Centaur Gas Turbine Modification

and Development for Solar-Fossil

EFR!
EPRI A P-2550
Hybrid Operation Project 1270-1
Final Report
<eywords: September 1982
Solar Energy
Gas Turbines
Solar Central Receiver Concept
Solar-Fossil Hybrid
Solar-Electric Power Generation

DISTRIBUTION OF THIS DOCUMENT IS UNUMITOi

ELECTRIC POWER RESEARCH INSTITUTE

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 EPRI-AP—2550

DE83 900192

Centaur Gas-Turbine Modification and

Development for Solar-Fossil Hybrid Operation

AP-2550
Research Project 1270-1

Final Report, September 1982

Prepared by

SOLAR TURBINES INCORPORATED

2200 Pacific Highway
San Diego, California 92138

Principal Investigators
P. B. Roberts
A. J. Kubasco

Prepared for

Electric Power Research Institute

3412 Hillview Avenue
Palo Alto, California 94304

EPRI Project Manager

J. E. Bigger

Solar Power Systems Program distribution OF THIS DOCUMENT IS UNLIMITED

Advanced Power Systems Division
 ORDERING INFORMATION

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(RRC), Box 50490, Palo Alto, CA 94303, (415) 965-4081. There is no charge for reports
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NOTICE
This report was prepared by the organization(s) named below as an account of work sponsored by the Electric
Power Research Institute, Inc. (EPRI). Neither EPRI, members of EPRI, the organization(s) named below, nor any
person acting on behalf of any of them: (a) makes any warranty, express or implied, with respect to the use of
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of, any information, apparatus, method, or process disclosed in this report.

Prepared by
Solar Turbines Incorporated
San Diego, California
 ABSTRACT

A study was performed with the objectives of developing conceptual designs of the
hardware and systems modifications required to operate the Solar Turbines Incorpor­
ated Centaur recuperative gas turbine-generator set in a solar-fossil hybrid mode.
The combustion and control systems were defined as the major technology voids and
a single-shaft Centaur generator set with a parallel trim combustor selected as the
preferred system configuration.

A bench-scale combustor development program was conducted to generate the design

and performance data necessary for preliminary definition of the full-size trim

combustor. A bench-scale trim combustor was developed with the turndown capabil­
ities necessary for the hybrid solar-fossil system.

iii
 EPRI PERSPECTIVE

PROJECT DESCRIPTION

This final report. Centaur Gas Turbine Modification and Development for Solar-Fossil
Hybrid Operation, documents the work accomplished under RP1270-1. This project
addressed one of the critical questions in the development of Brayton-cycle solar-
thermal power plants: Is it feasible to consider modifying existing commercial gas
turbines for solar-fossil hybrid operation? Since unit reliability, availability,
and operating flexibility are important characteristics considered by utility
personnel when selecting new power generation resources, the development of solar-
thermal power plants with benefits in all these areas will help speed their
introduction into utility systems. In federally funded studies, the cost of
developing new turbomachinery for solar-thermal power plant applications was found
to be too high in terms of time and dollars. Therefore the feasibility of modifying
and using existing commercial units was the alternative considered and investigated.

A specific commercial 2.5-MW(e) gas turbine was used as the basis for this proj­
ect. Solar-thermal power plant design, performance, and operating requirements were
obtained from other EPRI and federal contractors that were involved in complete
solar-thermal power plant system studies.

The results of this project were used as the basis for another EPRI-funded effort,
RP1348-8, which examined the modification of large—10 MW(e) to 100 MW(e)—commer­
cial gas turbines for solar-fossil hybrid operation. The final report on this
project will be published in late 1982.

PROJECT OBJECTIVE

The primary objective was to design the modifications necessary to adapt a commer­
cial gas turbine to solar-fossil hybrid operation. The modified design was to be
based not only on analytic models but also on bench-scale test data.

v
PROJECT RESULTS

The design, performance, and operating requirements for commercial Brayton-cycle,

solar-thermal power plants were developed from other EPRI-funded and federally
funded studies, and their impacts on the plants' turbogenerator were outlined. The
Solar Turbines Incorporated 2.5-MW(e) Centaur gas turbine was selected as the unit
for more detailed study. An initial conceptual design of the required modification
was completed; the two major areas where modifications would be required for solar-
fossil hybrid operation were the combustor and the control systems. The problems
related to the combustor system were addressed in the remainder of the project; the
control system hardware and software modification and redesign were not investigated
further in this study.

Based on this initial definition of requirements and design work, a bench-scale trim
combustor development test effort was initiated. Test results indicate that a
modified Centaur unit would operate in a normal manner during startup, steady-state,
and transient operations. With the solar receiver in parallel with the combustion
system, a wide range of operation is available. Tests indicate that an air mass-
flow turndown ratio of 10:1 and a fuel-flow turndown ratio of 70:1 are achievable.
The overall bench-scale performance characteristics met the original requirements
set for the commercial-sized system.

It is recognized that much art remains in combustor development today, and bench-
scale performance does not guarantee performance of a full-sized system. However,
in the judgment of Solar Turbines' personnel who are experienced in combustor
engineering, successful development of a reliable and flexible system appears to be
straightforward. A gas turbine modification and qualification program, which would
quantify a commercial Centaur unit, was laid out in a test-cell environment for use
in a Br ayton-cycle, solar-thermal power plant.

J. E. Bigger, Project Manager

Advanced Power Systems Division
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Throughout the study, J. E. Bigger (EPRI) provided the essential direction and
guidance required. Valuable technical input was received from J. Gintz and
G. Veith of Boeing Engineering and Construction Company as well as E. J. McBride,
R. Rome and D. Gray of Black and Veatch Consulting Engineers. Other Solar Turbines
Incorporated personnel who made significant contributions to the study include
A. Stone, J.C. Napier, T.E. Duffy, W.E. Reed, V.M. Sood, and O.L. Lindsey.

vii
 CONTENTS

Section Page

1 INTRODUCTION 1-1

2 CENTAUR RECUPERATIVE GAS TURBINE 2-1

3 STUDY GUIDELINES 3-1

3.1 Recuperator Design 3-1
3.2 Engine Matching 3-1
3.3 Pilot-Scale Power Plant Site 3-2
3.4 Fuel Selection 3-2

4 SYSTEM DEFINITIONS -HYBRID RECUPERATIVE CENTAUR GENERATOR SET 4-1

4.1 Engine Performance 4-1
4.2 Combustion System 4-5
4.2.1 Production Combustor-Recuperative Centaur 4-7

4.2.2 System Requirements 4-8

4.2.3 Parallel Combustor 4-9
4.2.4 Series Combustor 4-10
4.2.5 Preferred Combustor Arrangement 4-11
4.3 Control System 4-12
4.3.1 System Requirements 4-13
4.3.2 Single-Shaft Versus Split-Shaft Recuperative Centaur 4-14
4.3.3 Series Versus Parallel Combustor 4-14
4.3.4 Control Concept Conclusions 4-15
4.4 Valves 4-16
4.5 Preferred Engine System Configuration 4-17

5 COMBUSTION SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM 5-1

5.1 Methodology and Program Objectives 5-1
5.2 Combustion System Design Guidelines 5-1
5.3 Performance Requirements 5-2
5.4 Bench-Scale Combustor 5-5
5.4.1 Combustor Description 5-5
5.4.2 Combustor Design 5-8

ix
Section Page

5.5 Test Facility 5-10

5.5.1 Flow Path 5-10
5.5.2 Combustor Test Section 5-10
5.5.3 Instrumentation 5-12
5.5.4 Test Procedure 5-15
5.6 Test Results Summary and Discussion 5-15
5.6.1 Single-Stage Fuel Injector. TestResults 5-16
5.6.2 Two-Stage Fuel Injector. TestResults 5-21
5.7 Conceptual Full-Size Trim CombustorDesign 5-30
5.8 Concluding Remarks 5-31

