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METAL CUTTING

PROCESSING OPERATIONS IN MANUFACTURING

 Processing Operations alters a material’s shape, physical properties, or

appearance in order to add value
 Three categories of processing operations:
1. Shaping operations - alter the geometry of the starting work material
2. Property-enhancing operations - improve physical properties without
changing shape
3. Surface processing operations - clean, treat, coat, or deposit material on
surface of work

SHAPING PROCESSES

 Solidification processes - starting material is a heated liquid or semifluid

 Particulate processing - starting material consists of powders
 Deformation processes - starting material is a ductile solid (commonly metal)
 Material removal processes - starting material is a ductile or brittle solid

MATERIAL REMOVAL PROCESSES-

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MACHINING OR METAL CUTTING

 Removing unwanted material Cutting/chipping/machining/ metal cutting

 To get desired Shape, Size, & Surface finish

METAL CUTTING: ADVANTAGES

 Closer dimensional accuracy

 Good Surface texture/finish
 Economical Complex shape & Size

METAL CUTTING: DISADVANTAGES

 Material loss (~50%)  Skilled operators

 Scarcity of materials  Time required
 Special equipment  All materials cannot be
machined
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TYPES OF CUTTING TOOLS

 Single Point cutting tools

 Double point cutting tools
 Multipoint cutting tools

 Sometime, cutters are classified into two groups single point and multi-point
cutters.
 In such scenario, double point cutters are also considered as multi point
cutters.

SINGLE POINT CUTTING TOOLS

 As the name suggests, single point cutting tools consist of only one working
cutting edge that can perform metal removal action at a time.
 It is to be noted that, in insert based cutting tools, multiple cutting edges
may present in a single tool; however, only one cutting edge can engage in
material removal action at a time.

Example of single point cutting tool:

 Turning tool, also known as Single Point Turning Tool (SPTT), is the perfect
example of a single point tool.
 Apart from turning tool, shaping, planning, slotting, boring tools are also
single point tool.

Pros and cons:

 Design and fabrication of single point cutter is quite simple and less time
consuming.
 However, tool wear rate is high and as a result tool life is low.
 Moreover, such tools cannot take high depth of cut or feed rate.
 consequently, material removal rate (MRR) and productivity are lower.
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DOUBLE POINT CUTTING TOOLS

 These tools contain two working cutting edges and both the edges can
perform material removal action simultaneously.
 Sometime, cutters are classified into two groups—single point and multi-
point cutters.
 In such scenario, double point cutters are also considered as multi point
cutters.

Example of double point cutting tool:

 Drill is the only example for this category. Note that drills may have more
than two cutting edges.
 However, conventional (without cutting edge modification) metal cutting
drills contain two cutting edges.

MULTI-POINT CUTTING TOOLS

 As the name suggests, multi-point cutting tools contain more than two
working cutting edges.
 The number of cutting edges may vary from around four (in milling cutter) to
hundreds (in grinding wheel).
 However, all cutting edges may not perform cutting action simultaneously;
they can successively engage and disengage.

Example of multi-point cutting tool:

 Milling cutters are the common example for this category.

 Apart from milling cutters, few other examples of multi-point cutter are
Reamer (tool for reaming operation), Broach (tool for broaching operation),
Hob (tool for hobbing operation), Grinding wheel (abrasive cutter), Hone (tool
for honing operation), etc.

Pros and cons:

 Multi-point cutting tools provide high Material Removal Rate (MRR) as they
can take substantially higher feed rate and depth of cut without failure.
 So use of such cutters is economically advantageous.
 Chip load on individual tooth is also considerably low as entire load is
uniformly distributed into all teeth.
 However, machining with multi-point cutting tool is inherently intermittent
cutting and thus fluctuation in cutting force, impact loading on teeth,
vibration, etc. issues become predominant.

BRIEF SUMMARY OF ABOVE DISCUSSION

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FUNDAMENTALS OF METAL CUTTING

 Orthogonal Cutting (2-D Cutting):

 Oblique Cutting (3-D Cutting):

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ORTHOGONAL CUTTING
 It is also referred to as 2D cutting is a type of metal cutting in which the
cutting tool approaches the workpiece with its cutting edge parallel to the
uncut surface and at right angles to the direction of cutting.
 In orthogonal cutting, only two components of force are considered; the
cutting force and the cutting force which can be represented by 2D
coordinate system
 For example: Operations: Lathe cut-off operation, Straight milling, etc.

