.

• Wash in water containing a detergent as hot as the hands can bear (whether gloves are worn or
not).

• Place utensils in wire baskets and immerse them into water thermostatically controlled at 82°C
for at least two minutes.

• The hot utensils will air-dry without the use of a drying cloth.

• Both the washing and sterilising water must be kept clean and at the correct temperature.

Machine washing up

There are several types of machine that wash and sterilise crockery. In the more modern
versions, the detergent is automatically fed in as the machine operates continuously.

To be effective the temperature of the water must be high enough to kill any harmful bacteria
and the articles passing through the machine must be subjected to the water for sufficient time to
enable the detergent water to cleanse all the items thoroughly. The detergent used must be of the
correct amount and strength to be effective. Alternatively, low-temperature equipment is
available that sterilises by means of a chemical: sodium hypochlorite (bleach).

Where brushes are used they must be kept free from food particles.

Finformation

Control and disposal of waste

Waste material is a potential threat to food safety because it is a source of contamination that can
provide food for a variety of pests. There is a ‘duty of care’ under the Environmental Protection
Act 1990 that makes the catering organisation responsible for its waste. It is a legal requirement
to use licensed waste contractors, who must issue the caterer with a ‘waste transfer notice’. Any
special waste might need dealing with separately (e.g. chemicals, flammable substances,
potentially infectious material).

There is also a legal requirement that attempts to deal with the reduction of packaging.
Large businesses must register with the Environmental Protection Agency and make efforts to
reduce the amount of packaging they generate as waste. Most establishments will have an area
for ‘pure’ or unusable waste in dustbins. Provisions in such an area can be provided for
accumulating recyclables, bearing in mind the need for safety and hygiene.
Waste can be divided into the following groups.

• Dry non-food waste: this comes mainly from packaging wood, cardboard and plastic, some of
which can be sorted for resale. Cardboard and paper can be compacted by a waste compactor
machine.

• Dry food waste: this can either be

(a) disposed of at source in a waste disposal unit, which grinds the waste into small particles,
mixed with water and flushed into the drainage system, or

(b) stored in galvanised-steel bins with close-fitting lids for disposal to swill collectors.

• Unsavoury or offensive food waste: this should be disposed of immediately, where possible
using a waste disposal unit.

• Waste cooking oils and fats: large quantities have a re-sale value, small quantities can be
absorbed into dry food waste.

• Bulky waste: this can be disposed of by either

(a) incineration (only by using specific equipment or in isolated areas) or

(b) by compaction.

The advantages of compaction are: small, compact bulks easier to handle; less
accessibility to pests; saving in refuse-collection charges, which are often calculated by volume.

The refuse site should be a clean and easy-to-clean area with a water supply for washing down,
and adequate drainage. The site should be well lit and well ventilated. For general internal
rubbish, plastic- or paper-lined bins that can be destroyed with the rubbish are preferable to other
types of bin.

In the kitchen there must be sufficient waste bins provided at every work area. The bins should:

• have tight fitting lids

• be lined with disposable plastic sacks

• not be overfilled

• be emptied regularly

• be cleaned daily
• not left in kitchens overnight.

Kitchen hygiene: preventing infection

Infection can be spread by:

• Humans – coughing, sneezing, by the hands, etc.

• Animals, insects, birds – droppings, hair, etc.

• Inanimate objects – towels, dishcloths, knives, boards, etc.

Pest control

The best methods of controlling pests are through maintaining high hygiene standards including:

• The food premises to be kept clean and in good repair

• Food stocks to be inspected and rotated regularly

• Windows and other openings to the outside environment to be fitted with insect-proof screens
in food rooms

• No food scraps to be left lying around

• Dustbins and swill bins to be covered with tight-fitting lids and emptied regularly, especially in
summer

• It is also good practice to employ a pest control contractor to regularly inspect the site and give
advice.

To control flies, the best method is to eliminate their breeding place. As they breed in rubbish
and in warm, moist places, dustbins in summer are ideal breeding grounds; correct control and
disposal of waste is paramount.Further information

Why pest problems occur

A wide variety of insects, mites and a few bird species enter catering premises for the reasons
discussed below.

Food

Even in small quantities, food enables pests to survive and increase their population. E.g. An
adult brown rat eats only 28 grams of food per day, an adult house mouse can exist on as little as
3 grams a day and the minute ‘store product beetles’ consume only milligrams (thousandths of
grams) daily!

Warmth

Pests of all types are attracted to buildings that offer even a limited amount of warmth and
shelter from the chilly outdoors. A few degrees’ increase in temperature inside helps to provide
conditions in which breeding is enhanced, particularly where pests such as cockroaches and
stored product insects are concerned.

Shelter

Almost every building provides a variety of harbourages for pests. Contrary to common
supposition, it is newer buildings, with their suspended ceilings, panelled walls, service ducts
and enclosed electrical trunking, that are more likely to create a risk.

Access

Open doors, windows and lack of general maintenance permit easy access to catering premises
for pests.

3.0 FOOD HYGIENEmsaporigujp’uxjpibsdgfujiptdsujhp9etiudsjjjjj

Food is safe to eat provided it is prepared, stored and cooked correctly. If, however, the correct
procedures are not followed it becomes a hazard and those who consume it may become ill; in
some cases it could prove fatal.

The main food hazards are:

• Bacteria

• Chemicals

• Viruses

• Moulds and yeasts

• Physical contaminants.
Food spoilage

Unless foods are preserved they deteriorate; therefore, to keep them in an edible condition it is
necessary to know what causes food spoilage. In the air there are certain micro-organisms called
moulds, yeasts and bacteria, which cause foods to go bad.

There are two main types of spoilage:

 Chemical – This is due to enzyme activity in foods e.g. over-ripening, breakdown of

protein in meat leading to oxidation and rancidity.

 Microbial – This is due to the presence of micro-organisms in the food. The micro-
organisms attack the food leading to spoilage and, in some cases, food poisoning.

Chemical spoilage

Food spoilage can occur due to other causes, such as by chemical substances called enzymes,
which are produced by living cells. Fruits are ripened by the action of enzymes; they do not
remain edible indefinitely because other enzymes cause the fruit to become over-ripe and spoil.

Foods must be refrigerated or heated to a temperature high enough to destroy the enzymes. Acid
retards the enzyme action: lemon juice, for example, prevents the browning of bananas or apples
when they are cut into slices.

Microbial spoilage

a. Moulds

 These are simple plants that appear like whiskers on foods, particularly sweet foods, meat
and cheese.

 To grow, they require warmth, air, moisture, darkness and food; they are killed by heat
and sunlight.

 Moulds can grow where there is too little moisture for yeasts and bacteria to grow, and
will be found on jams and pickles.
 Although most of the time moulds are not harmful, they do cause foods to taste musty
and to be wasted. There are a couple of types of moulds that are dangerous to health, so it is best
not to eat them.

 Correct storage in a dry cold store prevents moulds from forming.