6 HYBRID RECUPERATIVE CENTAUR - RECOMMENDED TEST CELL DEMONSTRATION

PROGRAM 6-1

6.1 Demonstration Program Content 6-1

6.2 Demonstration Program Schedule 6-3
6.3 Test Cell Configuration Options 6-5
6.4 Demonstration Program Cost 6-7

7 RECOMMENDATIONS 7-1

8 REFERENCES 8-1

APPENDIX A COMBUSTOR CHARACTERISTICS A-1

x
 ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure Page

2-1 Simple Cycle Centaur 2-2

2-2 Simple Cycle Gas Turbine 2-2

2-3 Recuperative Cycle Centaur 2-3

2-4 Recuperative Cycle Gas Turbine 2-3

4-1 Split-Shaft Recuperative Centaur Performance Operating on Solar Power 4-2

4-2 Single-Shaft Recuperative Centaur Performance Operating on Solar Power 4-3

4-3 Single-Shaft Recuperative Centaur - Solar Receiver Inlet Conditions 4-6

4-4 Recuperative Centaur Production Combustor 4-7

4-5 Recuperative Centaur Production Combustor 4-8

4-6 Parallel Combustor Schematic 4-9

4-7 Fuel-Staging Scheme 4-10

4-8 Series Combustor Schematic - Full Flow Combustor 4-10

4-9 Series Combustor Schematic - Isolated Combustor 4-10

4-10 Preferred Combustor Arrangement 4-12

5-1 Receiver/Combustor Outlet Temperature Map 5-3

5-2 Bench-Scale Trim Combustor 5-6

5-3 Bench-Scale Trim Combustor Cross Section 5-6

5-4 Bench-Scale Trim Combustor 5-7

5-5 Centaur Torch Igniter 5-7

5-6 Test Rig Schematic 5-11

5-7 Combustor Test Section 5-12

5-8 Combustor Test Section 5-13

5-9 Single-Stage Liquid Fuel Injector 5-16

5-10 Single-Stage Liquid Fuel Inj ector 5-17

5-11 Combustor Characteristics: Single-Stage Fuel Injector (Design

Point Conditions) 5-18

5-12 Combustor Characteristics: Single-Stage Fuel Inj ector (Reduced

Pressure Loss Conditions) 5-19

5-13 Combustor Characteristics: Single-Stage Fuel Inj ector (Reduced

Pressure Loss Conditions 5-19

5-14 Combustor Characteristics: Single-Stage Fuel Injector (Reduced

Pressure Loss Conditions) 5-20

xi
Figure Page

5-15 Combustor Characteristics: Single-Stage Fuel Injector (Reduced

Inlet Temperature Conditions) 5-20
5-16 Two-Stage Liquid Fuel Inj ector 5-22
5-17 Two-Stage Liquid Fuel Injector 5-22
5-18 Pilot Fuel Flow Requirements: JP-4 Fuel 5-23
5-19 Pilot Fuel Operation 5-24
5-20 Pilot Plus Main Fuel Operation 5-24
5-21 Combustor Efficiency Characteristic: Two-Stage Fuel Injector
(Design Point Conditions) 5-25
5-22 Combustor Characteristics: Two-Stage Fuel Injector (Design Point
Conditions) 5-25
5-23 Liner Temperature Profile: Two-Stage Fuel Injector (Design Point
Conditions) 5-26
5-24 Combustor Characteristic: Two-Stage Fuel Injector (Design Point
Conditions) 5-27
5-25 Combustor Characteristic: Two-Stage Fuel Injector (Reduced Pressure
Loss Conditions) 5-27
5-26 Combustor Characteristic: Two-Stage Fuel Injector (Design Point
Conditions - Kerosene Fuel) 5-28
5-27 Combustor Characteristic: Two-Stage Fuel Injector (Design Point
Condition - Kerosene Fuel) Inlet Valve Partially Closed 5-29
5- 28 Conceptual Recuperative Centaur Trim Combustor Layout 5-30
6- 1 Re cupe r ative Centaur Simulated Hybrid Arrangement 6-2
6-2 Microprocessor Control System Definition Scenario 6-4
6-3 Test Cell Demonstration Program Schedule 6-5
6-4 Recuperative Centaur Combustor Test Loop 6-6
6-5 Cold End Drive Centaur 6-7
A-1 Single-Stage Fuel Injector (Design Conditions) A-3
A-2 Single-Stage Fuel Injector (Reduced Pressure Loss Conditions) A—4
A-3 Single-Stage Fuel Injector (Reduced Pressure Loss Conditions) A-4
A-4 Single-Stage Fuel Injector (Reduced Pressure Loss Conditions) A-5
A-5 Single-Stage Fuel Injector (Reduced Inlet Conditions) A-5
A-6 Single-Stage Fuel Injector (Reduced Inlet Conditions) A-6
A-7 Two-Stage Fuel Injector (Reduced Pressure Loss Conditions) A-6
A-8 Two-Stage Fuel Inj ector (Reduced Pressure Loss Conditions) A-7
A-9 Two-Stage Fuel Injector (Design Conditions, Kerosene Fuel) A-7

xii
 SUMMARY

Previous studies funded by the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) have shown
potential advantages for the solar central receiver concept in utility electric
power generation when a solar-fossil hybrid variant of a gas turbine-generator set
is used. The design, modification and demonstration testing of a small, commer­
cially available gas turbine is needed to confirm the technical feasibility of the
hybrid configuration before proceeding to pilot scale operation.

Solar Turbines Incorporated has performed a study with the objectives of developing
conceptual designs of the hardware and systems modifications required to operate
a Solar Turbines Centaur recuperative gas turbine-generator set in a solar-fossil
hybrid mode. Work plans and test schedules were defined for both a bench-scale
combustor investigation and a test cell demonstration of the modified Centaur
engine.

Examination of various engine configuration alternatives led to the definition of

the combustion and control systems as the two major technology voids, and a prefer­
red system configuration consisting of a single-shaft, recuperative Centaur genera­
tor set with the solar receiver and liquid-fuel combustor in parallel, and a micro­
processor- based electronic controller.

A bench-scale model combustor development program was defined and conducted that
built on the existing background represented by the standard recuperative Centaur
combustion system and generated the design and performance data necessary for pre­
liminary definition of the full-size hybrid combustion system specification. A
JP-4 fueled, bench-scale trim combustor with a two-stage, air-blast fuel injection
system was developed with the outlet temperature and air mass flow turndown capa­
bilities necessary for application to a hybrid solar-fossil system.

A subsequent twelve-month demonstration program was also defined where the full-size
combustion system is developed, the electronic control system is specified and
refined, and a test cell demonstration is performed with a simulated hybrid recu­
perative Centaur system to confirm the performance and feasiblity of operating a
gas turbine with dual energy input sources.

S-1
 Section 1

INTRODUCTION

One important method of converting solar energy to electric power is thermal energy
conversion in conjunction with an industrial gas turbine-generator set, and studies
by EPRI have shown that the solar-fossil hybrid turbine configuration in conjunction
with the central receiver concept has potential advantages for utility electric
power generation applications.

The modification and testing of a small, commercially available gas turbine is

needed to demonstate the technical feasibility of operating from two sources of
input energy and to confirm the operating parameters developed in various power
plant design definition studies.

Two separate conceptual design studies sponsored by EPRI of utility-size central

receiver hybrid solar-fossil gas turbine plants (Refs. 1, 2) independently arrived
at the conclusion that the commercialization roadmap of such systems required the
demonstration of a pilot-scale experimental power plant in the 10 MWe size range
and that the Solar Turbines Incorporated recuperative Centaur gas turbine would be
a good candidate for such a plant. A recuperative cycle was chosen for the improve­
ment in thermal efficiency that is provided by the addition of the recuperator.
For a required solar thermal power plant output the increase in gas turbine thermal
efficiency results in a reduced heliostat field size.

Currently available industrial gas turbines are designed to accept energy from the
specific, fossil-fueled combustion systems associated with the engine and the
application of the gas turbine to the central receiver concept presents several
unique problems. This report covers a design study and development program per­
formed by Solar Turbines Incorporated with the objectives of developing conceptual
designs of the hardware and systems modifications required to operate a Solar
Turbines Centaur recuperative gas turbine-generator set in a hybrid solar-liquid
fuel mode, and formulating work plans and test schedules for both a combustor
bench-scale investigation and a test cell demonstration of the modified Centaur
engine system with a view to possible future use in a pilot scale power plant.

1-1
 Section 2

CENTAUR RECUPERATIVE GAS TURBINE

The Solar Turbines Centaur recuperative open cycle gas turbine is an outgrowth of
the simple-cycle version originally introduced in 1969 as an industrial machine
with moderate firing temperatures and a sleeve bearing design. The simple-cycle
Centaur, shown in Figure 2-1 in cutaway, consists of an 11-stage axial compressor,
an annular combustor and a 3-stage axial turbine section. A simple-cycle schema­
tic is shown in Figure 2-2. A single-shaft version of the engine, where the power
turbine is directly coupled to the compressor-t\irbine, is supplied for both contin­
uous and peaking generator sets. A split-shaft version, where the power turbine
is not mechanically coupled to the compressor-turbine is used for applications such
as gas compression and mechanical drives. Dual fuel versions are available burning
natural gas or distillate liquid fuels as heavy as #2 Diesel. The continuous rating
of a single-shaft generator set at sea level and 300K (8Q°F) day conditions on
liquid fuel is 2775 kilowatts. Almost one thousand of these units are in operation
around the world and have accumulated in excess of eight million operating hours.

For the recuperative version, a heat exchanger is utilized. This is of "piate-fin"

construction in low alloy carbon steel. An engine arrangement is shown in Figure
2-3 where the recuperator is stacked vertically above the engine. A recuperative
cycle schematic is shown in Figure 2-4. The addition of a recuperator results in a
combustion system change due to the modified flow conditions at the combustor
inlet and engine component arrangement constraints. The annular combustor used in
the simple-cycle engine is replaced in the recuperative engine by a single,
vertically-mounted can combustor between the recuperator and the turbine inlet

scroll. The rotating components of the engine remain unchanged.

In contrast to the wide range of applications and fuel types in use on the simple-
cycle machine, the recuperative Centaur gas turbine is currently in service only
as a natural gas-fueled, split-shaft natural gas pipeline compressor set.

Thus a study aimed at the definition of a hybrid recuperative Centaur gas turbine-
generator set necessarily uncovers several key technology voids arising from the

2-1
unique application and, in addition, other potential problem areas resulting from
a lack of relevant engine operating experience.

EXHAUST

Figure 2-1. Simple Cycle Centaur

ANNULAR EXHAUST
COMBUSTOR GAS

COMPRESSOR LOAD

COMPRESSOR-
TURBINE POWER TURBINE

INLET
AIR

Figure 2-2. Simple Cycle Gas Turbine

2-2
 HEAT EXCHANGER

Figure 2-3 Recuperative Cycle Centaur

EXHAUSTGAS

RECUPERATOR CAN
COMBUSTOR

COMPRESSOR LOAD

COMPRESSOR-' POWER TURBINE

TURBINE

INLET AIR

Figure 2-4. Recuperative Cycle Gas Turbine

2-3
 Section 3

STUDY GUIDELINES

EPRI has been supporting the development of two solar central receiver concepts.
The first was a metal tube design by Boeing Engineering and Construction Company
(BEC); the second was a ceramic tube unit by Black & Veatch Consulting Engineers
(B&V). During the initial stages of this study, guidelines were developed by the
EPRI Project Manager and Solar Turbines Incorporated to effectively direct the
main thrusts of the program to be compatible with the central receiver development
programs. These were as follows:

3.1 RECUPERATOR DESIGN

The recuperator currently supplied for the Centaur gas turbine is an "off-the-
shelf" unit with a design life of 15 years and has provided excellent service in
the field in terms of total pressure drop and leakage rates when care is taken to
minimize thermal gradients in the unit during the engine start-up. For example, a
typical cold start-to-idle speed on the recuperative Centaur can take as long as
45 minutes with the maximum temperature differential in the recuperator maintained
at 83 K (150°F) . Because of the rugged design and construction of the unit a mod­
erate design point effectiveness of 78 percent is obtained for the available volume.
Any improvement in recuperator effectiveness can again be translated into a decrease
in required heliostat field costs, however, the application of a higher effective­
ness recuperator would require considerable expenditures in terms of mounting and
ducting redesign. For the purpose of the study, therefore, no consideration was
given to an alternate recuperator design.