OBLIQUE CUTTING
 It is also referred to as 3D cutting, is a type of cutting in which the cutting
edge of the wedge shaped cutting tool makes an angle, except the right angle
to the direction of tool motion.
 In oblique cutting, three components of force are considered, that is thrust
force, radial force and cutting force.
 These components cannot be represented by 2D coordinate system; they can
only be represented by 3D coordinate system.
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WHAT IS CUTTING SPEED, DEPTH OF CUT, & FEED IN MACHINING?

ITS UNIT, VALUE, EFFECTS AND SELECTION

 Basic intention of any conventional machining operation is to gradually

remove excess layer of material (subtractive manufacturing) from a blank to
impart a basic shape and size with reasonably smooth surface finish.
 For any machining or material removal operation, three relative motions
between workpiece and cutting tool are indispensably necessary, which, in
fact, are the primary cutting parameters.
 The simultaneous action of all three parameters causes material removal in
the form of chip from the workpiece.
 These three cutting parameters or relative motions are provided below.
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CUTTING VELOCITY (V)—

 The most important cutting parameter that provides necessary cutting

motion.
 It can be imparted either on the cutting tool or on workpiece by either
rotating it or reciprocating it.
 In case of either rotating tool (such as milling, drilling, grinding) or rotating
workpiece (such as turning), the peripheral velocity of cutter or workpiece is
considered as the cutting velocity.
 However, where neither the workpiece nor the tool rotates, the translation
velocity of cutter or workpiece gives the intended cutting velocity.

FEED RATE (F)—

 The auxiliary cutting motion is provided by the feed velocity. Usually the
direction of feed velocity is perpendicular to that of the cutting velocity.
 The primary objective of feed velocity is to remove material from a large
surface.
 Basically it helps in covering the entire surface of the workpiece by moving
either cutting tool or workpiece.

DEPTH OF CUT (DOC)

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 The tertiary cutting motion that provides necessary depth of material that is
required to remove by machining.
 It is expressed in mm. It is usually given in the third perpendicular direction
(velocity, feed and depth of cut usually act in mutually perpendicular
directions). DOC=d mm

EFFECTS OF DEPTH OF CUT (DOC)

 Since depth of cut is one of the three main cutting parameters, so its value
also affects overall machining performance and machining economy.
 Few common effects of DOC are enlisted below; for all effects in detail read:
Effects of depth of cut on machining performance.
 Larger depth of cut indicates higher material removal rate (MRR), as MRR is
proportional to the speed, feed and depth of cut.
 So productivity of machining can be enhanced by employing larger depth of
cut and consequently machining cost can be reduced.
 Cutting force depends on chip load, which is proportional to depth of cut.
 Thus larger value of depth of cut can increase cutting force, which may
hamper machining performance and induce vibration.
 Higher depth of cut may also break the cutting tool catastrophically, which
is highly undesirable.
 It also influences chip thickness, type of chip produces, shear deformation,
etc., which are indication of machinability.

SELECTION AND VALUE OF DEPTH OF CUT

 Since depth of cut value is an important parameter that influences overall

machining performance as well as economy, so an optimum value must be
selected judiciously after considering a number of relevant factors.
 Usually, in conventional machining operations, depth of cut value varies
between 0.1 – 1.0mm.

Selection of its value requires attention on the following characteristics.

1. Productivity requirement—
 Since material removal rate is expressed by the multiplication of cutting
velocity, feed rate and depth of cut, so usage of larger depth of cut
results in enhanced MRR.
 This, in turn, cuts down machining time and thus improves
productivity.
2. Quality of cut required—
 For finish cut, lower depth of cut should be provided; whereas, for rough
cut, larger value can be utilized to shorten machining time.
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3. Machining operation—
 Various machining operations have the capability to handle various
ranges of depth of cut.
 For example, milling operation using a side and face milling cutter can
handle a larger depth of cut; while, its value is limited in knurling
operation.
4. Workpiece material strength—
 For machining hard and brittle materials, a lower value of depth of cut
is recommended, otherwise the force may be very high and cutting tool
may break.
5. Capability of machine tool—
 Since depth of cut increases cutting force and vibration, so the
capability of machine tool should also be considered.

TYPE OF CHIPS

Chip Types -mainly depends on Workpiece material, Tool geometry & Cutting
conditions
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CONTINUOUS CHIPS.