N.B: Not all moulds are destructive. Some are used to flavour cheese (Stilton, Roquefort) or to
produce antibiotics (penicillin, streptomycin).

b. Yeasts

 These are single-cell plants or organisms, larger than bacteria, which grow on foods
containing moisture and sugar.

 Foods containing only a small percentage of sugar and a large percentage of liquid, such
as fruit juices and syrups, are liable to ferment because of yeasts.

 Foodstuffs should be kept under refrigeration or they may be spoiled by yeasts.

c. Viruses

 A virus is a germ that causes disease. Viruses are even smaller than bacteria. Viruses
multiply once eaten so only a small number of these tiny micro-organisms is needed to cause
illness.

 Viruses can be also passed from person to person via poor personal hygiene, such as not
washing your hands after visiting the toilet.

d. Bacteria

 Bacteria are minute plants, or organisms, that require moist, warm conditions and a
suitable food to multiply. They spoil food by attacking it, leaving waste products, or by
producing poisons in the food.
 Their growth is checked by refrigeration and they are killed by heat. Certain bacterial
forms (spores) are more resistant to heat than others and require higher temperatures to kill them.

 Pressure cooking destroys heat-resistant bacterial spores provided the food is cooked for
a sufficient length of time, because increased pressure increases the temperature; therefore heat-
resistant bacterial spores do not affect canned foods as the foods are cooked under pressure in the
cans. Acids are generally capable of destroying bacteria, such as vinegar in pickles.

Food poisoning

Food poisoning is an illness acquired from eating contaminated food. This usually means
contaminated with bacteria, viruses or a chemical, poisonous plant or an actual physical item. It
can be characterised by stomach pains and diarrhoea, and sometimes vomiting, generally
developing within 1–36 hours after eating affected foods.

Food poisoning can result from:

 Ignorance of the rules of hygiene

 Carelessness, thoughtlessness or neglect

 Poor standards of equipment or facilities to maintain hygienic standards

 Accidents.

Food poisoning can be prevented by:

 High standards of personal hygiene

 Attention to physical fitness

 Maintaining good working conditions

 Maintaining equipment in good repair and in clean condition

 Adequate provision of cleaning facilities and cleaning equipment

 Correct storage of foodstuffs at the right temperature

 Correct reheating of food

 Quick cooling of foods prior to storage

 Protection of food from vermin and insects

 Hygienic washing-up procedure

 Food handlers knowing how food poisoning is caused

 Food handlers carrying out correct procedures to prevent food poisoning.

To prevent food poisoning everyone concerned with food must:

 Prevent bacteria from multiplying

 Prevent bacteria from spreading from place to place.

Sources of infection

Food-poisoning bacteria live in:

• The soil (Bacillus cereus, Clostridium perfringens, Listeria)

• Humans – intestines, nose, throat, skin, cuts, sores, spots, and so on (Staphylococcus)

• Animals, insects and birds – intestines, skin, and so on (Salmonellae, Campylobacter, E.

coli).

Causes of food poisoning

Food poisoning results when harmful foods are eaten, contaminated by:

 Chemicals that entered foods accidentally during the growth, preparation or cooking of
the food (e.g. from pesticides and cleaning fluids)

 Germs (harmful bacteria) that have entered the food from humans, animals or other
sources and the bacteria themselves, or the toxins (poisons) produced in the food by certain
bacteria have caused the foods to be harmful; by far the greatest number of cases of food
poisoning are caused by harmful bacteria.
 Bacteria and viruses that have come from people, animal, insects, raw food, rubbish, dust,
water and the air; the bacteria or toxins (poisons) produced in the food by certain bacteria have
caused the food to become harmful.

 Contamination can also come from physical items (e.g. dirty clothing or touching the
food).

Chemical and metallic food poisoning

Residues of drugs, pesticides and fertilisers may be present in raw materials. Pesticides sprayed
onto fruit and vegetables just prior to harvesting may result in cumulative toxic effects.

Chemicals can enter foodstuffs by leakage, spillage or other accidents during processing or
preparation.

Several metals are toxic and if ingested in sufficient quantities can give rise to food poisoning.
The symptoms, mainly vomiting and abdominal pain usually develop within an hour, diarrhoea
may also occur.

Metals may be absorbed by growing crops or contaminate food during processing.

Acid foods should not be cooked or stored in equipment containing any of the following metals:

 Antimony: used in the enamel coating of equipment. Under certain conditions antimony
poisoning can occur.

 Cadmium: used extensively for plating utensils and fittings for electric cookers and
refrigeration apparatus. It is attacked by some acids, including fruit and wines. Foods, such as
meat, placed directly on refrigerator shelves containing cadmium may become poisonous.

 Lead: a very poisonous metal if ingested. Fruit and leafy vegetables can become
contaminated by lead through airborne lead from petrol and incinerators.

 Tin and iron: most cans used for the storage of food are constructed of tin-plated iron
sheet. Occasionally, due to prolonged storage, certain acid foods, such as pineapples, rhubarb,
strawberries, citrus fruits and tomatoes, react with the tin plate and hydrogen gas is produced.
Iron and tin are absorbed by the food, which may become unfit for human consumption.

 Zinc: used in the galvanising of metals. Galvanised equipment should not be used in
direct contact with food, particularly acid foods.
 Aluminium: there has been for some time some concern over the use of aluminium in
kitchens. Some evidence exists that there is a link between pre-senile dementia and aluminium.

Prevention of chemical food poisoning

Chemical food poisoning can be prevented by:

 Using correctly maintained and suitable kitchen utensils

 Obtaining food from reliable sources (i.e. sources that employ good farming practices)

 Care in the use of substances hazardous to health (e.g. rat poison).

Bacterial food poisoning

Bacteria are minute, single-celled organisms that can be seen only under a microscope.

They are everywhere in our surroundings and, as most bacteria cannot move by themselves, are
transferred to something by coming into direct contact with it.

Food contaminated by bacteria (germs) is by far the most common cause of food poisoning.
Cross-contamination is when bacteria are transferred from contaminated to uncontaminated
foods via hands, boards, knives, surfaces, and so on.

To prevent the transfer of bacteria by cross-contamination, the following points should be

observed:

 Ensure food is obtained from reliable sources

 Handle foods as little as possible; when practicable use tongs, palette knives, disposable
plastic gloves, and so on

 Ensure utensils and work surfaces are clean and sanitised

 Use cloths impregnated with a bactericide that fades in colour when no longer effective

 Pay particular attention when handling raw poultry, meat and fish

 Wash raw fruits and vegetables

 Clean methodically and as frequently as necessary; clean as you go

 Keep foods covered as much as possible

 Have boards and knives coloured for particular foods – for example, red for raw meat,
blue for raw fish, yellow for cooked meat.

 Take particular care in the thorough reheating of made-up dishes..

For the multiplication of bacteria certain conditions are necessary:

 Food must be of the right kind

 Moisture must be adequate

 Temperature must be suitable

 Time must pass.