3.2 ENGINE MATCHING

The recuperative Centaur engine is currently matched at a design point turbine

inlet gas temperature (TIGT) of 1144 K (1600°F) for a 288 K (59°F) ambient inlet

3-1
temperature. This upper temperature limit is imposed by the required service life
of the turbine components and the mechanical integrity of other hot-end items such
as the combustor and turbine inlet scroll. An increase in the engine TIGT would
both increase output power and decrease the specific heat rate which can be directly
translated into a decrease in required heliostat field costs. Any increase in
matching temperature, however, without a major costly engine redesign, would
result in unpredictable reductions of hot end component life and engine reliability.
For the purposes of the study, therefore, no consideration was given to increasing
the engine matching temperature or to any major redesign of the compressor or
turbine components.

3.3 PILOT-SCALE POWER PLANT SITE

For the purposes of the study the pilot power plant site was selected as Gila
Bend, Arizona. The site is approximately sixty miles southwest of Phoenix and
within the service area of Arizona Public Service Company. The site was originally
selected by the Arizona Solar Power Project primary participants (Arizona Public
Service, Salt River Project and Tuscon Gas and Electric) in response to ERDA PON
DES 76-1 for the design, construction and operation of a 10 MWe Solar Thermal Pilot
Plant.

3.4 FUEL SELECTION

A distillate liquid fuel was selected as the fossil fuel to be used for hybrid
operation. Natural gas was not selected because none is readily available at the
Gila Bend site. Other potential fuels such as coal or coal-derived liquids were
not considered because of the severe technical problems involved with the use of
these fuels in existing gas turbines.
 Section 4

SYSTEM DEFINITIONS - HYBRID RECUPERATIVE CENTAUR GENERATOR SET

There exist various options as to the arrangement of the overall engine system
configuration based around the recuperative Centaur. The selection of the preferred
engine system configuration was made using the guidelines summarized in Section 3
and a study of the individual subsystem operating parameters imposed by the various
options.

The two main technology voids are in the areas of combustion and engine control.
The study was concentrated in these two main areas with the understanding that
other possible problem areas would probably be secondary in nature.

4.1 ENGINE PERFORMANCE

The overall engine performance has an impact on the configuration selection depen­
ding upon the projected pilot plant load profile. Figures 4-1 and 4-2 show the
performance characteristics of both split-shaft and single-shaft recuperative gen­
erator sets operating on solar input only at an ambient temperature of 311 K (100°F)
and an altitude of 320 m ( 1050 ft) . The inlet temperature corresponds to the
average daytime maximum at Gila Bend, Arizona. The altitude is local altitude
above sea level plus a projected 76 m (250 ft) tower.

The compressor efficiencies, airflows, turbine efficiencies, recuperator effec­

tiveness, and internal pressure losses correspond to minimum performance specifica­
tions for the recuperative Centaur split-shaft engine. The solar receiver pressure
loss is assumed equal to the current production combustion system loss. Flow
losses to the seals, turbine disc cooling and recuperator leakage are also equiva­
lent to the production recuperative Centaur. A further one half percent airflow
leakage to atmosphere is assumed in the solar receiver. Standard reduction gearbox
and generator efficiencies are used.

4-1
 7500 r

TURBINE INLET GAS TEMP.

HEAT RATE KCAL/KW HR

1000 *

-900

T INLET = 311 K (100°F)

320 m (1050 ft.)

- 800

R = 6.i

OUTPUT — KW

Figure 4-1 * Split-Shaft Recuperative Centaur Performance

Operating on Solar Power

4-2
 TURBINE INLET GAS TEMP
-J 5500
1000 ^

- 1100

"T inlet = 311 K(100oF}

320 m (1050 ft.)

,RC = 8.01

1000
OUTPUT- KW

Figure 4-2 Single-Shaft Recuperative Centaur Performance

Operating on Solar Power

4-3
The results can be summarized as follows:

• Split-Shaft Engine (Fig. 4-1)

The standard recuperative Centaur is normally rated at a compressor inlet

temperature of 288 K (59 0F), a TIGT of 1144 K ( 1600 °F) and at 14000 rpm
gas producer*speed with a pressure ratio of 8.0. The serious deterioration
in both rated power and specific heat rate when operating at a compressor
inlet temperature of 311 K (100°F) rather than 288 K (59°F) is partly due
to the compressor-turbine* speed falling from 14000 rpm to 13550 rpm. The
specific heat rate increase reflects the lower ratio of turbine inlet gas
temperature to engine inlet temperature, particularly critical for a
recuperated cycle. A secondary level performance deterioration occurs in
both single and split-shaft engines because of the absence of exhaust
products in the turbine flow.

Figure 4-1 also shows the expected 311 K (100°F) compressor inlet tempera­
ture performance assuming the power turbine flow capacity could be
increased without efficiency loss such that the gas producer speed at
1144 K ( 1600°F) TIGT increases to 15015 rpm (current production simple-
cycle, split-shaft Centaur speed) so as to obtain maximum air-flow and
hence power. The power increase is accompanied, however, by a deteriora­
tion in specific heat rate because the pressure ratio increases to 8.01
which, for the relatively low ratio of turbine inlet gas temperature to
engine inlet temperature used, is further from optimum than the match
pressure ratio of 6.88 obtained at a compressor inlet temperature of 311 K
(100°F) with the current power turbine. Another and large drawback with
respect to the increased flow capacity power turbine is that the relatively
large increase (about 10%) required to match at 15015 rpm probably cannot
be achieved simply by bending or restaggering the current nozzles without
a substantial efficiency loss. A larger annulus area would be required
with possible related stress problems. Alternatively, a compromise might
be possible where the capacity is increased in an efficient manner as far
as possible only by simple bending of the current turbine nozzle combined
with some restaggering of the turbine rotor blading. Although this possi­
bility was not examined in the study, it would need to be addressed for
commercial production models.

*The terms 1 gas producer' and 1 compressor-turbine’ are used interchange­

ably in this report
4-4
 Single-Shaft Engine (Fig. 4-2)

The current simple-cycle, single-shaft engine operates at a pressure ratio

of 9.2 and a TIGT of 1144 K (1600°F) for a compressor inlet temperature of
300 K (80°F) . Figure 4-2 indicates the estimated performance of the
solar powered recuperative version at a compressor inlet temperature of
311 K (100°F) and 320 m (1050 ft) altitude, when running at 15015 rpm with
both the current first stage nozzles and with the increased capacity first
stage nozzles currently used on the split-shaft recuperative Centaur. At
a compressor inlet temperature of 311 K (100°F), the respective pressure
ratios at a TIGT of 1144 K (1600°F) are 9.2 and 8.01. Being near optimum
for the match ratio of turbine inlet gas temperature to engine inlet
temperature the lower pressure ratio gives the better performance.

Compared with the split-shaft machine, however, the part load specific
heat rate curves are much inferior because the turbine inlet gas temper­
ature versus pressure ratio relationship moves further away from optimum.
In fact, the turbine exhaust temperature becomes less than the compressor
exit temperature as power is reduced below 53 percent if the current
first stage turbine nozzle is employed. This end point falls to 28 percent
power with the larger first stage turbine nozzles.

Figure 4-3 shows the solar receiver inlet conditions for a single-shaft recuperative
Centaur at a compressor inlet temperature of 311 K (100°F) and altitude of 320 m
(1050 ft).

A study of the relative performance characteristics between the split-shaft and

single-shaft configurations lead to a preference for a single-shaft unit by both of
the EPRI central receiver contractors. This choice was based on a study of the
projected pilot plant load profile that indicated that the superior part-load
specific heat rate of the split-shaft engine and the resultant reduction in fuel
use would not be significant.

4.2 COMBUSTION SYSTEM

The combustion system analysis was made after agreement with the EPRI Project

Manager on several guidelines. These were as follows:

4-5
 900!~ 130

T INLET = 311 K (10O°F)

320 M (1050 FT.)

750 -

- 800

<650

_ 500

OUTPUT- KW

Figure 4-3. Single-Shaft Recuperative Centaur - Solar Receiver

Inlet Conditions

• The gaseous exhaust emissions of the combustor such as carbon monoxide

and nitrogen oxides would not be regulated to any particular levels and
thus would not be a design constraint.

e A system design goal would be to produce no visible exhaust smoke at any

operating condition. To this end, JP-4 liquid fuel could be used rather
than a heavier distillate, such as #2 diesel.

• Maximum use was to be made of the production combustion hardware as a

cost reduction technique.•

• System reliability was to be a priority item although lifetime require­

ments could be reduced to 12,000 to 15,000 hours from typical industrial
gas turbine design standards of 30,000 hours minimum on gas or liquid
fuels.

4-6
 Figure 4-4. Recuperative Centaur Production Combustor

4.2.1 Production Combustor-Recuperative Centaur

As one of the combustion system guidelines was to make maximum use of existing hard­
ware, a brief description of the standard combustor for the recuperative Centaur is
presented.

The combustor is shown in Figure 4-4. It is approximately 43 cm (17 in.) in diameter

with an overall length of 1.1 m (43 in.). The sheet material is Hastalloy X and
the construction is welded and high-temperature brazed. A cross section through
the unit is shown in Figure 4-5. The design is based on the Vortex Air Blast (VAB)
concept where the reaction zone airflow is admitted to the combustor through a
radial inflow swirler. When the swirling flow enters the reaction zone the radial
static pressure gradients establish a toroidal recirculation which anchors the
combustion process. The natural gas fuel is admitted to the reaction zone, the
swirler centerbody, through six orifices. The combustor is film-cooled along its
length by internal splash cooling rings which direct a fraction of the incoming air
along the inside of the liner insulating the liner from the hot reaction products.
High temperature gases leaving the reaction zone of the combustor are quenched to
the required turbine inlet gas temperature by a further supply of recuperator
delivery air admitted through a series of dilution slots around the downstream
section of the liner. As was previously mentioned, the production combustor is
qualified only for natural gas fuel. Extensive development has been carried out.

4-7
 ALL FLAME ZONE
AIR THROUGH HERE DILUTION AIR

FLAME ZONE FDILUTION ZONE

STRATIFIED CHARGE
GAS FUEL INJECTION
CENTER BODY

FILM COOLING
STRIPS

VORTEX GENERATING AEROFOILS

Figure 4-5. Recuperative Centaur Production Combustor

however, on the VAB concept for use as a low-emissions combustion system using
liquid fuels (Refs. 3, 4, 12, 13, 14).