 These chips formed with ductile material at high cutting speeds; high rake
angle, fine feed, low uncut thickness smooth tool face and an efficient
lubrication system.
 Continuous chips may because of friction, develop a secondary shear zone at
tool chip interface.
 Continuous chips are not desirable in computer controlled machines like
CNC.
 These chips is considered most desirable for low friction at tool chip interface,
lower power consumption, long tool life and good surface finish.

BUILT-UP EDGE CHIPS.

 BUE is generally undesirable, a thin stable BUE is usually regarded as

desirable because it reduces wear by protecting rake face of tool.
 As the cutting speed increases, the size of BUE decreases.
 The tendency for a BUE to form is also reduced by any of the following
practices:
1. Decreasing the depth at cut
2. Increasing the rake angle
3. Using a sharp tool
4. Using an effective cutting fluid
 Cold-worked metal has less tendency to form BUE than one that has been
annealed.

DISCONTINUOUS CHIPS.

Condition for its formation are:

 Brittle work piece material, because they do not have the capacity to

undergo the high shear strain involved in cutting.

 Work piece material that contain hard inclusions and impurities.

 Very low or very high cutting speed.

 Large depth of cut.

 Low rake angles.

 Lack of effective fluid.

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SUMMARY OF ABOVE DISCUSSION

Notes made by satij kale (BE/MTECH/GATE/CET/RANK/09 + teaching exp.)

CHIP CURL.

 In all cutting operation on metals, as well as non metallic material, chips

develop a curvature (chip curl) as they leave the work piece surface.

 The reason of chip curl are distribution of stresses in the primary and
secondary shear zones, thermal effects geometry of rake face of tool.
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CHIP BREAKER

 By clamping a piece of sheet metal in the path of coil.

 By a stepped type breaker in which a step is ground on the face of the tool
along the cutting Edge.
 By a groove type breaker in which a small groove is ground behind’ the cutting
Edge.
 By a clamp type breaker in which a thin carbide faced plate or clamp is brazed
or screwed on the face of the tool.

Fig.(a) Schematic illustration of the action of a chip breaker. Note that the chip
breaker decreases the radius of curvature of the chip.
Fig. (b) Chip breaker clamped on the rake face of a cutting tool.
Fig.(c) Grooves in cutting tools acting as chip breakers.
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THERMAL ASPECTS IN MACHINING

Thermal Aspects in Machining i.e Heat generated in cutting operation depends:

1. Rate of Cutting
2. cutting conditions
3. Workpiece material
It has effects on : 1.Tool 2.Workpiece 3.Machine tool & affects
- Surface finish & accuracy of workpiece

HEAT GENERATED IN MACHINING OPERATION

Heat generated in cutting operation is distributed as

 Chips + tool + workpiece + environment Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 + Q4

1. Q1=heat taken away by the chips

2. Q2=heat conducted in to tool
3. Q3=heat conducted in to workpiece
4. Q4=heat dissipated in environment

 Heat dissipation mainly depends on cutting speed

 All most all of the mechanical energy used in the machining operation finally
converted into thermal energy.
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There are three zones at which heat is generated during cutting, they are

PRIMARY DEFORMATION ZONE - SHEAR ZONE

 The region where the crystal structure of the metal break.

 In the primary deformation zone, the heat generation is due to the plastic
work done (plastic deformation) at shear plane.
 The high amount of heat generated in this area causes softening of the
material and allowing the greater deformation.
 This region consumes about 70% of total energy applied.

SECONDARY DEFORMATION ZONE

 Heat generated by the secondary deformation due to the friction between the
rake face and heated chip.
 About 20% of total energy consumed in the secondary deformation zone.
 This energy used to overcome the friction.

WORK TOOL INTERFACE

 In work tool interface, the heat generated by burnishing action due to the
rubbing of tool flank and the machined surface.
 Heat generated in this region is very small as compared to another zone.
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Primary Shear Zone Secondary Deformation Zone

The narrow zone surrounding the shear The area surrounding the chip-tool
plane in machining is termed as primary contact region is called the secondary
shear zone. deformation zone.

This zone consists of a part of work This zone consists of a part of chip and
material (uncut chip) and a part of chip. a part of cutting tool.

Microscopic rubbing (in atomic scale) Macroscopic rubbing takes place due to
takes place in this zone due to shearing. flow of chip over the rake surface under
immense pressure.

This zone is the secondary source of It is the primary source of heat

cutting heat. Its contribution is generation in machining. It contributes
comparatively lower (10 – 20% of the about 70 – 90% of the total cutting heat
total cutting heat). generated during machining.