Types of food-poisoning bacteria

The commonest food-poisoning bacteria are:

• The salmonella group (causing food poisoning because of large numbers of bacteria in the
food)

• Staphylococcus aureus (ausing food poisoning due to poison (toxin) production in the food)

• Clostridium perfringens (causing food poisoning due to large numbers of bacteria-producing

toxins in the intestines).

Salmonella group

These bacteria can be present in the intestines of animals or human beings; they are excreted and
anything coming into contact directly or indirectly with the excreta may be contaminated (raw
meat at the slaughterhouse or the unwashed hands of an infected person).

Salmonella infection is the result of human beings or animals eating food contaminated by
salmonella-infected excreta originating from human beings or animals, so completing a chain of
infection. For example, when flies land on the excreta of a dog that has eaten infected dog meat
and the flies then go on to food, if that food is then left out in warm conditions for a time, the
people who eat the contaminated food could well suffer from food poisoning.
The foods most commonly affected by the salmonella group are poultry, meat and eggs (rarely
processed egg products or duck eggs, although some hens’ eggs have been found to be infected
with salmonella).

• Incubation period: 12–36 hours

• Symptoms: fever, headache, diarrhoea, vomiting

• Prevention: thorough cooking, correct storage.

Staphylococcus aureus

These germs are present on human hands and other parts of the skin, or sores, spots, and so on,
and in the nose and throat.

Foods affected by Staphylococcus aureus include those that have been handled, where the hands
have been infected from the nose or throat, cuts, etc. Brawn, pressed beef, pies and custards are
foods frequently contaminated in this way (either by food handlers or airborne infection) because
they are ideal foods for the multiplication of the bacterium.

• Incubation period: 2–6 hours

• Symptoms: severe vomiting

• Prevention: personal hygiene, exclusion of carriers

Clostridium perfringens

These bacteria are distributed from the intestines of humans and animals, and are found in the
soil. Foods affected by Clostridium perfringens include raw meat, which is the main source of
these bacteria, the spores of which survive light cooking.

• Incubation period: 8–22 hours

• Symptoms: diarrhoea, severe stomach cramp

• Prevention: through cooking and rapid cooling, prevention of cross-contamination

Bacillus cereus
Bacillus cereus is found in soil where vegetables and cereals, like rice, may grow. Long, moist
storage of warm cooked food, especially rice, allows the spores to germinate into bacteria, which
multiply and produce toxins.

• Incubation period: 1–5 hours (common type)

• Symptoms: vomiting, diarrhoea

• Prevention: thorough cooking of rice; avoid cooking and storing rice in bulk, especially at
ambient temperatures

Escherichia coli (E. coli)

Found in the intestinal flora of man and animals, E. coli is usually an indicator of faecal
contamination of food or water. However, certain strains are known to be pathogenic and
produce an enterotoxin in the intestine that results in symptoms of abdominal pain and diarrhoea.
One group of pathogenic E. coli is responsible for severe infantile diarrhoea and another group
causes travellers’ diarrhoea. E. coli has been recorded at temperatures as low as 4_C.

Found in human sewage water and raw meat, the onset period can be between 10 and

72 hours, but usually occurs within 12 to 24 hours. Symptoms are abdominal pain, fever,
diarrhoea and vomiting for one to three days.

• Incubation period: 10–72 hours

• Symptoms: vomiting, diarrhoea (kidney failure and death with certain strains)

• Prevention: personal hygiene, thorough cooking, avoiding cross-contamination from raw to

cooked food, proper temperature control.

Listeria bacteria

They are aerobic, non-sporing organisms that can cause serious food-borne disease, particularly
in the elderly, the chronically sick or babies. These bacteria are found in soil, vegetables and
animal feed. They are killed by correct cooking but grow at refrigeration temperatures and in
mildly acidic conditions such as that found in soft cheeses where lactic acid is present.
COMMODITIES

MEAT

Meat is a general term which refers to edible animal flesh i.e. all that which can be taken or
consumed by human beings without causing any negative effects e.g. beef, chicken, fish, duck,
goose, veal, lamb, mutton e.t.c.

Meat consists of fibres which may be long, as in the silverside of beef or short as in a fillet of
beef. The shorter the fibre, the more easily digested and tender is the meat.

Meat is carved across the grain to assist in digestion of the fibres. Carving across ensures that the
connective fibres are cut down in to smaller pieces. This ensures that the meat is easily cooked
and digested easily.

Meat is made up of 2 main types of connective tissues:

 The yellow connective tissue (elastin)

 The white connective tissue (collagen)

Both decompose to form gelatine after cooking.

Food value of meat

Meat contains proteins, variable amounts of fat, water, iron and thiamine. It is therefore an
important body building food.

Bacon from pigs is particularly a valuable source of thiamine.

Liver and kidneys are also protein foods. They contain less fat than most meats but are a good
source of iron and other mineral salts.

Fish is well known for its high content of iodine, calcium and phosphorous.

Meats also contain vitamin A and vitamin D.

Health
Consumption of large quantities of meat, including poultry, like overconsumption of any caloric
food, has certain adverse effects which can include: obesity, heart disease, and constipation. In
recent years, health concerns have been raised about the consumption of meat increasing the risk
of cancer. Bird and animal fat, particularly from ruminants, tends to have a higher percentage of
saturated fat vs. monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fat when compared to vegetable fats, with
the exception of some tropical plant fats; consumption of which has been correlated with various
health problems. The saturated fat found in meat has been associated with significantly raised
risks of colon cancer

BEEF

Beef is the meat obtained from domesticated cattle.

Compared to other types of meat, it has longer connective tissues which make it to be tougher
taking longer cooking time and also digestion period. However, beef can be made more tender
(soft) by:

 Hanging the meat after slaughtering as in butcheries for up to 14 days under the right
conditions.

 Marinating by use of vinegar or lemon juice.

 Use of tenderising salts or chemicals.

 Beating up meat pieces by use of meat hammer (steak hammer) before grilling or frying.

 Use of enzymes that break down the protein e.g papain from the leaves of pawpaw tree is
injected to the blood stream of the animal just before slaughtering to ensure that it is evenly
distributed.

N B: Tenderness in beef is probably the most important factor taken into account when judging
the quality of beef.

Quality purchasing points for fresh beef.

 Fat- should be firm, brittle in texture and creamy white. Older animals have fat which is
softer and yellowish in colour. Should be moderate and not too much.

 Marbling- in lean meat is formed by small droplets of fat which should be evenly
distributed, especially in sirloin steak wing and also fore ribs.

 Colour- the colour of the meat should be bright red. The cut surface may become dull and
sticky after it is exposed to air for some time.

 Touch- lean beef should be firm and elastic to the touch and not flabby.

 Fluid- any moisture on the cut surface should be watery, not thick and sticky to the
touch. The beef should not be over moist or too dry.

 Grains- the grains should be fine. Long coarse fibres are a sign of cheaper quality cut of
beef.

Storage.

