CIV 4162 BRIDGE ENGINEERING

LECTURE 2
DATE: 28.09.2016
 REMINDER ABOUT LECTURE 1
• INTRODUCTION OF THE MODULE (Module
description form)
• INTRODUCTIVE DEFINITIONS
• MATERIALS AND STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS
• TYPES OF BRIDGES
 CONTENT OF LECTURE 2

• BRIDGE ASTHETICS
• HYDRAULIC CALCULATIONS & HYDRAULIC
DESIGN OF THE BRIDGE
• SELECTION OF THE TYPE OF BRIDGE
• CLASSIFICATION OF HIGHWAYS/ BRIDGES
• PRESTRESSED CONCRETE BRIDGES
BRIDGE ASTHETICS
 BRIDGE ASTHETICS
• ‘Beauty has been thought of as extraneous to
considerations of function, practicality,
economy and advancing technology. To many
the word ‘aesthetics’ has meant superfluous
or artificial, like cosmetics.’ Paul Harbeson,
Bridge Aesthetics
• Aesthetics must be considered as an integral
part of the design process. Every part of the
bridge has a role to play both structurally and
aesthetically in the whole.
 BRIDGE ASTHETICS (cont)
• Good bridge engineering and good aesthetics
are synonymous and only limited by the
imagination and skills of the bridge designer.
• Whilst personal tastes differ, beauty is not
simply a matter of taste alone. When qualities
such as proportion, order and symmetry are
applied well, people often agree that the
object has aesthetic value (whether they like it
or not is another matter).When applied badly
there is often public outcry.
 COST AND AESTHETICS CAN BE
COMPLEMENTARY
• Bridges of aesthetic merit need not be more
expensive than ugly bridges. For example the shape
of a parapet, abutment or pier might have a
negligible impact on costs but a significant
improvement visually.
• However if a bridge is designed to be as cheap as
possible then it is unlikely that it will be of aesthetic
value. This is not to say that the cheapest bridge is
necessarily the ugliest bridge, however it does mean
that cost and aesthetics as driving forces in the
design process need to be balanced.
PRINCIPLES OF GOOD AESTHETIC DESIGN.
• PROPORTION
• CONTRAST
• SCALE
• ORDER
• CHARACTER
• COLOURS
• FUNCTIONALISM
• ENVIRONMENTAL INTEGRATION
• COMPLEXITY
• HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL GEOMETRY
• Read these principals for a better understanding
 HYDRAULIC CALCULATIONS &
HYDRAULIC DESIGN OF THE
BRIDGE (Read in details at home)
 Hydraulic calculations & hydraulic
design of the bridge
• Hydraulics is the essential feature of bridge
design. Fair assessment of flood levels,
maximum flood discharge expected to occur
at bridge site during design life of bridge, and
maximum scour levels are essential aspects of
bridge hydraulics. Faulty determination of
these parameters may lead to failure of
structures.
• Next for students reading…………….
 Hydraulic ..(Cont)
• While doing hydraulic calculations attention
should be paid to the following-
1. The river cross section should be truly
representative. The cross section should not
be vitiated by artificial cuts, etc.
2. If the bridge site is along the existing natural
crossing, the cross section for hydraulics
should be across the nearby natural
undisturbed channel.
 Cont----
3. Spill channels should be properly located,
marked and catered for.
4. Appropriate coefficient of rugosity should be
used. The same rugosity coefficient should not
be used for bed and banks, as the nature of
stream changes according to properties of
material and vegetation growth etc.
 Cont…….
5) The reasonableness of computed velocity
should be judged in relation to bed material
for e.g existence of boulders in the stream and
low velocity of flow do not generally go
together.
6)In tidal creeks the possibility of high tides and
floods coinciding should be kept in view. In
such cases discharge by usual ways i.e. by
Manning’s formula should be carefully worked
out and tallied with Inglis discharge.
 Cont……..
7. The adoption of either the observed H.F.L.
obtained by local enquiry or the computed
H.F.L. as design level should be done
judiciously. The observed H.F.L. may be
effected by obstructions like rice fields, bunds,
blocking of spill channels etc. Higher of the
two values be adopted as design H.F.L.
 Hydraulic design of the bridge (end)
Details of various levels is explained as below:
• HFL (observed) Highest flood levels ever recorded
(50 years record) HFL(Inglis) Flood level giving
Manning’s discharge equal to Inglis discharge.
• HFL(Modified Inglis) Flood level giving Manning’s
discharge equal to Modified Inglis discharge.
• O.F.L. Ordinary flood level. This is level of flood
when cleared by bridge (without submergence of
bridge) that will not give more than permissible
interruption to traffic during floods.
 SELECTION OF THE TYPE OF BRIDGE
This choice is affected by many contextual factors
including the following:
• The size of the span required.
• The topography either side of the span.
• Local geology.