Cross-sectional area of this zone Cross-sectional area of this zone

depends on uncut chip thickness, shear depends on contact length, chip flow
angle, rake angle, etc. velocity, rake angle, presence of chip
breaker, etc.

CUTTING FLUIDS

 Ideal Cutting Fluid Properties

1. High specific heat and thermal conductivity
2. Low viscosity
3. Non Toxic and non-corrosive No foam formation
4. No bad odour, inexpensive
 Cutting Fluids are used to achieve following:
 Reduce friction and wear, improving tool life and surface finish.
 Reduce force and energy consumption.
 Cool the cutting zone.
 Wash away chips.
 Protect machined surface from environmental corrosion.
 Fluids containing chlorine should not be used with titanium.

 Cutting of Cast Iron is completed as dry.

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TOOLS NOMENCLATURE

(I )BACK RAKE ANGLE ( )

 Back rake angle is the angle between the face of the single point cutting tool
and a line parallel with base of the tool measured in a perpendicular plane
through the side cutting edge.
 If the slope face is downward toward the nose, it is negative back rake angle
and if it is upward toward nose, it is positive back rake angle.
 Back rake angle helps in removing the chips away from the workpiece.

(II )SIDE RAKE ANGLE ( )

 Side rake angle is the angle by which the face of tool is inclined to the side
ways.
 Side rake angle is the angle between the surface of the flank immediately
below the point and the line down from the point perpendicular to the base.
 Side rake angle of cutting tool determines the thickness of the tool
behind the cutting edge.
 It is provided on tool to provide clearance between workpiece and tool
so as to prevent the rubbing of workpiece with end flake of tool.

 Following are the advantage of increasing side cutting edge angle.

1. It increases tool life for the same depth of cut.
2. It diminishes chip thickness for the same amount of feed and permits
greater cutting speed.
3. It dissipates heat quickly.
4. It improves surface finish.
 For machining high strength material like brass and other copper alloys, 0°
rake angle is used.
 For brittle material, negative back rake angle is provided. (More power
consumption)
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 For machining upto shoulder, slight negative back and side rake angle is used.
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(III) END RELIEF ANGLE ( )

 End relief angle is defined as the angle between the portion of the end flank
immediately below the cutting edge and a line perpendicular to the base of
the tool, measured at right angles to the flank.
 End relief angle allows the tool to cut without rubbing on the
workpiece.

(IV)SIDE RELIEF ANGLE ( )

 Side rake angle is the angle between the portion of the side flank
immediately below the side edge and a line perpendicular to the base of the
tool measured at right angles to the side.
 Side relief angle is the angle that prevents the interference as the tool enters
the material.
 It is incorporated on the tool to provide relief between its flank and the
workpiece surface.

(V) END CUTTING EDGE ANGLE ( )

 End cutting edge angle is the angle between the end cutting edge and a line
perpendicular to the shank of the tool.
 It provides clearance between tool cutting edge and workpiece.

(VI) SIDE CUTTING EDGE ANGLE ( )

 Side cutting edge angle is the angle between straight cutting edge on the
side of tool and the side of the shank.
 It is responsible for turning the chip away from the finished surface.

TOOL SIGNATURE OF SINGLE POINT CUTTING TOOL:

 Convenient way to specify tool angles by use of a standardized abbreviated
system is known as tool signature.
 It indicates the angles that a tool utilizes during the cut. It specifies the
active angles of the tool normal to the cutting edge.
 This will always be true as long as the tool shank is mounted at right angles
to the workpiece axis.

ELEMENTS OF TOOL SIGNATURE

The seven elements that comprise the signature of a single point cutting tool are
always stated in the following order:
1. Back rake angle - 5. End cutting edge angle -
2. Side rake angle - 6. Side cutting edge angle -
3. End relief angle - 7. Nose radius -
4. Side relief angle-
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NOSE RADIUS:

Nose radius is the radius value of tiny rounding provided at the tip of the cutting
tool, measured on reference plane

1. Greater nose radius clears up the feed marks caused by previous shearing
action and provide better surface finish.
2. It increases the strength of the cutting edge.
3. Slight reduction in cutting force
4. Accumulation of heat is less than that in a pointed tool.