Light-off of the combustor is achieved with a torch igniter which protrudes into
the reaction zone. The torch igniter is a small separate combustor with its own
air, fuel and electrical ignition system. When activiated at the beginning of the
engine start sequence, a jet of hot gas is emitted from the torch that in turn
lights the main combustor fuel. The torch igniter is not operated continuously
and is deactivated after engine start.

4.2.2 System Requirements

Two main options exist for the position of the combustor in the overall system; in
parallel with or in series with the solar receiver. These options are discussed
in the following sections.

The use of a liquid-fueled combustor in a solar-fossil hybrid application presents

unique problems as the range of performance requirements for the system is consider­
ably greater. Not only must the combustion system be capable of (i) starting the
engine, (ii) bringing it to rated speed, and (iii) operating at any load without
heat input from the solar receiver, but it must also operate over a wide range of
air and fuel flows when the combustor is required to augment the solar energy.

4-8
When the combustor is required for augmentation it is desirable that ignition be
achieved smoothly at the minimum fuel flow so as to avoid large step changes in
turbine inlet gas temperature.

4.2.3 Parallel Combustor

A schematic of the parallel combustor arrangement is shown in Figure 4-6 with a

modulating control valve upstream of both the combustor and the solar receiver.
The valves are required so that during the engine start phase all of the engine

-------
TO TURBINE
INLET SCROLL

Figure 4-6. Parallel Combustor Schematic

air flow can be delivered to the combustor. At design point conditions the opposite
situation is in force with maximum airflow passing through the receiver and the
combustor 'off. In this manner the combustor does not impose any parasitic pres­
sure loss on the cycle when not in use. When the combustor is required for augmen­
tation the valves are scheduled to maintain the desired maximum outlet temperature
from the receiver. An advantage of the parallel arrangement is that the control
valves and combustor are exposed to the normal recuperator delivery pressure and
temperature conditions and a combustor system more closely resembling the standard
production unit can be considered.

The standard production combustor design would not be suitable for a solar-fossil
hybrid application because it has minimum airflow and fuel flow requirements for
light-off that would be excessive for the hybrid application where minimum output
changes are required at combustor ignition and shutdown. A fuel staging modifica­
tion, as depicted in Figure 4-7, would increase the combustor operating range where
a small pilot swirler is fueled for low airflow conditions and the pilot and main
swirlers are fueled at high airflow conditions. At low airflows the pressure drop
across the combustor is low which is not beneficial to the combustion process in
in terms of combustion efficiency. The pressure loss can be increased at the low
airflow conditions by some form of variable geometry. A relatively simple system
is to physically separate the reaction and dilution air admission ports with an
external control valve. At low flows, this valve can be used to duct all of the

4-9
 DILUTION ISOLATING
-- 1--- - V/AI \/C
AIRFLOW
EXHAUST

REACTION
AIRFLOW
INLET -l
AIRFLOW

DILUTION
MAIN
AIR MANIFOLD
FUEL FLOW
PILOT
FUEL FUEL
FLOW FUEL
FLOW CONTROL
SPLITTER

Figure 4-7. Fuel-Staging Scheme

available air to the reaction zone thus increasing the pressure drop for better
air-fuel mixing and higher efficiency.

4.2.4 Series Combustor

A schematic of a series combustor arrangement is shown in Figure 4-8 with the

combustor downstream of the solar receiver. Input from both of the EPRI central
receiver contractors indicated that it would not be desirable to have the combustor
upstream of the receiver with the exhaust products of combustion possibly fouling
the insides of the receiver tubes. The system shown in Figure 4-8 avoids the
complexity of control valves but it does involve a parasitic pressure loss across
the combustor when it is not operating. The use of control valves to isolate the
combustor when in full solar input mode is shown in Figure 4-9 but here the combus­
tor valves are exposed to the full receiver outlet temperature.

SOLAR COMBUSTOR
RECEIVER
FROM to turbine:
RECUPERATOR INLET SCROLL

Figure 4-8. Series Combustor Schematic - Full Flow Combustor

VALVE

J——*---- ik
--------- l 1>C3
1 P
SOLAR Lrxn COMBUSTOR
FROM
RECUPERATOR INLET SCROLL

Figure 4-9. Series Combustor Schematic - Isolated Combustor

4-10
It can be seen that the inlet air temperatures that the combustor is exposed to
are considerably higher than those normally encountered, i .e., up to the maximum
turbine inlet gas temperature of 1144 K (1600°F). Such high levels of inlet tem­
perature are generally conducive to good combustion performance in terms of lean
combustor limit, combustion efficiency, and low smoke production but may produce
wall temperature problems within the combustor liner as the cooling air is now at
the solar receiver outlet temperature. An associated problem might be fuel injector
contamination because of thermal decomposition of the fuel.

If the full airflow is admitted to the combustor during augmentation then the
problem of low combustor pressure drop will be avoided; however, the lean limit
may still not be low enough to avoid undesirable steps during the combustor ignition
and shutdown. In this case, variable-geometry and/or fuel staging will be required
as in the case of the parallel system.

4.2.5 Preferred Combustor Arrangement

After studying the characteristics of both the series and parallel combustor
arrangements, Solar Turbines Incorporated recommends the parallel arrangement.
The parallel arrangement requires the development of a combustion system that more
closely resembles the existing standard production design; thus. Solar Turbines
Incorporated believes this to be the lower risk path in terms of obtaining a reli­
able system within a given time scale and funding level. Because of the conven­
tional inlet conditions all of Solar Turbines' combustion systems background is
directly relevant to the application. The development of the high inlet temperature
series combustor system is certainly technically feasible in view of the large
body of background technology available from such fields as aircraft afterburners.
The development path to a high reliability, long life system must, however, be
considered one of higher risk than for a parallel combustor system.

The preferred arrangement is shown schematically in Figure 4-10. The main features
are as follows:

• Control Valves

A separate control valve is used upstream of both the combustor and the
solar receiver. For the test cell demonstration (Section 7) the control
valves can be used to simulate operation of the solar receiver at an
outlet temperature of 1339 K (1950°F) while bypassing some airflow through
the inoperable combustor to maintain the necessary maximum turbine inlet
gas temperature of 1144 K (1600°F) at the design point. The 1339 K

4-11
 MODULATING
VALVE
SOLAR
RECEIVER

RECUPERATOR TORCH
OUTLET AIR IGNITER

TO
REACTION DILUTION MIXING TURBINE
ZONE ZONE ZONE INLET
MODULATING SCROLL
VALVE
MODULATING
FUEL
VALVE
FLOW SPLITTER
VALVE

Figure 4-10. Preferred Combustor Arrangement

(1950 F) receiver outlet temperature corresponds to the ceramic tube

receiver design.

• Torch Igniter

A torch igniter is used for combustor ignition. This would be operated

continuously to ensure rapid reliable ignition at any combustor inlet
conditions. An external high pressure air supply can be used for torch
operation to provide rapid torch ignition without first opening the modu­
lating valve.

• Combustor

The combustor is based on the standard production design and uses the VAB
concept. Fuel staging is used with dual reaction zone air inlet swirlers.
External variable geometry is accomplished by separating the reaction and
dilution zones of the combustor by a bulkhead and controlling the airflow
split with an external butterfly valve.

4.3 CONTROL SYSTEM

The control system analysis was made after having adopted the guideline of assuming
that a "hard grid" or "infinite bus" would be the effective generator load. In
this mode the gas turbine-generator speed is fixed by the grid frequency and load
is selected by the operator. Rapid transients and the corresponding requirements
for high response valves, fuel system components and combustor components are thus
minimized.

4-12
4.3.1 System Requirements

The very slow response of the solar receiver in the system presents a number of
serious problems when operating a gas turbine-generator. In order to safely control
speed and load, standard fossil-fueled engines can vary the energy into the turbine
in a fraction of a second. This very rapid response capability of the gas turbine
fuel control can be compared to the reaction times of solar receivers where time
constants of several seconds are typical, and heliostats, where a period of 20-40
seconds is required to move from a target position to standby. If this energy is
supplied at a rate sufficient to maintain the generator at a high load torque and
the load is lost (open circuit breaker), the engine and generator, without the re­
straining torque imposed by load, will accelerate at a rate determined by rotational
inertia. In the case of the Centaur, if thermal heat energy is supplied to the
turbine for more than a second, damage to the engine is probable. Acceleration
rates are in the order of 3,500 rpm/sec resulting in a 25 percent over speed in
approximately one second for the single-shaft machine. On a split-shaft engine,
accelerations will be considerably greater requiring faster response valves to
prevent damage. Protection of machinery against overspeed thus becomes the first
priority of the control system.

Another high priority consideration is the protection of the turbine inlet ducting,
nozzles and blades from inadvertent overtemperature. Long life with high reliabil­
ity is ensured by maintaining the turbine inlet temperature at 1144 K (1600°F) or
lower during part load operation.

Protection of the solar receiver and its ducting from overtemperature is also an
important consideration that requires an overall system control strategy. If
final over speed or temperature protection for the turbine uses a dump valve, the
placement of such a valve in the system has several tradeoffs. If only the turbine
is to be considered, placement of the dump valve in the "cold" ducting would prob­
ably serve the purpose. However, the solar receiver would have reduced "cooling"
flow and might possibly require a high response heliostat defocusing system or
other optical controls to protect against overtemperature. The design and cost of
this requirement is considered too great for the heliostat subsystem.

Start-up and synchronization will be accomplished with a liquid fueled combustor.

In the Solar-Following Mode, no fuel burning except the small torch igniter, is
desirable. To hold a given load greater than the solar receiver input power, the
main combustor will be ignited.

4-13
The above system requirements can be summarized as follows;

• Positive overspeed protection required for inadvertent load loss (circuit

breaker trip).

• Turbine inlet temperature control to 1144 K (1600°F) or lower.

• Overtemperature protection of solar receiver must be integrated with

turbine controls.

• Independent generator operation not required - except for start-up and

shutdown.

• Load following at energy input requirements above solar receiver level

will be provided by igniting the liquid-fueled combustor.