• The load to be carried.
• The nature of the load.
• The nature of the land or water being crossed.
• The visibility or visual presence of the structure.
 SELECTION OF THE TYPE OF BRIDGE
(end)
It should be understood that all these factors
will have a powerful influence on the choice of
bridge type, however in most instances it is
span length that is the most significant factor
in determining the form (and cost) of a bridge.
 The accepted approximate relationship
between span and superstructure type
• Short span (up to approximately 18m): pre-
stressed concrete plank bridges.
• Short to medium span (approximately 18-
40m): Pre-stressed concrete girders or pre-
stressed concrete voided slabs.
• Medium span (approximately 40-80m): steel
or post-tensioned concrete box girders or
incrementally launched girders.
 The accepted approximate relationship
between span and superstructure type (end)
• Medium to long span (up to approximately
300m): balanced cantilever.
• Long span (up to approximately 800m): cable
stayed bridge.
• Very long span (longer than 800m):
suspension bridges.
CLASSIFICATION OF HIGHWAYS/
BRIDGES
 CLASSIFICATION OF HIGHWAYS
ACCORDING TO THEIR IMPORTANCY
(RWANDA case)
Roads in Rwanda are classified into national,
districts and gravels. Classified roads constitute
about 34% of the entire road network in Rwanda.
Of the classified roads, 2860km are national
roads, 1835km district roads and 3.5km gravel
roads (data for 2010)
In general, classification of roads due to
importance/application offers foot bridge,
highway bridge, and railway bridge.
 A. FOOT BRIDGE
• A footbridge or pedestrian bridge is a bridge designed
for pedestrians and in some cases cyclists, animal traffic
and horse riders, rather than vehicular traffic.
Footbridges complement the landscape and can be used
decoratively to visually link two distinct areas or to signal
a transaction.
• In many developed countries, footbridges are both
functional and can be beautiful works of art and
sculpture. For poor rural communities in the developing
world, a footbridge may be a community's only access to
medical clinics, schools and markets, which would
otherwise be unreachable when rivers are too high to
cross.
EXAMPLES OF PEDESTRIAN BRIDGES
EXAMPLES OF PEDESTRIAN BRIDGES
 B. HIGHWAY BRIDGE
• A highway bridge is a major road structure
that is designed to go either over or
underneath an obstacle. Cars use a highway
bridge in order to cross over a body of water
or other traffic lanes. Most highway bridges
are not used by pedestrians and do not
contain pedestrian walking paths. Instead,
they are usually intended to allow vehicles,
such as passenger cars or semi-trucks, to
safely cross over or under the obstacle.
 Highway Bridge (Cont)
• Two common types of highway bridges are
overheads and tunnels. An overhead usually brings
the highway over the top of an obstacle. For
example, an overhead might run on top of another
highway. On the other hand, a tunnel allows a
highway to go underneath or through a structure. A
tunnel may be used, for instance, to provide a
passageway through a mountain or underneath
another highway system. Shorter tunnels, usually
less than 0.1 miles (about 0.16 kilometers), are
sometimes referred to as underpasses or chutes.
 Railway Bridge
Railway Bridge is designed to carry a railway line . The
difference between a railway bridge and a highway
bridge is the following factors:
• Live Loads of High Speed Railways Bridges are quite larger
than those used for the design of Highway Bridges, resulting
in important differences between the design criteria used in
each case.
• The design impact load on railway bridges is higher than on
highway bridges
• Simple span structures are preferred over continuous
structures over railroad bridges. Many of the factors that
make continuous spans attractive for highway structures are
not as advantageous for railroad use. Continuous spans are
also more difficult to replace in emergencies than simple
span
Difference between a railway bridge and a highway bridge
• Interruptions in service are typically much more critical
for railroads than for highway agencies. Therefore,
constructibility and maintainability without interruptions
to traffic are crucial for railroad bridges.
• Since the bridge supports track structures the
combination of track and bridge movement cannot
exceed the tolerances in track standards. Interactions
between the track and bridge should be considered in
design and detailing.
• Seismic performance of highway and railroad bridges can
vary significantly. Railroad bridges have performed well
during seismic events.
• Railroad bridge owners typically expect a longer service
life from their structures than highway bridge owners.
 Railway Bridge
Namibia, 1952; 300m×213m China, 2001, span = 235m; h=275m