Large sections of meat such as sides, fore quaters, hind quarters, whole sirloins and rumps
should be suspended on meat hooks from racks fixed to the ceiling of the cold room.

Cuts of beef should be stored on trays at 2°c and covered to prevent drying out of hthe cut
surfaces. The trays need to be changed daily to prevent the meat from lying on the collected
blood.

Chilled beef should be stored at -2°c (28° F) and frozen beef at -18°c (0° F)

Cooking beef

The following are the methods which may be used in cooking beef:

Method Joint/cut

Roasting Topside, fore rib, middle rib, strip loin, wing rib, whole fillet.
Poele’ cooking Fillet, strip loin

Grilling

Rump (point and rump steak)

Whole sirloin (T- bone and potter house steaks)

Strip loin ( sirloin and minute steaks)

Fillet (chateaubriand, fillet steak, tournedos)

Wing ribs (rib steaks)

Fore rib (rib steaks)

Shallow fryingAs for grilling

Boiling Silverside, thin flank, brisket, ox tongue, tripe

Stewing Shin, topside, thick flank, thin flank, chuck rib, clod and sticking, plate, brisket,
leg of mutton cut, kidneys, tripe.

Sautéing Fillet, strip loin

Braising Topside, thick flank, middle rib, chunk rib, leg of mutton cut, ox-tail, ox tongue,
ox heart, ox liver, tripe and sweet breads.

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2a/US_Beef_cuts.svg
POULTRY

Poultry is a category of domesticated birds kept by humans for the purpose of collecting their
eggs, or raising for their meat and/or feathers. Poultry also includes other birds which are killed
for their meat, such as pigeons or doves or birds considered to be game, like pheasants. Poultry
comes from the French/Norman word, poule, itself derived from the Latin word Pullus, which
means small animal. Examples of poultry are chicken, guinea fowl, duck, ostrich, pigeons,
doves, pheasants, turkey

Poultry is the second most widely eaten meat in the world, accounting for about 30% of meat
production worldwide, after pork at 38%.

The meatiest parts of a bird are the flight muscles on its chest, called breast meat, and the
walking muscles on the first and second segments of its legs, called the thigh and drumstick,
respectively. The wings are also eaten, usually (in the United States) without separating them, as
in Buffalo wings; the first and second segment of the wings are referred to as drumette (meatier)
and flat when these need to be distinguished, though these are technical terms.

Nutritive value of poultry

- Chicken is a easily digested source of protein to the human body as it has no strong
connective tissues as in meat.

- It provides some B vitamins, calcium and a little iron to the body.

- It is suitable for invalids, infants and convalescent diets because it is easy to chew and
digest.

Cuts of poultry-chicken

Techniques associated with poultry

• Plucking-it is the pulling of feathers against the way they lie after dipping in water before
it reaches boiling point.

• Stubbing-removing of short tick feathers with the point of a knife and the thumb, washing
them off the fingers in boiled water.

• Singing-burning (singe) of hairs with a gas stuffer or a charcoal jiko and also to remove
the smell of raw chicken.

• Trussing- done with a kitchen or a needle. It refers to the tying of chicken before roasting
so as to ensure that it maintains its shape and that the drum sticks and the legs do not open up
and break apart.

Types of chicken

• A poussin- is a very small chicken suitable for one person and weighs up to 600 grams. It
is normally of 4-6 weeks old. It is suitable for roasting and grilling.

• Broiler- is a young chicken specially bred and quickly fattened to produce a good sized
bird in a short time. Its suitable for all methods of cooking. Also referred to as “poulet de grain”.

• Roasting chicken/ broiling fowl (poularde)- its a fully grown prime bird of about 1-1.5
kilograms.

• Boiling fowl- usually they are tough old birds which have completed their laying season.
They are best for gentle stewing or braising.

• Giblets- refers to the edible internal organs of a bird and includes the following: gizzards,
heart, liver, and the neck. They can also be used for preparation of chicken stock apart from the
main meal.

Methods of cooking poultry.

-May be roasted whole when stuffed with rosemary leaves, chopped onions e.t.c. Done in the
oven.

-Chicken can be boiled and used for cold preparations.

-Can be casseroled, grilled or fried.

Signs of quality.
-plumb breast

-pliable breast bone

-firm flesh

-white skin, unbroken and with a faint bluish tint

-long hairs on the skin

FISH AND SEA FOOD PRODUCTS

Fish is an important t alternative to meat in the provision of high biological value proteins. Fish
is divided in to 3 main categories:

• Oily fish

• White fish

• Shell fish

Fish can be obtained from both fresh and salty water. Currently fish is reared in fish ponds in
homes thus making it readily available to many people when needed.

a) Oily fish.

• They have dark flesh, ranging from light brown to deep pink.

• The oil in their body is distributed evenly

• They are always round in shape

• Have vitamins A and D dispersed in their flesh evenly

• They are richer in nutrients, are less easy to digest, therefore less suitable for young
children, invalids and those on a restricted diet.

• Except for whitebait, they are normally deep fried.

• Have strong, more pronounced flavour.

Examples are: sardines, trout, herring, and salmon.

b) White fish

• The flesh is always white in colour when cooked.

• The oil is stored in the liver and may be extracted and sold as vitamin-rich oil, for
example cod liver oil.

• Can further be classified as round or flat.

• Have fat soluble vitamins A and D found in the liver.

• Are easily digested thus suitable for young children, invalids and those on a restricted
diet.

• Have delicate flavour.

• Most of the species are deep fried

Examples are: cod, haddock, plaice, whiting e.t.c.

c) Shell fish

• Classified into 2 categories- crustacean

- mollusca

• The fish is composed of protein, some fat and water.

• Most of the fat is in the liver.

• Shell fish is rather difficult to digest owing to the closely knit long fibres. All sea fish
supply iodine to the body.

The following features can be used to aid in identification of fish:

• Fins- shape and position

• Colour/ marking- barred/ stripped, mottled, speckled, blotched e.t.c.

• Scales- large, small, abundance

• Size- varies with each species

• Shape- round, flat, compact, elongated

Food value of fish

• It is a valuable source of animal proteins and although on the whole it contains rather less
proteins than meat.

• It is also a useful source of calcium, phosphorous, and nicotinic while sea fish in addition
has traces of iodine which prevents goitre and fluorine thus preserving the teeth.

• Certain fish also contain some fat which provides the body with vitamin A and D.

Structure of fish.

- The structure of fish jut like meat is composed of muscle fibres which vary in length and
thickness in different fish species.

- In lobsters the muscle fibres are long and coarse, fairy longer and coarse in cod fish but very
fine and short in herring.

- On the whole, the fibres in fish are shorter and finer than those of meat and more over they are
packed together in flakes with little connective tissues.

- Any connective tissue occurs only between the flakes and the fat is dispersed among the fibres.

Effects of heat on fish

- Fish behaves like meat on cooking i.e the liquid protein coagulates at temperatures from 60
70°c and at 70°c the juices begin to be squeezed out.