4.3.2 Single-Shaft Versus Split-Shaft Recuperative Centaur

Production experience at Solar Turbines Incorporated with generator sets has

been with simple cycle, single-shaft and split-shaft machines. The 8 MWe Mars
turbine-generator set is a split-shaft machine, however, it has seven stages of
variable compressor stator vanes designed to modulate over a wide load range. By
scheduling these at part loads the gas producer can be maintained at constant
speed and thus simulate the "stiffness" of a single shaft machine required for
independent generator operation. Without inlet guide vane control (the Centaur
inlet guide vanes are at present used only for the start cycle) a considerable
added lag is imposed in load control making it undesirable for independent opera­
tion. When connected to an infinite bus only the inadvertent "open circuit"
transient case causes serious control problems for the split-shaft machine. Start­
ups and synchronization are also more difficult with split-shaft machines.

By agreement with the EPRI Project Manager the study did not consider the possibil­
ity of using the compressor inlet guide vanes for speed control purposes on the
recuperative Centaur as the development of such an operating mode could involve an
expensive experimental development program with the probability of extensive com­
pressor redesign.

4.3.3 Series Versus Parallel Combustor

No basic changes in control strategy are required when considering the two options
of the combustor in series with or in parallel with the solar receiver. Engine
start-up is accomplished using the liquid-fuel combustor which takes the unit to

4-14
idle speed (split-shaft) or no-load conditions (single-shaft). Gradual focusing
of the heliostat field with progressive transfer of the airflow to the solar
receiver will be used to change over to full solar input. Load increase is sensed
by speed drop. Initially the liquid-fuel combustor will be used to restore equi­
librium; subsequent addition of further heliostats will reduce the combustor input
until full solar operation is again established. Unloading would also be sensed
by speed change. Fuel would be reduced if the engine is operating on partial com­
bustor input otherwise air is initially bypassed through the combustor while the
redirected solar energy is taken off the solar receiver. After the solar energy
is reduced the bypass air is also reduced.

4.3.4 Control Concept Conclusions

Both series and parallel combustor arrangements could control either a single­
shaft or split-shaft recuperative Centaur generator set. Both configurations are
difficult to control as independent generator sets due to the slow response inherent
in large valves. Independent operation would probably require a minimum amount of
continuous fuel burning to regulate speed or the development of large, high response

valves required to continuously modulate the air flow. The reliability of indepen­
dent operation would also be questionable since the large hot air valves would be
required to continuously modulate. The generator system having the greatest
potential reliability appears to be a parallel combustor arrangement in a single­
shaft recuperative Centaur. It is recommended that a hot gas dump valve also be
included downstream of the solar receiver to provide final backup protection in
case of rapid load variations or circuit breaker trip.

The eventual successful demonstration of the pilot plant will require integration
of the engine control system with the heliostat field control and the overall plant
control system. In addition, the engine control system will be required to deal
with a greater number of control parameter inputs due to the more involved nature
of the trim combustion system and the requirement to run the solar receiver at
specified outlet temperature conditions.

Because of the increased complexity of the engine control a microprocessor-based

system appears to be well suited for the application. Solar Turbines Incorporated
has a significant background in the use of microprocessor-based controls particu­
larly with the Intel 8085 microprocessor.

Based on Solar Turbines' control system background, the following remarks regarding

microprocessor controls can be made:

4-15
 • A microprocessor-based control system could be developed for less cost
than the equivalent analog system.

• Microprocessors offer greater versatility in pursuing the logic of a com­

plicated control system such as will be the case in the application under
study.

• Real-time changes can be made to the control system if external adjustors

are made available.

• After-the-fact development changes in control logic can be made at minimal

expense since these are only software modifications.

• Several control scheme options can be made available on-line by program­

ming different control circuitry chips.

• Reliability levels at least equal to conventional hydro-mechanical control

systems can be expected.

4.4 VALVES

Special valving requirements are associated with either the parallel or series
receiver-combustor systems for splitting the airflow between the two components.
For the parallel receiver-combustor arangement, a separate valve upstream of the
combustor and the receiver would be exposed to the recuperator outlet conditions
which at the engine design point are approximately 0.75 MPa (110 psia) and 706 K
(810°F). The valve would be required to seal with minimum leakage in the closed
position and modulate between closed and open positions with minimum pressure drop
in the full open condition. Standard butterfly valves are available on the market
to cover this type of application, e.g., Fisher Controls Type 8500 Edisc valves.
For a full-open pressure drop level less than one percent of upstream pressure, a
valve size of approximately 40.6 cm (16 in.)in diameter will be required.

A series receiver-combustor arrangement can be envisaged in which no control valves

are required. In order to avoid the parasitic pressure drop of the combustor,
however, when operating on only solar input, a low pressure drop, high temperature
valve is required to bypass the combustor. This valve would be required to modulate
over a wide flow range to avoid large step outputs from the combustor when ignited
and would be exposed to the maximum design turbine inlet gas temperature of 1144 K
(1600 °F).

These high temperature modulating valve requirements were discussed with several
vendors and no off-the-shelf units are currently available. Material substitutions
would be required with specialized local cooling schemes for the valve bearings.
Delivery times of up to one year were quoted and it is apparent that any high
temperature control valving would need to be evaluated in bench tests and could
require considerable development time.

4-16
A hot dump valve situated upstream of the turbine inlet would not be a problem if
the operation of such a valve could be considered as only "on-off" and used as an
emergency shutdown. In this case a rupture-disc type of valve activated by either
a pneumatic ram cutter or an explosive charge can be employed. After engine
shutdown the valve would be "rebuilt" which could be a fairly minor procedure with
minimum down time.

4.5 PREFERRED ENGINE SYSTEM CONFIGURATION

An assessment of the combustion and control system options within the constraints
of the study guidelines leads to a preferred engine system configuration consisting
of a single-shaft, recuperative Centaur generator set with the following major
features:

« A liquid fuel combustion system in parallel with the solar receiver

• Modulating butterfly valves upstream of both the combustor and the solar
receiver for control purposes

• A flow dump valve situated between the combustor/receiver and the turbine
inlet for emergency engine overspeed protection in the event of a circuit
breaker trip at partial or full load conditions

• An Intel 8085 microprocessor-based electronic control system for start-up

and shutdown scheduling, load control and emergency protection

4-17
 Section 5

COMBUSTION SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

This section summarizes the results of an experimental combustor rig test program
conducted to obtain design and performance information that would lead to the
definition of a trim combustion system specification for the recuperative Centaur

engine.

5.1 METHODOLOGY AND PROGRAM OBJECTIVES

As an intermediate phase between the definition of a preferred recuperative Centaur

generator set and the demonstration of that system in a test cell, a bench-scale
system development is both appropriate and, particularly in the case of the combus­
tion system, a cost-effective method of arriving at the final demonstration hard­
ware. Solar Turbines Incorporated considers the use of bench-scale combustor
models an important method of rapidly evaluating conceptual combustor schemes, and
with the relevant background in this technique, such bench-scale tests can be used
as an accurate prediction of many of the full-size system performance parameters.
Nevertheless, experience has shown that final system definition must be made using
full-size hardware tests (see Section 6)•

The overall objective of the combustor test program was the generation of design,
performance and operational data necessary to produce a preliminary design of the
full-size trim combustion system for the recuperative Centaur gas turbine.

5.2 COMBUSTION SYSTEM DESIGN GUIDELINES

The design guidelines that directed the test program were identical to those used
during the earlier selection analysis when considering the full size combustion
systems, namely:

• The gaseous exhaust emissions of the combustor such as carbon monoxide

and nitrogen oxides would not be regulated to any particular levels and
thus would not be a design constraint.•

• A system design goal would be to produce no visible exhaust smoke at any

operating condition. To this end it was decided that JP-4 liquid fuel
could be used rather than a heavier distillate such as #2 diesel which

5-1
 would be a more normal fuel for the simple cycle Centaur engine. Mini­
mizing the combustor soot emissions from the full-size trim combustor
would also result in lowered contamination levels of the Centaur recup­
erator gas-side passages.

• Maximum use was to be made of the production combustion hardware as a

cost reduction technique.

• System reliablity was to be a priority item although life requirements

could be reduced to a total of 12,000-15,000 hours from Solar Turbines'
normal combustion system design standard of 30,000 hours minimum.

5.3 PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS

The initial performance requirements of the system were developed by examining the
general operational needs for a trim combustor and combining these with the
particular constraints provided by the two central receiver designs. They can be
summarized as follows:

(i) Starting

The trim combustor system must be capable of starting the gas turbine and
accelerating the unit within a specified time limit to the no-load, full-
speed condition. During the engine start phase it is assumed that the
control valves will be set such that all of the engine air mass flow
passes through the trim combustor circuit and the receiver is completely
bypassed. Although an "all-solar" engine start can be envisaged with the
provision of a suitable long-term cranking system, the trim combustor
must be capable of performing this duty without emitting visible exhaust
smoke and with acceptable combustion efficiencies during this transient
phase.

(ii) Fossil-Only Operation

In the absence of even a minimal level of solar insolation, the trim

combustor must be capable of providing engine operation at any steady-
state condition between the no-load and full-load points and reacting
acceptably to an on or off-load transient.

(iii) Solar Augmentation

At steady-state load conditions the trim combustor must be capable of

augmenting the solar energy input to the gas turbine if the receiver
design outlet temperature is lower than the engine turbine inlet gas
temperature (TIGT) design point. Conversely, it may be necessary for the
combustor to bypass some air around the receiver if the receiver design
outlet temperature is higher than the necessary TIGT. At this condition
the combustor would be in a "minimum operating level" mode. Both of the
above cases are shown in Figure 5-1 which is a representation of the re­
lationship between the receiver outlet temperature and the combustor out­
let temperature necessary to provide the full-load recuperative Centaur
TIGT of 1144 K (1600°F) over a range of air mass flow splits between the
receiver and the combustor. It can be seen that at a receiver outlet
temperature of 1089 K (1500°F), representative of a metal tube unit,
a combustor outlet temperature of 1367 K (2000°F) is required with

5-2
 CERAMIC TUBE RECEIVER

1300

Q- cc

-l z o
1200 o<o
u. x

W CD H

CENTAUR FULL LOAD DESIGN TEMP

1100 METAL TUBE RECEIVER

1089 K(1500° F)

FLOW SPLIT:
1000 RECEIVER/
COMBUSTOR

1200 —

900

1000 —
800

MINIMUM RECEIVER OUTLET TEMP = 700K(800°F)

700 800 —

600

2000
COMBUSTOR OUTLET TEMP — °F

K
Figure 5-1 . Receiver/Combustor Outlet Temperature Map

5-3
 80 percent of the flow passing through the receiver. Similarly, if the
receiver outlet temperature is 1339 K (1950 °F), representative of a
ceramic tube unit, approximately 30 percent of the total air mass flow
must be bypassed through the trim combustor without combustion occurring
to achieve a mixed TIGT of 1144 K (1600°F).