• It is a bridge which carries

railway lines
PRESTRESSED CONCRETE BRIDGES

PONTS EN BETON PRECONTRAINT

GENERAL CONCEPTS AND PROCEDURES
• BASIC CONCEPTS OF PRESTRESSING
• TERMINOLOGY USED IN PRESTRESSING
• ADVANTAGES OF PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
• MATERIALS FOR PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
 HIGH – STRENGTH CONCRETE
 HIGH – TENSILE STEEL
• PRESTRESSING SYSTEMS
 INTRODUCTION
 TENSIONIG DEVICES
 PRETENSIONING SYSTEMS
 POST-TENSIONING SYSTEMS
 THERMO-ELECTRIC PRESTRESSING
 CHEMICAL PRESTRESSING
 BASIC CONCEPTS OF PRESTRESSING
• Prestressed concrete is a concrete in which
internal stresses of a suitable magnitude and
distribution are introduced so that the stresses
resulting from external loads are counteracted to
a desired degree. In RC members, the prestress is
commonly introduced by tensioning the steel
reinforcement.
• The development of early cracks in reinforced
concrete seems to be the starting point in the
development of “prestressed concrete”.
 BASIC CONCEPTS OF RESTRESSING
(cont)
• The concept of prestressing existed before the
applications in concrete. Example:

Force-fitting of metal bands on wooden barrels

In 1904, Freyssnet attempted to introduce permanently acting
forces in concrete to resist the elastic forces developed under
loads.
 TERMINOLOGY IN PRESTRESSING
• Tendon, Anchorage, Pre-tensioning, Post-
tensioning, Full prestressing, Limited or partial
prestressing, Moderate prestressing, Axial
prestressing, Eccentric prestressing,
Concordant prestressing, Circular prestressing,
Transfer, Degree of prestressing,
• Etc.
MATERIALS FOR PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

• CONCRETE: high compressive strength , higher

tensile strength, Low shrinkage, minimum
creep characteristics, high value of Young
modulus, etc.
• HIGH – TENSILE STEEL: higher tensile strength,
the plasticity, Permissible stresses in steel, etc.
• Different steel used: wires of 7 mm D, Strand
composed in 7 wires, tendon composed in
strands and bars of above 20 mm D
 ADVANTAGES OF PRESTRESSED CONCRETE.
• The cross-section is more efficiently utilized when
compared with a reinforced concrete section which is
cracked under working loads.
• Saving in the use of materials.
• Improved resistance to shearing forces
• Prestressed members are lighter and slender than
those with reinforced concrete.
• Improved durability of the structure under aggressive
environmental conditions.
• Prestressing of concrete improves the ability of the
material for energy absorption under impact loads.
DESADVANTAGES OF PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