- Due to its small amount of connective tissues, fish needs short cooking period. If over cooked,
the flakes fall apart, the juices run out and the fibres become dry and tough.

Cooking methods for fish

• Frying- can be deep fried after coating with batter, breadcrumbs and egg, or flour and
egg. Coating acts to ensure that juices do not run out of the fish. Whole fish can be deep fried
without coating.

• Grilling- it involves brushing the outer surface of the fish with liquid fat/oil and then
dredging lightly with flour. The oil should be moderately hot and the fish turned only once to
keep it from breaking.

• Poaching- cooking fish in very little liquid to which salt, lemon juice and vinegar have
been added. Onions and herbs may also be added for flavour. The liquid should be allowed to
simmer gently, and is from time to time basted over the fish.

Quality purchasing points.

a) Whole fish-

• Smell- whole some, pleasant

• Scales (if any)- plentiful and firmly attached

• Eyes- bright, prominent

• Gills- bright, pinkish

• Flesh- firm, springs back in to shape when pressed

• Skin- covered with a fresh sea line, undamaged and free from bruising and discolouration

N.B: unpleasant smell of ammonia, sunken eyes, dull, darkly coloured gills, and soft flabby flesh
indicate a fish that has deteriorated in quality.

b) Cuts of fish

• Good colour without discolouration

• Firm to the touch

• Free from stickiness

• Pleasant smell
c) Frozen fish

• No signs of thawing when delivered

• Encased in a coating of ice

• No sign of dryness or discolouration

N.B: the flesh of white fish discolours and turns yellow when stored frozen for a long time.

Points to note when purchasing fish

• Whenever possible, purchase daily.

• Purchase either directly from a wholesale fish market or from a local wholesale or retail
fish market.

• Check all fish on arrival for quantity, quality and return any that are damaged or
unsatisfactorily.

• Fish should be delivered packed in layers of ice, especially in periods of warm weather.

• Medium sized fish (in relation to their maximum size) will provide the best value.

• All types of fish should be well fleshed and fell heavy for their size.

• Avoid purchasing fish when out of season and not in peak condition.

Storage of fresh fish

• Use a separate fish refrigerator or a part of a refrigerator especially reserved for the
storage of fish.

• Store all wet (fresh) fish between layers of ice.

• Empty the fish boxes or trays daily, wash them out and re-pack the fish with fresh ice.

• Practice good stock rotation – FIFO.

• Empty, defrost and thoroughly clean all surfaces of the fish refrigerator regularly-
especially weekly.

• Do not over order.

N.B: - Smoked fish is stored on trays in a normal refrigerator.

 - Frozen fish is stored in a deep freezer at a maximum temperature of -18°c.

- Live fish e.g. trout, eels and carp purchased when alive should be placed in to a clean,
well aerated fresh water tank as soon as possible after delivery.

FATS AND OILS

Edible fats and oils are found stored as food reserves in many animals and plants. Fats are solid
at room temperature and are obtained from animal sources. On the other hand, oils are liquid at
room temperature and are from plant sources.

Visible fats

These are foods which are used as fats in the diet e.g. butter, margarine, oil, and the fat on meats.

Invisible fats

This includes foods with high fat content. The fat is taken indirectly into the body e.g. egg yolk,
milk, cheese and oily fish.

Fats and oils are good sources of high energy value and they are normally digested slowly
compared to other foods. Fats and oils do not mix with water.

ANIMAL FATS

Suet- this is beef fat which is trimmed and cleaned. It is hard fat and very slow to melt and
highly indigestible therefore it should be finely chopped and cooked thoroughly.

Lard- this is pure white fat which is rendered down from pig fat. It has no flavour and has good
shortening qualities therefore very good in pastry making. It is suitable for frying as it does not
decompose at low temperatures.
Dripping- this is beef or mutton fat which has been rendered down and strained. It is usually used
for frying and roasting because of its high heat and diverse. Its also ideal for gravy or sauce
making.

Butter-this is fat from milk. It has good creaming and shortening properties and improves the
flavour of cakes and pastries and it is not ideal for frying as it burns easily and decomposes
quickly upon exposure to high temperatures.

Vegetable fats- many vegetables particularly nuts have large amounts of oil deposited in their
tissues. Olives, ground nuts, soya beans, sun flower seeds, coconuts, palm nuts, and maize
among others are good sources of vegetable fats and oils.

OILS

They are obtained from plants. Examples are:_

Olive oil- obtained from crushed olives. It has a good flavour and mainly used for salad dressing.
It is expensive compared to others.

Corn oil- obtained from maize and it is ideal for frying.

Soya bean oil- used in manufacture of margarine and other cooking fats through a process
referred to as hydrogenation.

Sunflower seed oil- mainly used for salad making.

Ground nut oil- also used in the manufacture of margarine and other cooking oils.

Cooking fat- these are generally made from vegetable oils which have been hydrogenated and air
is often incorporated to lighten them. They have little flavour and are used for frying. Some are
also recommended for pastry making.
DIETIC VALUE OF FATS

As these are high energy foods, they are useful in the diet of those engaged in strenuous work.
Fats are also a source of fat soluble fat vitamins A and D and many other foods which contain
fats are also rich in fat soluble minerals. Fats for frying should not contain water, salt or non-fat
solids.

FATS FOR CREAMING

Butter-it is used for special cakes because of its extra good flavour and cost.

Margarine- it is the most generally used creaming and cake making fat.

USES OF FATS

 Frying- this is one of the quickest method of cooking due to the fact that the fat can rise
to very high temperatures without boiling or decomposing.

 Shortening- reduces the amount of gluten in flour hence reduces stretching. This is when
the fat is rubbed in to flour; it forms a water proof coating around flour granules.

 Creaming- this applies when making creamed mixtures e.g. creamed cakes. Fat for
creaming should be soft and easy to cream. During creaming, the fat and sugar get emulsified
together and entrap air making the cake light.

 Flavouring- the use of fat in plain bread and sponge mixtures and also when cooking
vegetables improves the flavour of that dish.

 Enriching- fat increases the food value a dish by the addition of the vitamins found in the
fats.

 Antistearic-the keeping qualities of breads and cakes are also improved by the addition of
fats.

STORAGE OF FATS

 Fats such as butter, margarine and cooking fats can be stored in a refrigerator or a cool
place.
 Always keep covered as they readily absorb odours from other foods.

 Exposure to air will cause oxidation. Oil should keep for six months if stored in a tightly
covered bottle in cool and dark place.

 Too cold a temperature may cause the oil to crystallise or solidify.

 Oils that have been used for frying should be strained to remove any impurities and food
particles which may cause them to become rancid. They should not be used over and over again,
as the molecules split up when heated thus causing rancidity.

VEGETABLES

Definition:

- Is a non-woody plant used as food e.g pea, cabbage, carrot, onion e.t.c.