Tools designation

1.AMERICAN STANDARDS ASSOCIATION (ASA)

 American Standards Association (ASA) system utilizes three mutually

perpendicular planes for reference purpose namely Machine longitudinal
plane, Machine transverse plane and Reference plane.
 Tool signature in ASA system consists of two rake angles, two clearance
angles, two cutting edge angles and the nose radius of a single point cutting
tool.
 The sequence of writing tool signature in ASA system along with the name
of various angles is depicted below
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 Back Rank Angle (BRA) Side Rake Angle (SRA) End Relief Angle (ERA)
Side Relief Angle (SRA) End Cutting Edge Angle (ECEA) Side Cutting Edge
Angle (SCEA) ( ) Nose Radius

2.ORTHOGONAL RAKE SYSTEM (ORS)

 Orthogonal Rake System (ORS) also utilizes three mutually perpendicular

planes for reference purpose namely Cutting plane, Orthogonal plane and
Reference plane.
 Similar to the ASA system, tool signature in ORS system consists of two
rake angles, two clearance angles, two cutting edge angles and the nose
radius of a single point cutting tool.
 Note that in ASA system, nose radius is measured in inch unit; whereas, in
ORS system it is measured in mm. The sequence of writing tool signature in
ORS system along with the name of various angles is depicted below

Angle of Inclination Orthogonal Rake Angle (Side Rake Angle) Side Relief
Angle End Relief Angle End Cutting Edge Angle Approach Angle (90 - )
Nose Radius
λ

3.NORMAL RAKE SYSTEM (NRS)

 Normal Rake System (NRS) utilizes three planes (not necessarily mutually
perpendicular) for reference purpose namely Cutting plane, Normal plane
and Reference plane.
 Similar to the ORS system, tool signature in NRS system also consists of two
rake angles, two clearance angles, two cutting edge angles and the nose
radius of a single point cutting tool

NOTE

Tool sharpening by grinding:

 Every cutter undergoes gradual wear during machining. Wear makes the
cutting edges blunt (less sharp), which leads to undesirable increase in
cutting force and surface roughness.
 Uncoated cutting tools can be sharpened by grinding in a regular interval
to improve sharpness (reducing edge roundness).
 Single point turning tool can be ground by mounting it on a 3-D vice in
proper fashion. It requires setting up multiple angles for each face of
cutter.
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 Such setting angles are calculated from the known tool signature. Use of
ORS system for this calculation purpose leads to error; and thus requires
additional calculations for compensation.
 Such limitation can be eliminated by employing features of NRS system
during tool setting on 3-D vice.
 It is worth mentioning that use of MRS system for this purpose is best as
it requires only two angle settings for each face; instead of 3 as in case of
other systems

 Relationship between ASA and ORS can be given by trigonometric angles

RAKE ANGLE –SIGNIFICANCE IN METAL CUTTING

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NOTE -CLEARANCE ANGLE ( )

 Angle of inclination of clearance or flank surface from the finished surface

 Clearance angle is essentially provided to avoid rubbing of the tool (flank)
with the machined surface which causes loss of energy and damages of both
the tool and the job surface.
 Hence, clearance angle is a must and must be positive
(3o ~ 15o depending upon tool-work materials and type of the machining
operations like turning, drilling, boring etc.)

MECHANICS OF CHIP FORMATION

 The relative motion between the tool and the workpiece during cutting
compresses the work material near the tool and induces a shear deformation
that forms the chip
 When the stress in work piece just ahead of the cutting tool reaches a value
exceeding the ultimate strength of the metal, particle will shear to form a chip
element which moves up along the face of the work.
 t0 = Depth of cut / Uncut chip thickness
 tc =chip thickness / cut chip thickness
 = length of chip before cut
 = length of chip after cut
 w = width of chip
 Rake angle = & Shear angle = 𝛟

1. Cutting ratio (r)

r= = ( )
( )

2. Chip compression ratio or chip reduction coefficient (rc)

( )
rc = (>1)
3. Chip reduction coefficient ( )
from length measurements, =
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4. Shear strain, γ = cot + tan( ) ………. (from derivation)

 Large shear strains are associated with low shear angle or low or negative
rake angles.
 Shear plane is plane of maximum shear stress.

Merchant’s First Analysis (discussed below)

 = 45° + - β /2 …..OR

 2 +β- = π/2 (μ = tan β)

 As rake angle decreases, friction at the - chip interface increases.

 As shear angle decreases chip becomes thicker.
 Thicker chips, means more energy dissipation because the shear strain is
higher.
 Because work done is Converted into heat, temperature rise is also
higher.