• The prestressing requires a concrete of high

quality and strength
• The devices of tensioning and anchorage are
complicated and rarely available.
• The supervision of prestressed constructions
must be perfect at any construction level.
 DIFFERENT STEEL USED IN
PRESTRESSING
• These are wires, strands, tendon, bars
 PRESTRESSING SYSTEMS
The various methods by which the pre-compression is imparted to
concrete are classified as follows:
• Generation of compressive force between the structural element
and its abutments using flat jacks.
• Development of hoop compression in cylindrically shaped
structures by circumferential wire winding.
• Use of longitudinally tensioned steel embedded in concrete or
housed in ducts.
• Use principle of distortion of statically indeterminate structure
either by displacement or by rotation of one part relative to the
remainder.
• Use of deflected structural steel sections embedded in concrete
until the hardening of the later.
• Development of limited tension in steel and compression in
concrete by using expanding cements.
 PRESTRESSING SYSTEMS (Cont)
The most widely used method of prestressing of
structural concrete elements is longitudinal
tensioning of steel by different tensioning
devices
• TENSIONIG DEVICES - The various types of
devices used for tensioning steel are grouped
under four principal categories:
• Mechanical, Hydraulic, Electrical (thermal),
Chemical devices
 PRESTRESSING METHODS
1. PRETENSIONING SYSTEMS
2. POST-TENSIONING SYSTEMS
3. THERMO-ELECTRIC PRESTRESSING
4. CHEMICAL PRESTRESSING
 Stages of Pre-tensioning
• In pre-tensioning system, the high-strength
steel tendons are pulled between two end
abutments (also called bulkheads) prior to the
casting of concrete. The abutments are fixed
at the ends of a prestressing bed.
• Once the concrete attains the desired strength
for prestressing, the tendons are cut loose
from the abutments.
 Stages of Pre-tensioning
• The prestress is transferred to the concrete from the
tendons, due to the bond between them. During the
transfer of prestress, the member undergoes elastic
shortening. If the tendons are located eccentrically, the
member is likely to bend and deflect (camber).
• The various stages of the pre-tensioning operation are
summarised as follows.
1) Anchoring of tendons against the end abutments
2) Placing of jacks
3) Applying tension to the tendons
4) Casting of concrete
5) Cutting of the tendons.
 The various stages of the pre-
tensioning operation
1) Anchoring of tendons against the end abutments
2) Placing of jacks
3) Applying tension to the tendons
4) Casting of concrete
5) Cutting of the tendons.
• During the cutting of the tendons, the prestress is
transferred to the concrete with elastic shortening
and camber of the member.
• The stages are shown schematically in the following
figures
STAGES OF PRE-TENSIONING
 Stages of Post-tensioning
• In post-tensioning systems, the ducts for the
tendons (or strands) are placed along with the
reinforcement before the casting of concrete.
The tendons are placed in the ducts after the
casting of concrete. The duct prevents contact
between concrete and the tendons during the
tensioning operation.
• Unlike pre-tensioning, the tendons are pulled
with the reaction acting against the hardened
concrete.
 Stages of Post-tensioning
• If the ducts are filled with grout, then it is known as
bonded post-tensioning. The grout is a neat cement paste
or a sand-cement mortar containing suitable admixture.
The grouting operation is discussed later in the section.
• In unbonded post-tensioning, as the name suggests, the
ducts are never grouted and the tendon is held in tension
solely by the end anchorages. The following sketch shows a
schematic representation of a grouted post-tensioned
member. The profile of the duct depends on the support
conditions. For a simply supported member, the duct has a
sagging profile between the ends. For a continuous
member, the duct sags in the span and hogs over the
support.
Post-tensioning (Reference: VSL
International Ltd.)
Post-tensioning ducts in a box girder
Post-tensioning of a box girder
 various stages of the post-tensioning
operation
• The various stages of the post-tensioning
operation are summarised as follows.
• 1) Casting of concrete.
• 2) Placement of the tendons.
• 3) Placement of the anchorage block and jack.
• 4) Applying tension to the tendons.
• 5) Seating of the wedges.
• 6) Cutting of the tendons.
 Stages of the post-tensioning
operation
• The stages are shown schematically in the
following figures. After anchoring a tendon at
one end, the tension is applied at the other
end by a jack. The tensioning of tendons and
pre-compression of concrete occur
simultaneously. A system of self-equilibrating
forces develops after the stretching of the
tendons.
Stages of post-tensioning
 Advantages and Disadvantage
Advantages of Post-tensioning
• The relative advantages of post-tensioning as compared
to pre-tensioning are as follows.
• • Post-tensioning is suitable for heavy cast-in-place
members.
• • The waiting period in the casting bed is less.
• • The transfer of prestress is independent of transmission
length.
Disadvantage of Post-tensioning
• The relative disadvantage of post-tensioning as
compared to pre-tensioning is the requirement of
anchorage device and grouting equipment.
Cast Bed, Mould and Ducts
END OF LECTURE 2