- It is a plant or part of a plant used as food. In other words, the term vegetable may refer to
any edible part of any plant e.g. roots, leaves, tubers, rhizomes, seeds, flowers e.t.c.

-All parts of herbaceous plants eaten as food by humans, whole or in part, are normally
considered vegetables.

In general, vegetables are thought of as being savoury, not sweet. Some vegetables are
botanically classed as fruits: tomatoes are berries, and avocados are drupes, but both are
commonly used as vegetables because they are not sweet.

Uses of vegetables in cookery

 As an accompaniment to the main dish.

 In their own right as vegetable course.

 As a base for many different types of soups.

 As flavouring agent in soups, stews e.t.c.

 When raw or cooked as a salad ingredient.

 As an attractive and decorative garnish item.

 As a valuable source of nutrients for vegetarians.

 In preparation of vegetable based stocks.

Classification of vegetables

Aims of cooking vegetables

 Make them edible and palatable

 Enhance flavour

 Hasten digestion

 Kill germs

 For preservation purposes e.g. blanching

 To minimise loss of vitamin and mineral salts

 To improve the menu by giving it variety

Food value of vegetables

 Root vegetables contain carotene, mineral salts, starch, variable amounts of proteins,
vitamins, cellulose, and some water.

 Green vegetables- green leafy vegetables contain very little amounts of protein and
carbohydrates as compared to root vegetables.

They are rich in mineral salts and vitamins particularly vitamin C and carotene.

The greener the leaf, the more the mineral salts especially calcium and iron.

How to preserve nutrients in vegetables

 Use when fresh

 Peel thinly because most vitamins are found just beneath the skin

 Prepare just before cooking

 Do not soak

 Cook in small amounts of water if possible

 Do not use bicarbonate of soda when cooking as it destroys vitamin C

 Serve immediately to avoid vitamin loss by oxidation

 Vegetables with few and delicate vitamins should be eaten when raw.

Points to consider when purchasing vegetables

Purchasing of vegetables is mainly affected by:

 The perishable nature of the product

 Varying availability because of the seasonal fluctuations, supply and demand

 Effects of preservation e.g. freezing, drying e.t.c

When purchasing root vegetables, ensure that:

 They are clean and free from soil and stones

 They are well shaped, firm and not damaged by harvesting equipment

 They are free from signs of damage by frost, pests, and disease

 They are of the right shape

 Purchase at regular intervals

When purchasing green leafy vegetables, ensure that:

 They are absolutely fresh, the leaves must be bright in colour and not wilted

 Should be compact and well shaped

 Medium in size (in relation to their maximum size)

 They should be free from damage caused by frost, pests and diseases

 Should be purchased very regularly especially daily

 They should be free from pesticides and fungicides

 Blanched stems should be firm, crisp and free from soil

 Peas and beans should be crisp, and of medium size, pea pods should be full

Storage of vegetables

Some vegetables have a definite season, but others are available all the year round. In this case,
the home grown supply can be supplemented with those grown in different countries.

Frozen or tinned vegetables provide alternative supply to the use of fresh vegetables.

 The vegetable store should be cool, well ventilated and easy to clean.

 Good stock rotation should be practised at all times.

Root vegetables should be stored in:

 Cool, dry, well ventilated and dark place

 Preferably store in darkened positions especially potatoes

 Slatted racks can be used for such vegetables as carrots or in open-mesh bins

 They should be free from soil when storing

Green vegetables should be used when fresh but if they are to be stored, then they should be
stored on well ventilated racks, and in a damp free area.

Preservation of vegetables

a) Canning-¬is done by putting the vegetables in sterilised containers e.g mushrooms.

b) Dehydration-removal of excess water from the vegetable by drying e.g kales, potatoes

c) Drying-complete removal of water from the vegetable e.g pulses

d) Pickling- preserving vegetables in a solution of spiced vinegar e.g red cabbage and onion

e) Salting-it involves slicing and applying of dry salt on the vegetables

f) Freezing- this is done by putting the vegetables in a deep freezer with very low
temperatures below 0°c

g) Refrigeration-it involves storing the vegetables at a temperature of between 4-8°c in a

refrigerator

Cooking vegetables

The time or duration of cooking vegetables will depend on:

 Amount of cellulose (fibre) contained in it

 Method of cooking

 Type of the vegetable

 Size of the vegetable cut

 Quality of the vegetable

 Age of the vegetable

CUTS OF VEGETABLES
The size of the cut depends upon their use however the shape does not change.

a) Julienne(strips)

Vegetables are cut into thin long strips

b) Brunoise (small dices)

The vegetables are cut into very small dices of 2mm square

c) Macedoine (1/2 cm dices)

The vegetables are cut into ½ cm squares. These cuts are of double size of that of brunoise cuts.

d) Jardinière (batons)

The vegetables are first cut into length of 1½ cm and then into slices of 3 mm which are further
cut into batons of 3mm*3mm*15mm

e) Paysanne

Paysanne cuts can be done in to four different ways depending on the shape of the vegetable. All
are cut thinly in to 1cm sided square, triangle or a 1cm diameter rounds or 1cm diameter rough
sided rounds.

f) Concasse

Roughly chopped vegetables e.g skinned and de-seeded tomatoes.

VEGETABLE SALAD

These are vegetables which are neatly cut into various shapes then dressed. Meat slices can also
be added to enrich the salad.

The vegetable salad in the diet helps to:

 Add colour in the meal when nicely arranged

 Add nutrients to the diet

 Bring about variation in texture of the meal

 As a garnish

Food value of salads

 This depends on the type of vegetables used and whether raw or cooked.

 Salads add roughage to the diet in the form of cellulose

 Root vegetables and pulse vegetable salad add carbohydrates and a supply of vegetable
protein. Animal protein may be provided by the addition of egg, meat, fish, ham or cheese e.t.c.
to the salad.

 Vegetable salad also provides the body with water, coolness and refreshment.

Preparing vegetable salad ingredients

 Always use fresh vegetables

 Prepare each vegetable according to its kind

 Handle as little as possible

 Do not bruise the vegetables as this reduces the vitamin C content in it as well as it also
spoils the appearance of the salad

 Wash with running water and drain with a clean cloth

 Use whole, break or shred using a sharp knife to prevent loss of vitamin C

 Discard bruised leaves and when making salad with cooked vegetables, drain thoroughly
after cooking, cool, slice or dice them and serve with a suitable dressing.

Rules for making salads

They are similar the preparation of salad ingredients.

 Always use fresh vegetables

 Wash, drain and shred

 Prepare salads just before serving. If they are to be kept, keep in the refrigerator closely
covered for a short time as possible (N.B: not more than 4 hours)

 Add the salad dressing at the last moment just before serving

 Avoid very wide mixture of ingredients. Three or four contrasting colours and textures
are ok.

 Use the very brightly coloured ingredients for garnishing.

SALAD DRESSINGS

The choice of salad dressing should be suitable to the salad being made. The amount should be
sufficient enough to moisten and be palatable but not too much as this will over moisten and
spoil the flavour of the salad.