Lets consider as VC Chip velocity

V cutting speed
vs Velocity of shear
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Metal Cutting
1.Area of shear plane (As),
As = w.AB =

As, (AB = length of shear plane)

2. material removal rate before cutting = material removal rate after cutting
V t0 = Vc tc ------ (density of material)const

Vc = V.r

r= =

from velocity triangle ,applying sin rule

( ( )) ( ) ( )

( ) ( ) ( )

𝛟
 VC =
(𝛟 )

 Vs = (𝛟 )
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𝛟
 r = = (𝛟 )
…..I

…………………………………………………..after expanding above equation I

tan =

For establishing the relationship between measurable and actual forces

Merchant’s circle diagram will be used.
1. Merchant circle diagram is used to analyze the forces acting in metal
cutting.
2. The analysis of three forces system, which balance each other for
cutting to occur. Each system is a triangle of forces.

Notes made by Satij Kale (BE/MTECH/GATE/CET/RANK/09 + teaching exp.)

MERCHANT’S CIRCLE

FORCES ACTING ON TOOL IN ORTHOGONAL CUTTING

 The cutting force Fc acts in the direction of cutting speed V.

 The thrust force Ft, acts in a direction normal to cutting velocity i.e.
perpendicular to work piece.
 Resultant of these two force is R.
Friction Force F, along tool chip interface and normal force N.

F = R sin β & N = R cos β

ASSUMPTIONS MADE IN DRAWING MERCHANT’S CIRCLE:

1. Shear surface is a plane extending upwards from the cutting edge.

2. The tool is perfectly sharp and there is no contact along the clearance
force.
3. The cutting edge is a straight line extending perpendicular to the
direction of motion and generates a plane surface as the work moves
past it.
4. The chip doesn’t flow to either side, that is chip width is constant.
5. The depth of cut remains constant.
6. Width of the too, is greater than that of the work.
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7. Work moves with uniform velocity relative tool tip.

8. No built up edge is formed.

The three triangles of forces in merchant’s circle diagram are

1. A triangle of forces for the cutting forces,
2. A triangle of forces for the shear forces,
3. A triangle of forces for the frictional forces.

Let,

 F = Frictional force
 N = Normal to frictional force
 Fs = Shear force
 Fn = Normal to shear force
 Fc = Cutting force or tangential component of force
 Ft =Thrust force or feed force
 β = Friction angle (angle between F & N )
 μ = Coefficient of friction = tanβ
 Fc and Ft are along and normal to the direction of velocity.
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Let R = resultant force

Then resultant force is given by the formula

R = (Fc2 + Ft2)0.5

R = Diameter of merchant’s circle

Ft, Fc forces are defined based on actual machining conditions

 From the above merchant’s circle diagram it is found that there are three
right angled triangles are present and all the three right angled triangle
possessing common hypotenuse (largest side opposite to right angle in a
right angled triangle).
 Merchant’s circle is used for establishing relationship between
measurable and actual forces.

 From Merchant circle (use Geometry)

 Fs = Fc cos — Ft sin

 Fc =
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 F n = Fc cos

 R= ( )

 μ=

so μ =

 Thrust force act downward. As the rake angle increases and the friction at
the rake face decreases, this force can act upward.
 When μ = 0; = 0 thrust force is zero F = R sin(β - α) & F = R cos( – α)

Merchant Cirlce

POWER.

 Power for cutting P = FC.V

 The power is dissipated mainly in shear zone and on rake face of tool
(tool-chip interface)

Power for shearing = FsVs
 Specific Energy for shearing Us =
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 Power dissipated in friction = F Vc.

 Specific Energy for friction = Uf = =
 Total sp. Energy Ut = Us + Uf

SUMMARY

 Merchant and Ernst Theory

μ=

 F =Fc sin + Ftcos

 N= Fccos - Ft sin

 F = Fc sin + Ftcos
 N = Fccos - Ft sin

 Fs = Fccos -Ft sin

 Fc = F sin + Fs cos
 Ft = Fncos - Fs sin
.

Power consumption, W = Fc V = Fs Vs + F Vc

 2 + - = 90° - Merchant’s First Analysis

 2 + - = cot-1 k - Merchant's Second Analysis
(When 2 + _ = 90°)

 Lee and shatter relation: (Slip line field theory)

+ - = 45°
 Stabler relation
+ - /2 = 45°
 Energy consumption per unit volume of material removal, is known as
specific energy,
Uc =
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TOOL LIFE

MEANING OF TOOL LIFE:

 Every device or tool has its functional life.