(iv) Solar Trimming

The solar insolation possesses not only a diurnal variation but will also
fluctuate due to passing cloud coverage during the day. This would provide
a varying level of power generated and contributed to the grid unless
the combustion system is utilized to "trim" the energy input to the tur­
bine. This means that light-off of the combustor should be as smooth as
possible at the minimum fuel flow allowable to avoid unacceptable peaks
in the resulting TIGT. An example of the trimming function can also be
read from Figure 5-1. An initial design point operation of 1089 K (1500°F)
receiver outlet temperature and a combustor outlet temperature of 1367 K
(2000 °F) with 80 percent of the total air mass flow passing through the
receiver is assumed. Transient cloud coverage causes reduced insolation
levels resulting in a decrease of receiver outlet temperature to 1033 K
(1400°F), for example. As the receiver outlet temperature drops towards
1033 K (1400 °F) , fuel flow to the combustor is increased to maintain a
constant TIGT of 1144 K (1600°F). The combustor outlet temperature would
rise to a final level of 1589 K (2400 °F) . At these new temperature
conditions, the airflow valves upstream of the receiver and combustor
could be modulated to raise the receiver outlet temperature back to its
design level of 1500°F. This would result in the combustor outlet falling
to a level of 1272 K (1830°F) as the receiver air mass flow fraction was
reduced to approximately 70 percent.

Examination of these trim combustor operational requirements and the numerical

examples provide indications as to the level of air flow turndown, fuel flow turn­
down, and outlet temperature capabilities that the trim combustor must possess.
Thefollowing performance requirements were adopted at the beginning of the test
period. They were not intended to be absolute performance goals but a matrix of
characteristics serving to direct and refine the thrust of the combustor develop­
ment effort.

• Fuel Flow Turndown

— minimum torch igniter/pilot fuel flow levels consistent with acccep-

table engine light-off and stability of combustion at any airflow
condition.

• Air Mass Flow Turndown

— minimum of 5:1 at design point inlet temperature and pressure condi­

tions , 10:1 desirable.

• Combustor Outlet Temperature - to be applicable over the full range of

airflows

— continuous, 1367 K (2000°F) for solar augmentation

transient, 1589 K (2400°F) for load control

5-4
Acceptable combustor operation within these desired ranges was interpreted as
requiring stable operation with high combustion efficiency, low smoke emissions,
liner metal temperature, and outlet gas temperature pattern factors consistent
with the design guidelines.

5.4 BENCH-SCALE COMBUSTOR

In keeping with the design guidelines (Section 5.2), the bench-scale combustor
follows the same general design philosophy as the standard recuperative Centaur
combustor. The following sections describe the basic design and construction of
the unit.

5.4.1 Combustor Description

A photograph of the assembled combustor (patent pending) is shown in Figure 5-2.

The liner diameter is 14.0 cm (5.5 in.) and the key features can be seen in Figure
5-3, a cross-section through the unit.

• Swirler

The combustor design concept is based on the "Vortex Air Blast" system
utilized for the standard production recuperative Centaur can combustor
(Section 4.2.1) and as such the reaction zone air is admitted to the
combustor through a radial inflow swirler. A total of twenty radial
swirl vanes are set at an outlet angle of 37 degrees, the flow from which
makes a transition to an axial direction before entering the combustor
reaction zone. When the swirling flow enters the reaction zone the radial
static pressure gradients establish a toroidal recirculation which stabil­
izes the combustion process.

• Fuel Injector

The air-blast fuel injection system is incorporated within the swirler

centerbody. Both single-stage and two-stage systems were evaluated during
the test program and the injector design and performance details are con­
tained in Section 5.6.

• Liner and Dome

The combustor dome and liner are of Hastalloy X sheet metal construction
0.9 mm (0.035 in.) in thickness.

• Liner and Dome Cooling

Both the dome and liner are film cooled. The dome contains eight radial
film cooling strips while the liner has a total of seven circumferential
film cooling rings located along the length.

5-5
 Figure 5-2• Bench—Scale Trim Combustor

COMBUSTOR
LINER
SPLASH
TORCH COOLING
SWIRL VANES IGNITER ENTRY PANELS

SUPPORT BOSS DILUTION

PORTS
CENTERBODY
FUEL
INJECTOR

Figure 5-3. Bench-Scale Trim Combustor Cross Section

i Dilution Ports

A total of six slots form the combustor dilution system. An external

conical baffle surrounds the dilution ports to ensure an even distribution
of delivery airflow from the single pipe connection at the outer casing
(see Section 5.5.1). The dilution ports can be seen in Figure 5-4 which
is a view of the partially assembled combustor.•

• Igniter

A torch igniter protrudes into the reaction zone and is used for light-
off of the combustor. This is a standard production Centaur model and
is shown in Figure 5-5.

5-6
 DILUTION

Figure 5-4. Bench-Scale Trim Combustor

AIR
INLETS

Figure 5-5. Centaur Torch Igniter

5-7
5.4.2 Combustor Design

The sizing of a bench-scale combustor is normally a compromise between a unit that

is too small to provide useful data for scaling-up purposes and one that is too
large to allow operation at full inlet pressure and temperature because of facility
limitations.

The bench-scale trim combustor was designed to the limit of an appropriate combus­
tion facility at Solar Turbines Incorporated. While it cannot be considered to be
an exact scale-model of the production recuperative Centaur combustor, inasmuch as
the bench-scale design was not the end result of an integrated design code of the
Vortex Air Blast combustor concept, it was designed making use of several experi­
mentally-derived guides that have been shown to be important to the overall opera­
tion of this type of combustor (Refs. 3, 4, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13 and 14). Some
of the more critical design guides are summarized below.

• Reference Velocity

The design point inlet and outlet conditions of the recuperative Centaur
combustor are as follows:

Inlet Temperature: 700 K (800°F)

Inlet Pressure: 803.2 KPa (116.5 psia)

Air Mass Flow: 15.88 Kg/sec (35.01 lb/sec)

Turbine Inlet Gas Temperature (TIGT): 1144 K (1600 °F)

With a reaction zone diameter of 43.82 cm (17.25 in.) a reference velo­

city of 26.36 m/sec (86.5 ft/sec) is obtained based on the total air
mass flow and the inlet conditions.

For a maximum test facility air mass flow capability of approximately

2.04 Kg/sec (4.5 Ib/sec) at the required bench scale combustor inlet
conditions of 1013.5 KPa (147 psia) and 700 K (800°F) , a selected bench-
scale combustor diameter of 14.0 cm (5.5 in.) is obtained for reference
velocity simulation.

• Reaction Zone Equivalence Ratio

Experimental cold flow test data from the recuperative Centaur combustor
gives the following air flow splits:

Main Swirler = 24.3%

Dilution Ports = 55.5%
Liner Cooling = 20.2%

The design point temperature rise of the combustor is 444 K (800°F)

which results in an overall fuel/air ratio of 0.0121 for JP-4 fuel with
a lower heating value of 43.50 MJ/kg (18,700 Btu/lb). The reaction zone

5-8
 equivalence ratio based on the primary swirler airflow is therefore 0.74
for a stoichiometric fuel/air ratio of 0.0676. This equivalence ratio
was adopted for the bench-scale combustor.

• Pressure Loss

The design point pressure loss of the recuperative Centaur combustor is

3.5 percent. Reproducing this pressure loss level for the bench-scale
combustor results in a value for the overall effective area of the combus­
tor and, in turn, values for the effective areas of the main swirler,
dilution ports and liner cooling circuits using the same splits as the
full-size unit.

• Heat Release Rate

Using the appropriate full-size combustor conditions and an effective

reaction zone length of 36.8 cm (14.5 in.), the heat release rate is 68.6
GJ/hr.atm.m^ (1.84 x 10^ Btu/hr atm ft*). This very conservative
loading is a result of the initial design objectives of the recuperative
Centaur combustor where eventual use of heavy liquid fuels was projected.
Using the same heat release rate for the bench-scale combustor results
in a reaction zone length of 36.8 cm (14.5 in.) but this, in turn, yields
an undesirable surface-to-volume ratio. Based on test data obtained
from other bench-scale Vortex Air Blast combustors (Refs. 3, 4) a more
optimum reaction zone length-to-diameter ratio of 1.6 was selected,
resulting in a reaction zone heat release of 115.5 GJ/hr .atiti.m^) (3.1 x
10® Btu/hr atm ft®).

• Main Swirler

After determination of the effective swirler area, the swirler geometry

for the bench-scale combustor was constrained by the following full-size
combustor characteristics,

— constant width swirl channel

(swirler mean outlet diameter/combustor diameter) ratio = 0.36
swirler outlet cone angle = 90 degrees.

• Mixing Section

The design of the mixing section in a Vortex Air Blast type of combustor
is generally not critical as the reaction zone air/fuel flow is well-
mixed and reaction zone exit temperature pattern factors are typically
lower than 0.1. The final exhaust temperature pattern factor, therefore,
is dominated by the dilution port configuration and mixing section length.
For the slot-type dilution port used in the bench-scale and full-size
recuperative Centaur combustors, a mixing length of one combustor diameter
has been found to be adequate.

• Liner Cooling

The fraction of the air mass flow used for liner cooling in the bench-
scale combustor was identical to that of the recuperative Centaur
combustor, even though the surface-to-volume ratio of the bench-scale
combustor is higher than the full-size unit. The positioning of the
liner splash cooling strips is similar to the design of the full-size
combustor and the geometry of the strip was designed to provide the iden­
tical film injection velocity as in the full-size combustor.

5-9
5.5 TEST FACILITY

5.5.1 Flow Path

A schematic of the test rig facility is shown in Figure 5-6. The main air mass
flow is controlled before entering a gas-fired, indirect, air preheater that raises
the temperature from ambient to the required temperature at the combustor inlet.
The flow passes through a pipe section that contains a standard ASME sharp-edged
orifice run for air-flow metering and then enters the combustor test section cas­
ings. The exhaust flow from the combustor passes through the water-cooled instru­
mentation casing where, after emissions and temperature monitoring, the outlet
exhaust gas is quenched by direct water injection. The required operational
combustor-outlet pressure is provided by a variable butterfly backpressure valve
mounted downstream of the instrumentation casing. The flow finally exhausts to
atmosphere through a silencer.