Most salad dressings are made using:

-Oil

-Vinegar

-Seasonings

-Flavourings.

Do not soak the salads with the dressings or in oil and vinegar as this will soften the cellulose
and vinegar may also stain the vegetables.

Types of salad dressing

a) French dressing-made of oil, vinegar, seasonings and flavourings.

b) Vinaigrette dressing-made of oil, vinegar, seasonings, flavourings, and chopped gherkins,

parsley or shallots are also added.

c) Mayonnaise- it is used for the more elaborate salads and for those which serve as a
distinct dish.

d) Plain yoghurt

e) Thousand island

f) Roquefort
COLD PREPARATION

The term “cold preparation” refers to cold food commodities brought together for the purpose of
presentation in a particular style.

The foods may be raw or cooked.

The main aim of producing cold preparations, however simple or complex, is to:

 Make the items as visually appealing as possible

 Make the items palatable

 Enhance the eating quality of the ingredients used

 Preserve the nutritive value of the ingredients used as much as possible as many dishes
are produced using raw foods.

Cold dishes can be used as:

 Meal on their own right when put on the cold buffet.

 At the start of a meal as a horse d’ oeuvre

 As an accompaniment to a hot fish or meat dish

 As a snack at any time of the day.

HORSE D’ OEUVRES

Are small portions of cold savoury foods served to stimulate appetite before a dinner or a lunch,
that is , they are preliminary dishes served with the intend of preparing the person for the food to
follow and act as appetizers.

The portions should be small, light in texture, attractive, and pleasant in order to stimulate the
appetite. Popular ingredients for these foods are highly seasoned vegetables, ham, fish, meats
and fruits.
Horse d’ oeuvre can be divided in to 2 categories:

 Single cold food items e.g. smoked fish, salmon, melon e.t.c.

 Selection of well seasoned cold dishes e.g avocado vinaigrette, chef’s salad e.t.c.

Single cold horse d’ oeuvres

This may include a sauce or a dressing and be accompanied by buttered toast or brown bread and
butter. Foods used include smoked trout, smoked eel, sliced cured meats, parma ham, dressed
crab, pawn cocktail, melon, grape fruit, avocado pear, stuffed eggs, egg mayonnaise, e.t.c.

Assorted horse d’ oeuvres.

These are prepared from many different commodities and can be presented to the customer on an
horse d’ oeuvre trolley or display unit or individually plated where the customer has no choice.
Foods used include coleslaw, tomato salad, beet root salad, potato salad, salad onions e.t.c

SALADS

Salads may be served:

 As an accompaniment to hot and cold foods,

 As a dish in its own right.

They can be served for lunch, tea, high tea, dinner, supper, and snack meals.

Salads are divided into two categories:

 Simple salads

 Compound salads

Simple salads

These are usually prepared from raw ingredients, seasoned and dressed with vinaigrette. They
are made from a single ingredient. E.g. lettuce, cucumber, endive, chicory, beetroot, celery,
pepper, and tomato.
 Compound salads

Are sometimes referred to as mixed salads, because they are made from a mixture of ingredients
which are usually bound or dressed with mayonnaise, vinaigrette, or acidulated cream. The
ingredients may include fish, meat, poultry, vegetables, fruit, and nuts.

Points to observe when making cold preparations

 Always maintain a very high standard of hygiene as the food will not be re-heated.

 Use and keep the equipment spotlessly clean

 Use only foods that is really fresh

 Make the items in very small quantities and frequently

 Store the horse d’ oeuvres appropriately. Keep refrigerated.

 For those on display, they should be stored under cool temperatures.

 If in doubt of the freshness of any food item, discard it.

FRUITS

In broad terms, a fruit is a structure of a plant that contains its seeds.

 are usually called by other names, such as vegetables, pods, nut, ears and cones In non-
technical usage, such as food preparation, fruit normally means the fleshy seed-associated
structures of certain plants that are sweet and edible in the raw state, such as apples, oranges,
grapes, strawberries, juniper berries and bananas.

 Seed-associated structures that do not fit these informal criteria.

 In biology (botany), a "fruit" is a part of a flowering plant that derives from specific
tissues of the flower, mainly one or more ovaries.

Uses of fruits in cookery

 Can be served at the beginning of a meal a single horse d’ oeuvre.

 Can be served at the end of a meal(as a dessert)

 Used in the making of ice-creams and sorbets

 As a snack item

 Used to decorate and garnish numerous dishes e.g lemon wedges in cocktail making

 Used in cake making

 Used in the making of juices which act as refreshments

 Used in cooking as constituent ingredients e.g. in curries

 Used in making beverages both alcoholic and non- alcoholic

 In making vinegar e.g. apples E.t.c

Classification of fruits.

Fruits are classified according to their shape, structure, and where they are grown:

 Berries- have a fragile cell structure e.g. strawberry, grapes, raspberry, blue berry,
currants e.t.c.

 Citrus fruits- have tough leathery peel which surrounds a succulent, juicy mass of
segments. Some have seeds while others do not have. e.g oranges, lemons, limes, tangerines,
grape fruit e.t.c.

 Stone fruits- they are also known as drupes. Have a single seed which is surrounded by a
fleshy portion e.g. cherries, plum, peach, nectarine, apricot, prune e.t.c.

 Soft/fleshy fruits- are seedless or have seeds distributed through out the flesh or in a
central core. Are very soft and do not keep for long after ripening e.g. tomatoes, melons e.t.c.

 Tropical fruits- normally grown around the equatorial or region e.g. bananas, mangoes,
kiwi, avocado e.t.c.

Food value/ importance of fruits in the diet

The succulence nature of fruits is due to its high water content. Water is essential in the body for
cooling and metabolism purposes. They also contain proteins in small quantities (mostly less
than 1%). Fat is present in only very small variable amounts except in avocadoes and olives
which contain higher levels.

Carbohydrate is present in variable amounts in the form of intrinsic sugars. The level of
carbohydrate content varies with the maturity of the fruit. Starch in immature fruits changes into
sugar as they ripen.
Dietary fibre is present in variable amounts in different fruits. Calcium is present in small
quantities especially in oranges, figs and black currants.

Carotene is found in some fruit in significant quantities especially those which are orange in
colour e.g. oranges, pine apple, mangoes, e.t.c. Fruits have greater value in the body interms of
provision of vitamins especially A and C. They also contain some thiamine and vitamin E.

Selection

Fruits are available in fresh, canned, frozen and dried forms. Each of these has certain
advantages. When purchasing fruits in a particular form, their use, storage and nutritional value
must be considered.

When purchasing fresh fruits, check the following:

 Ripeness-the degree of ripeness should be as per the particular use of the fruit.

 Purchase regularly if possible.

 Should be free from soil and pesticides.

 Should be of the correct size in relation to its actual size.

 Should be of the right shape.

 The outer skin of the fruit should be whole i.e. not damaged or broken.

 Should be of the correct colour and texture.