 At the expiry of which it may function, but not efficiently. So it is also true
with a cutting tool.
 During use, the tool losses its material, i.e., it gets worn out.
 As the wear increases, the tool losses its efficiency. So its life has to be
defined and on expiry of its life, it should be reground for fresh use.

THE TOOL LIFE CAN BE DEFINED IN FOLLOWING DIFFERENT WAYS:

(i) The time elapsed between two successive grindings.

(ii) The period during which a tool cuts satisfactory.

(iii) The total time accumulated before tool failure occurs.

 Tool life is expressed in minutes.

METHODS FOR TOOL LIFE MEASUREMENTS

The most commonly used methods for tool life measurements are following:
(i) Machining Time:
 Elapsed time of operation of machine tool.

(ii) Actual Cutting Time:

 The time during which the tool actually cuts.

(iii) A fixed size of Wear Land on Flank Surface:

 On carbide and ceramic tools where crater wear is almost absent.

 Tool life is taken as corresponding to 0.038 or 0.076 mm of wear land on the

flank surface for finishing respectively.

(iv) Volume of metal removed.

(v) Number of pieces machined.

 The tool life between re-conditioning and replacement can be defined in a

number of ways, such as:

(a) Actual cutting time taken to failure.

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(b) Volume of metal removed to failure.

(c) Number of parts produced to failure.

(d) Cutting speed for a given time to failure.

(e) Length of work machined to failure.

TOOL LIFE EXPECTANCY (TAYLOR’S TOOL LIFE EQUATION):

 In 1907, F. W. Taylor developed relation between tool life and cutting speed,
temperature, by keeping feed as constant.

 The Taylor’s Equation for Tool Life Expectancy provides a good approximation.

V Tn = C

Where,
 V = Cutting speed (m/min)
 T = Tool life (min)

 n = Exponent, that depends on tool materials.

 Value of n = 0.1 to 0.2; for H.S.S. tools

 0.2 to 0.4; for Carbide tools

 0.4 to 0.6; for Ceramic tools

A more general form of the equation also called as modified Taylors Tool Life
equation considering depth of cut and feed rate is

V T n fx dy = C
Where,

 d = Depth of cut (mm)

 f = Feed rate (mm/rev)

 x, y = Exponents, that are determined experimentally for each cutting

conditions.
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OBSERVATIONS FROM THE TOOL LIFE EQUATION:

1. Tool life decreases with increase in cutting speed.

2. Tool life also depends to a great extent on the depth of cut (d) and feed rate
(f).
3. Decrease of tool life with increased speed is twice as great (exponentially) as
the decrease of life with increased feed.
4. The greatest variation of tools life is with the cutting speed and tool
temperature which is closely related to cutting speed.

THE FOLLOWING ARE SOME CRITERION FOR JUDGING TOOL

LIFE/FAILURE:

1. Complete failure.
2. Flank & crater failure.
3. Finish failure.
4. Size failure.
5. Cutting force failure.

(I) COMPLETE FAILURE:

 According to this criterion, the cutting with the tool is continued till it is able
to cut.
 So when the tool fails to cut, then only it should be reground.
 This criterion is not used in practice because of its obvious disadvantages.

(II) FLANK & CRATER FAILURE:

FLANK WEAR

 According to this criterion, when the wear on the flank reaches a certain
height the cutting with the tool is discontinued and grinding is done.
 Say when the flank wear height h equals to 0.3 mm, for example, the tool is
said to have failed.
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 The workpiece becomes taper if cutting continued.

 This is the most usual criterion followed in practice. The flank wear is
measured with a tool maker’s microscope.

 Also, it is important to note that, the flank wear is not uniform along the
active cutting edge, therefore, it is necessary to specify the locations and the
degree of wear, when deciding tool life criterion, before regrinding.

CRATER WEAR

 It happens on the tool face at a short distance from cutting edge by the
action of chip flow over the face at very high temperature.

 The crater wear is mainly due to diffusion and abrasion. They are
commonly observed where the continuous chip is formed (usually in the
ductile material).