5.5.2 Combustor Test Section

A photograph of the combustor test section is shown in Figure 5-7 with a section-
alized view of the arrangement in Figure 5-8.

The can combustor is positioned within the test section as a straight-through

unit as this represents the arrangement in the recuperative Centaur gas turbine.
At the upstream point in the test section a butterfly modulating valve is mounted,
the design and position of which are representative of a full-size parallel trim
combustor system arrangement. A short conical duct connects the valve body to the
combustor outer casing where the combustor is radially and axially located by
three floating support pins at the front end with the rear end a sliding fit in
the water-cooled instrumentation section.

The combustor primary and dilution zone air admission ports are physically separated
by a bulkhead across the annulus formed between the combustor and the outer casing.
The dilution airflow is ducted from the combustor inlet airflow through an external
loop equipped with an isolating valve.

In addition, the air assist flow to the combustor fuel injection system is fed
from upstream of the inlet valve through an external line so that at high mass
flow turndown conditions, with correspondingly low combustor pressure drops, the

5-10
 COMBUSTOR
TEST CASING GAS SAMPLE INSTRUMENTATION
PROBES CASING

WATER JACKET

WATER BACK
t— m
QUENCH PRESSURE
VALVE
SILENCER

MAIN
AIRFLOW
SAMPLE FROM
Ul MANIFOLD COMPRESSORS
I
SAMPLE
TEMPERATURE

-(2) PRESSURE MAIN

STATION
FLOW BLEED CONTROL
DIVIDER VALVE VALVE
TEMPERATURE STATION
BLOCK
SOLENOID TO EMISSIONS
INSTRUMENTATION STATION
CONTROL
ASME ORIFICE
RUN
TURBINE METER

AIR
FUEL FROM PREHEATER
HIGH PRESSURE
PUMP SYSTEM

Figure 5-6. Test Rig Schematic

 Figure 5-7. Combustor Test Section

air assist circuit includes the inlet valve pressure loss. This inceases the
pressure loss, and hence air injection velocity, across the air assist swirler.

5.5.3 Instrumentation

The various instrumentation stations are shown for reference in the rig flow path
schematic of Figure 5-6.

The air mass flow is metered with a standard, ASME, sharp-edged orifice run
equipped withdiameter pressure taps. The upstream static pressure is taken at
instrumentation station 1 and displayed on a bourdon type gage. Orifice static
depression is displayed on three water manometers and measured between stations 1
and 2 at points equally spaced circumferentially. Orifice flow temperature is
monitored with three chromel/alumel thermocouples equally spaced circumferentially
at station 3.

5-12
 I, WATER IN

yi
l
w

FROM ORIFICE
RUN

PIN (3)

PROBES (3)
INSTRUMENTATION COOLING ''
—*) WATER OUT

DISTRIBUTION

GAS SAMPLE
OUT

Figure 5-8. Combustor Test Section

The exhaust emission gas samples are taken through a system of three, water-cooled
probes (rakes) mounted across the exhaust duct diameter with twelve, area-weighted
sample points on each (station 5).

The samples from each of the probes are discharged into a common manifold before
passing to the sample line. The sample pressure is reduced to essentially atmo­
spheric by bleeding the bulk of the flow to ambient before the sample enters a
heated teflon line maintained at a constant 450 K (350°F) along its length. Sample
temperature at entry to the sample line is monitored with a single chromel/alumel
thermocouple.

The emissions instrumentation includes the following:

• Non-Dispersive Infra-Red instrument for carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon

dioxide (CO2) measurement.

• Flame Ionization Detector for unburned hydrocarbon (UHC) measurement.

• Chemiluminescent detector for nitrogen oxides (NOx) measurement with a

molybdenum coil nitrogen dioxide (NO2) converter

• Von Brand smokemeter

Operation of the emissions measurement equipment and emissions data reduction was
performed according to the requirements of SAE ARP 1256 (Ref. 5).

A dew point meter is used to monitor the rig inlet air humidity. This reading is
used to correct the observed NOx levels to zero humidity figures, using the corre­
lation expression developed by Marchionna (Ref. 6).

The fuel temperature is measured with a single chromel/alumel thermocouple just

upstream of the combustor. The fuel injector upstream fuel pressure is indicated
on a Bourdon-type gage. Total fuel flow rate is measured by a turbine meter
installed in the common delivery line to both pilot and main fuel injectors.
Pilot fuel flow is measured by a separate rotameter.

The combustor inlet pressure and temperature are measured at station 4. Three
separate Keil probes are used for combustor inlet pressure. The combustor inlet
pressure is displayed on a precision Bourdon-type gage and the combustor pressure
drop on three separate mercury or water manometers between stations 4 and 5 at
points equally spaced circumferentially. The combustor inlet temperature at station
4 is taken with three chromel/alumel thermocouples equally spaced circumferentially.

5-14
The combustor outlet temperature is measured at station 5 by six chromel/alumel
thermocouples equally spaced circumferentially. All thermocouple signals are
input to digital temperature indicators and a data aquisition system.

5.5.4 Test Procedure

The test procedure generally adopted during the program was first to establish the
required levels of combustor inlet temperature, pressure and mass flow. The main
fuel was admitted to the combustor after the torch igniter was activated and firing
into the combustor. After ignition, the fuel flow to the combustor was modulated
to give combustor outlet temperatures ranging from a maximum dictated by liner
temperature limits down to a value just in excess of the lean stability limit of
the system. At this point the carbon monoxide (CO) and unburned hydrocarbon (UHC)
readings increase rapidly. Several data points were obtained between these two
limits.

5.6 TEST RESULTS SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION

As the production recuperative Centaur combustor is qualified only for natural gas
fuel, much of the test program was concerned with the definition of a suitable
liquid fuel injection system. Both a single-stage, air-blast fuel inj ector and a
two-stage injector were evaluated, the designs of which were based on Solar Turbines
Incorporated's background accumulated during several other internal experimental
investigations. The main test fuel was JP-4.

The limitation of the combustion rig facility is normally in the type of conditions
that can be simulated in as much as only steady-state operation is possible.
Transient combustor performance during light-off and engine start can, at best,
only be indicated by running a number of pseudo steady-state conditions; final
evaluation should be conducted on an actual engine.

The emissions results presented are based on the exhaust gas analysis and the test
fuel characteristics. The combustor temperature rise displayed is the ideal figure,
including dissociation; this is computed from the fuel/air ratio obtained from
the exhaust analysis carbon balance and uses the calculation techniques of SAE ARP
1256 (Ref. 5). The direct measurements of air and fuel flow to the combustor were
utilized as a check on the sampling technique. The fuel/air ratio calculated from
the exhaust analysis agreed to within +7.0 percent of that from the direct measure­
ment. This level of agreement indicates an acceptable sampling accuracy.

5-15
5.6.1 Single-Stage Fuel Injector: Test Results

A cross section through the single-stage fuel injector is shown in Figure 5-9 with
a photograph of the unit shown in Figure 5-10. The fuel injector is incorporated
into the main swirler centerbody (Section 5.4.1) and is an externally-filming
airblast design. The fuel is supplied to the surface of the centerbody through
six inclined slots. The fuel films over the surface of the centerbody and is
sheared from the downstream edge by the swirling primary airflow. An air assist
flow is fed through a secondary swirler to the underside of the centerbody lip and
aids in atomization and air/fuel mixing.

» Design Conditions

The initial test of the combustor was at the design point pressure drop
but a reduced inlet pressure due to facility problems. The results are
shown in Figure 5-11 and depicts the variations of the emissions indices
of nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO), and unburnt hydrocarbons
(UHC) with increasing combustor fuel flow or outlet temperature. Based
on Solar Turbines Incorporated's past experience, the results display the
trends typical of a well-mixed system. The NOx is a strong function of
combustor outlet temperature and indicates that (1) NOx formation is
occurring in the reaction zone at predominantly the mean equivalence
ratio, and (2) that there are few or no local zones of high or stoichio­
metric fuel/air ratios where excessively high NOx levels are produced.
The CO and UHC levels are close to equilibrium over most of the range of
operation, but rise steeply as combustor temperature is reduced and lean

SWIRL VANES (20)

ASSIST

LIQUID
FUEL

CENTERBODY

FUEL
INJECTION

(INCLINED SLOTS)

REACTION ZONE
AIRFLOW

Figure 5-9. Single-Stage Liquid Fuel Injector

5-16
 Figure 5-10. Single-Stage Liquid Fuel Injector

extinction (flame-out) is approached. The CO and UHC levels are used to

calculate the combustion efficiency characteristic and reflects the
efficiency decrease as the combustor approaches lean extinction. Von
Brand smoke measurements were made over the full range of outlet tempera­
tures and no measureable smoke was observed.

Although the combustor operated with no apparent instability it can be

seen that the operating range between the lean extinction point and the
design combustor outlet temperature of 1144 K (1600°F) is limited.

Air Flow Turndown Conditions

Several tests were conducted at design inlet temperature conditions but

with reduced air mass flows and therefore reduced combustor pressure
loss factors. A test result at a pressure loss of 0.5 percent is shown
in Figure 5-12. This represents a mass flow turndown of 2.6:1 and was
accomplished with the full combustor without closing off the dilution
ports. Some deterioration in CO emissions, and hence efficiency can be
seen; this is a result of the reduced air flow injection velocities and,
in turn, leads to a deterioration in fuel atomization and fuel/air mixing
rates. No measureable smoke was observed. The lean stability deterior­
ated resulting in an even narrower operating range.

Figures 5-13 and 5-14 represent two combustor test runs at a pressure
drop of 0.035 percent or about one percent of the design point pressure
drop. This represents a mass flow turndown of 10:1. Figure 5-13 repre­
sents the full combustor configuration; Figure 5-14 was obtained with
the dilution system closed off. Although both characteristics exhibit
acceptable levels of UHC at outlet temperatures up to 2600®F, some
visible exhaust smoke was observed across the complete operating range
with the dilution valve open. In addition, upon inspection of the com­
bustor , some carbon build-up was noticed on the front face of the swirler

5-17
 COMBUSTOR OUTLET TEMPERATURE,«F

1000 1100 1200 1300

K

Figure 5-11. Combustor Characteristics: Single-Stage Fuel Injector

(Design Point Conditions)

centerbody. It would appear, therefore, that operation at mass flow

turndown ratios of 10:1 and higher require at least the use of variable
dilution geometry.