Storage.

The keeping quality of fruits depends on how fresh it was when purchased, how it was handled
and the storage conditions.

 Under ripe fruits can be stored at room temperatures or in a paper bag if desired for faster
ripening.

 Most fruits can be refrigerated for longer storage.

 Canned fruit should be stored in a cool, dry area that is no warmer than 70F. Opened
canned fruit should not be stored in their original container because of oxidation.

 Dried fruit are stable if held in a cool, dry environment. Refrigeration may be necessary
in hot, humid temperatures/seasons.

N.B: CONTROLLING QUALITY CHANGE

Many fruits such as bananas, apples, peaches and pears darken rapidly when cut as a result of the
oxidising action of the enzymes when they come in to contact with air. An action referred to as
enzymatic reaction.

Applying a small amount of sugar, citrus fruit juice or anti- oxidants can help prevent this
change. The sugar draws water from the fruit to the surface, forming a sugar solution that blocks
the air. The vitamin C in citrus fruits juice interacts with the oxygen to protect the natural colour
of the exposed fruit surface. The juice also acts to coat the fruit and keep the air out.

Cooking fruits

 Poaching

 Baking

 Broiling

 Microwave oven cooking

N.B: the rules for cooking fruits are the same as those of vegetables.

Preservation of fruits

 Canning

 Refrigeration

 Freezing

 drying

EGGS

The term egg applies to not only those of an hen but also to the edible eggs of other domesticated
birds e.g. turkey, goose, guinea fowl, e.t.c. Most caterers make use of hen’s egg for much of the
purposes compared to others.

Eggs are an extremely versatile food commodity, suitable for inclusion in a wide range of
products and dishes.

Structure and composition of egg.

An egg is composed of three main parts:

 shell
 the egg white

 the yolk.

The shell

 Forms 11.5% of the egg. It is composed of 97% calcium carbonate, and 3% protein.

 It is porous enabling the developing chick to obtain oxygen. The pores also allow
bacteria and odour to enter into and water as well as carbon dioxide to escape.

 Just beneath the shell are 2 other membranes together lying close and they separate at the
broader end to form the air space. These membranes also act as chemical filters to bacteria thus
protecting the inside.

 The colour of the shell may vary according to:

• Breed of the bird,

• Food eaten by the bird. This means that its colour does not affect the nutritional value of
the egg.

 Older birds will produce eggs with weak shells.

Egg white

 Also known as albumen and contains a mixture of proteins.

 Divided in to thick white and thin white.

 The white forms58.5% of the whole egg and consists of 88.5% water and 10.5%
proteins, riboflavin and other B vitamins as well as traces of fat.

 The main proteins in the egg are ovalbumin and mucin.

Yolk

 It is the central part of the egg and forms about 30% of the egg. It is supported at the
centre by the chalazae.

 It consists of

 16.5% protein,

 33% fat and

 50% water
 Fat soluble vitamins A, D, E & K.

 Mineral elements, including iron and lecithin.

 Its colour varies depending on the amount ant type of carotenes that the bird feeds on.
The colour of the yolk too does dot affect the nutritional value of the egg.

 The yolk also is more vulnerable to bacterial attack when it is older, as the yolk
membranes weaken.

Value of eggs

 They are good sources of high biological value protein,

 Provide little quantities of iron to the body.

 They are also poor sources of calcium since its only concentrated in the shell which is not
eaten.

Quality points for fresh eggs

 Shell-should be clean, undamaged and slightly rough

 White-when broken, the egg should have a large proportion of thick white to thin white.

 Yolk-should be firm, round/dome shaped and good yellow colour.

 Smell- pleasant, bad eggs smell of hydrogen sulphide.

As the egg becomes older, they deteriorate and the thick white changes to thin white and water
passes from the white to the yolk. The yolk losses strength and begins to flatten. Water escapes
from the egg and its replaced by air thus the egg becomes lighter ( that is why fresh eggs are
heavier than stale ones.)

The storage temperature normally affects the time taken for eggs to deteriorate. Eggs stored at
3°C (37F) will remain in first class condition for about 3 months whereas if stored in a hot place,
deterioration occurs only after a few weeks.

While storing eggs, you should:

 Store with the blunt edge upwards,

 Keep in a cool but a dry situation with a temperature range between 0-5°C.

 Keep away from strong smelling foods e.g cheese, onions etc.

 Eggs should not be washed before being stored as washing will remove the natural
protective coating.
 Eggs cannot be frozen whole, but when separated i.e the yolk separately from the white.

 They can also be preserved through pickling.

N.B: long cooking of eggs at high temperatures encourages the production of hydrogen sulphide
even in freshly laid eggs. Some of the sulphur in the egg combines with the iron to form a
greyish- green strong tasting compound that can be seen as a layer around the yolk of hard boiled
eggs.

This is as a result of over cooking or not cooling the eggs sufficiently in cold running water.

Uses of eggs

a) Enriching- egg improves the quality and texture of sugar paste. They can be added to
sauces, soups and milk puddings to provide extra proteins.

b) Thickening- eggs are used to thicken custards, sauces, soups etc because of the
coagulation of the egg protein.

c) Colouring- egg yolks provide a distinct yellow colour which acts as a colouring agent to
some dishes. When heated, glazed pastry products also get an attractive brown colour.

d) Glazing- egg yolk, egg white or whole egg when well beaten can be brushed over pastries
during or before baking so as to give them an attractive golden brown colour.

e) Garnishing- hard boiled eggs and yolks can be sliced and used to decorate dishes when
serving.

f) Emulsifying- egg yolks contain lecithin which is an emulsifier, and enables oil and water
to mix to an emulsion without separating.

Emulsion consists of fine droplets of a liquid e.g oil dispersed in another liquid e.g water or in a
solid e.g fat.

This is mainly use in mayonnaise and cake making when eggs are added to the fat and sugar in a
creamed mixture.

g) Binding- eggyolks included in croquette potatoes and stuffing’s coagulate on heating,

ensuring that the ingredients are held together during and after cooking.

h) Coating- eggs are used as a coating for fried foods either on their own or combined with
flour and breadcrumbs. This forms a protective layer on the outside of the food which sets and
holds together and prevents the dish from over cooking.

i) Aerating/ trapping air- both egg whites and yolk are capable of trapping air due to ability
of over filming to stretch. The ability of eggs to stretch is utilised in cake making. They are also
used to trap air as a raising agent. They are also used to lighten mousses and sweet breads. Also
in making meringues, swissrolls, Genoese sponges and soufflés.

j) Clarifying- egg white, when added to a liquid and heated, slowly coagulates and rises to
the surface, taking impurities with it. This is made use of in clarifying consommé, aspic and fruit
jellies.

k) Main meals/ dishes- eggs can be served as dishes in their own right or with others as in
omelettes, crumbled eggs etc.

Methods of cooking eggs

 Poaching

 Boiling

 Scrambling

 Baking

 Frying

 En cocotte

SANDWICHES