(III) FINISH FAILURE:

 According to this criterion, when the surface roughness reaches a specified

high value, the cutting with the tool is stopped and grinding is done.
 Say at a particular cutting condition the surface roughness, comes to be 0.7
microns.
 As in process of cutting the flank wear develops so the cutting edge becomes
rough and irregular so the surface roughness gradually increases,
 The roughness of the surface is measured continuously along its length.
When the roughness reaches the specified value, the cutting is
discontinued.
 For example, this maximum specified value of surface roughness may be
occurs on the 10th workpiece, so the 11th and next workpieces won’t be
machined with the same tool, without regrinding.

(IV) SIZE FAILURE:

 According to this criterion, a tool will be considered to have failed if there is
a deviation in the size of a produced finished component from its specified
value.

(V) CUTTING FORCE FAILURE:

 According to this criterion, a tool will be considered to have failed, if the
amount of cutting force increases by certain specified amount.

 This is due to flank wear. Flank wear increases the area of contact between
the workpiece and the tool, resulting into increase in the cutting force.
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FACTORS AFFECTING TOOL LIFE:

The following factors play an important role in tool life:

(i) Cutting speed.

(ii) Feed rate and Depth of cut.

(iii) Hardness of workpiece.

(iv) Microstructure of workpiece.

(v) Tool material.

(vi) Tool geometry.

(vii) Type of cutting fluid and its method of application.

(viii) Nature of cutting.

(ix) Grain size of workpiece.

(x) Rigidity of workpiece machine-tool system.

(I) CUTTING SPEED:

 It is clear that the cutting speed has the highest effect on tool life followed by
feed and depth of cut, respectively.
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 As cutting speed increases, the cutting temperature increases, and tool life
decreases.

(II) FEED RATE AND DEPTH OF CUT:

 According to the Taylor’s tool life equation, tool life decreases when feed rate
increases. Also, the same case for depth of cut.

The following relation justifies the above statement:

(III) HARDNESS OF WORKPIECE:

 As the hardness increases, the permissible velocity decreases for a given tool
life.
 For example, the tool life is 50 minutes for cutting less hard material, now if
say harder material is to be cut then to maintain the tool life as 50 minutes,
the cutting velocity should be reduced proportionate.

The above statement is justified by the following equation given by Yanitsky:

where,

Hb = Brinel hardness number of work material

Ψ = Percentage reduction

V = Permissible cutting speed for a given tool life

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(iv) MICROSTRUCTURE OF WORKPIECE:

 As the structure becoming more
and more perlites, the tool life
decreases at any increase in
cutting speed, as shown in Fig.

(V) TOOL MATERIAL:

 The major requirements of cutting tool materials are: Hot hardness, impact
toughness, and wear resistance.
 For better tool life, the material must have the above properties.
 It is very clear from the experimental data at any cutting speed the tool life
is maximum for ceramic tool and lowest for the high speed steel tool.
 So using ceramic tool maximum volume of material could be removed at any
cutting speed for a specific tool life.
 An ideal tool material will have n = 1 (Taylor’s tool life index).
 It means ideal material tool at all cutting speeds, removes maximum volume
of work material.

MECHANISM OF TOOL WEAR

DIFFUSION WEAR

 This is mainly responsible for crater wear.

 At high temperature, carbon (c) and other elements which causes hardness
in the tool starts diffusing into the chip.
 As a result of that tool on the rake face is becoming weaker and weaker and
after sometime a portion of tool material is taken away by the chip
producing a crater over the tool face.

ADHESION WEAR

This is mainly responsible for flank wear.

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 This happened when built up edge is formed. After sometime, a portion of

built up edge is carried away by the chip and a portion goes to the
workplace.
 In this process, a portion of tool material is also lost. This is called adhesion
wear.

ABRASION WEAR

 Mainly responsible for flank wear.

 Due to Fayalite (Fe2SiO4; commonly abbreviated to Fa )pocket present in the
material.
 Shock appear over the cutting edge which removes a small portion of
material from the cutting edge.

FATIGUE WEAR

 Hills of tools eroded gradually under fatigue.

OXIDATION WEAR

 When tool becomes hot, oxide layer tends to form over the tool which will be
removed in the next cut.
 These are calculated by optical projector and talysurf.

MACHINABILITY:

Defines in terms of four factors.

1. Surface finish and integrity of machined parts.

2. Tool life obtained.
3. Force and power requirement.
4. Chip control.

Machinability index (%) =

 Toughness implies a combination of strength and ductility.

 Machinability of most steels is improved by cold working.
 Higher the oxygen content lower the aspect ratio and higher the machinability.
 Aspect ratio or shape factor is the ratio of the largest dimension to the smallest
dimension of the particle.

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