• Start Performance

As an indication of the combustor performance during the start regime,

several combustor characteristics were generated at lower combustor
inlet temperatures and pressure drops. A representative low inlet tem­
perature characteristic is shown in Figure 5-15 where the inlet tempera­
ture is set at 384 K (231°F) . The combustor pressure drop of 1.2 percent
represents a combustor operating at approximately 35 percent of design
engine speed. The emissions of CO and UHC do not indicate any significant
efficiency problems at the outlet temperatures required to accelerate
the engine. Also, no smoke emissions were detected.

5-18
 20.0

18.0

16.0
EMISSIONS INDEX — (GM/KG FUEL)

14.0

12.0

SINGLE STAGE FUEL INJECTOR

10.0 FUEL: JP-4

8.0

6.0

4.0

2.0

1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 (DEG F)
I i I l i I i I I I I I I
1000 1050 1100 1150 1200 1250 1300 1350 1400 1450 1500 1550 1600 (DECK)
COMBUSTOR OUTLET TEMP

Figure 5-12. Combustor Characteristics: Single-Stage Fuel Injector

(Reduced Pressure Loss Conditions)
EMISSIONS INDEX (GM/KG FUEL)

SINGLE STAGE FUEL INJECTOR

FUEL: JP-4

2800 ' (DEG F)

1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 (DECK)

COMBUSTOR OUTLETTEMP

Figure 5-13. Combustor Characteristics: Single-Stage Fuel Injector

(Reduced Pressure Loss Conditions)

5-19
EMISSIONS INDEX — (GM/KG FUEL)

1100 1150 1200 1350 (DEG K)

COMBUSTOR OUTLETTEMP

Figure 5-14. Combustor Characteristics: Single-Stage Fuel Injector

(Reduced Pressure Loss Conditions)

1050 1100 1150 (DEG K)

COMBUSTOR OUTLET TEMP

Figure 5-15• Combustor Characteristics: Single-Stage Fuel Injector

(Reduced Inlet Temperature Conditions)

5-20
Table 5-1 is a matrix which shows the combustor test conditions that were evaluated
with the single-stage fuel injector.

Table 5-1

Combustor Test Conditions: Single-Stage Fuel Injector

JP-4 Fuel

Inlet Inlet Pressure

Temperature Pressure Loss Dilution Reference
Deg K (°F) kPa (psig) (%) Valve Figure

756 (900) 446 (50.0) 3.6 Open 5-11

706 (811) 256 (22.5) 0.5 Open 5-12

735 (863) 279 (25.8) 0.037 Open 5-13

729 (852) 294 (27.9) 0.034 Closed 5-14

747 (885) 274 (25) 3.8 Open A-1

744 (880) 274 (25) 4.15 Open A—1

705 (809) 232 (19) 2.9 Open A-2

699 (798) 246 (21) 1.0 Open A-3

699 (798) 250 (21.5) 0.8 Open A-4

611 (640) 250 (21.5) 1.14 Open A-5

484 (411 ) 246 (21.0) 1.10 Open A-6

5.6.2 Two-Stage Fuel Injector: Test Results

The two-stage fuel injector is shown in cross section in Figure 5-16 and a photo­
graph of the unit is shown in Figure 5-17. The two-stage inj ector consists of two
separate, concentric air-blast fuel injection circuits. The primary, or pilot
fuel, is injected around the inner centerbody and atomized by the air assist flow.
The secondary, or main fuel, is injected around the main centerbody, as in the
single-stage design, and atomized by the main swirler air flow. In operation, the
pilot fuel flow is continuous at a fixed level throughout the operational range of
the combustor. The secondary fuel flow is modulated to obtain the required combus­
tor outlet temperature.

5-21
 SWIRL VANES
(20)

PRIMARY FUEL
INJECTION ORIFICE
SECONDARY SECONDARY FUEL
FUEL INJECTION SLOT

CENTERBODY

AIR
FUEL ASSIST
SWIRLER
COMBUSTOR
DOME

AIR ASSIST
SECONDARY
AIR SWIRLER
REACTION
AIR FLOW

SUSPENSION POINTS (3)

Figure 5-16. Two-Stage Liquid Fuel Injector

TWO STAGE FUEL IN.

SECONDARY FUEL
INJECTION ORIFICE
PILOT fuel
INJECTION ORIFICE

PILOT FUEL

Figure 5-17. Two-Stage Liquid Fuel Injector

• Fuel Flow Turndown

The two-stage fuel inj ector allows operation of the combustor on pilot-
fuel-only, thus providing an effectively high turn-down from the combustor
design point. The minimum pilot fuel flow requirements are shown in
Figure 5-18 as a function of combustor mass flow. At a pilot fuel flow
of 1.4 Kg/hr (3 Ib/hr) , combustion could be maintained at any air flow
condition up to the bench-scale combustor design inlet conditions. This
represents a fuel flow turndown of approximately 70:1.

Transition between the pilot-fuel-only and the secondary fuel was smooth
with no discernible step changes in combustor outlet temperature. A
view into the combustor operating at atmospheric pressure with the pilot
in operation is shown in Figure 5-19. Subsequent introduction of
secondary fuel in addition to the pilot fuel produces the flame pattern
shown in Figure 5-20.

Combustion Efficiency

A design point combustion efficiency plot is shown in Figure 5-21. As

the secondary fuel flow is reduced to low values, the fuel film on the
centerbody becomes discontinuous and the efficiency decreases to a minimum
value of approximately 80 percent. At pilot-only operation the efficiency
recovers to almost 96 percent. Combustion is continuous between the
pilot fuel flow, which represents a combustor temperature rise of only
a few degrees, up to outlet temperatures in excess of 1644 K (2500°F) .

Design Conditions

The corresponding combustor emissions characteristics for the design

point inlet conditions are shown for the higher range of combustor outlet
temperatures in Figure 5-22. It can be seen that data were recorded at
combustor outlet temperatures up to 2600°F at which point, maximum

3.5-
1.5 -

3.0-

n- 2.5-

2 .0 -

0.5 -
1.0-

TWO-STAGE FUEL INJECTOR

FUEL: JP-4

20 40 60 80 100 120
COMBUSTOR INLET PRESSURE — PSIG (INCREASING MASS FLOW)

200 300 400 600 800 1000

KPa

Figure 5-18. Pilot Fuel Flow Requirements: JP-4 Fuel

 Figure 5-19. Pilot Fuel Operation

Figure 5-20. Pilot Plus Main Fuel Operation

 110

PILOT
100
COMBUSTION EFFICIENCY (%)

90

80

70

TWO STAGE FUEL INJECTOR

60 FUEL: JP-4

50
600 800 1000 1200 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600

COMBUSTOR OUTLET TEMP. - (DEG F)

LL J J J l I I
600 700 800 900 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700
K
Figure 5-21. Combustor Efficiency Characteristics: Two-Stage Fuel Injector
(Design Point Conditions)

30.0 -
(G M /K G FUEL)

20.0 -
-
EMISSIONS INDEX

TWO STAGE FUEL INJECTOR

FUEL: JP-4

1800 2000 2200

COMBUSTOR OUTLET TEMP. -{DEG. F)

Figure 5-22- Combustor Characteristics: Two-Stage Fuel Injector

(Design Point Conditions)

5-25
 liner temperatures in the range of 1289 K (1860°F) were recorded. A
typical liner temperature profile is shown in Figure 5-23.

It should also be noted that the NOx characteristic exhibits a maximum

at a combustor outlet temperature of approximately 1506 K (2250°F) .
Previous investigations on premixed and well-mixed Vortex Air Blast
combustion systems (Refs. 3, 4, 12) have exhibited a similar tendency.
This is associated with the formation of an effective two-stage, rich/lean
combustion system. The main reaction zone is operating richer than
stoichiometric and the dilution air mixes in rapidly enough to suppress
equilibrium level NOx formation at close-to-stoichiometric equivalence
ratios.

The combustor outlet temperature pattern factor at the design point out­
let temperature of 1144 K (1600°F) was 0.11, representing a measured hot
spot of 1194 K (1690°F).

A full range combustor characteristic, including pilot operation, is

shown in Figure 5-24.

e Air Flow Turndown Conditions

The low pressure drop, high airflow turndown characteristics of the com­
bustor with a two-stage fuel injector were found to be closely related
to the single-stage injector results. A characteristic at a pressure
drop of 0.01 percent is shown in Figure 5-25 and was obtained with the
dilution zone closed off. At the high combustor outlet temperatures
that would normally be associated with this mode of operation, the CO and
UHC emissions indicated a high combustion efficiency although barely

706 K(811'F) 818 K (1013°F} 984 K(1311"F) 1089 K (150CTF)

711 K (820°F) 798 K (977°F) 921K(1197"F) 991 K (1324)
694 K (790°F) uaa ft ou4u-i-) i\ (i ioo;

INLET TEMPERATURE 733 K (860 °F) 871 KJ1107°F)

706 K (810°F)

OUTLET GAS
TEMPERATURE
1667 K (2540° F)
1422 K (2100)
1144 K{1600°F)

1075 K (1475°F)
737 K (867 °F) 1009 K(1357°F) 915 K (1187°F)
759 K (906 °F)
1015 K (1367°F)
949 K (1249°F) 1144 K (1600° F)
711 K (820° F) 846 K (1063°F) 897 K (1154°F)

Figure 5-23. Liner Temperature Profile: Two-Stage Fuel Injector

(Design Point Conditions)

5-26
 420-
400-
TWO-STAGE FUEL INJECTOR
FUEL: JP-4

340 -
320-
EMISSIONS INDEX — (GM/KG. FUEL)

300-
280-
260-
240-
220-
200-
180-
160-
140-

100-

PILOT

1600 1800
OUTLETTEMP.— (DEG. F)

OUTLETTEMP.— (DEG. K)

Figure 5-24® Combustor Characteristic: Two-Stage Fuel Injector

(Design Point Conditions)

TWO STAGE FUEL INJECTOR

FUEL: JP-4

1.0 -

2100 2200 (DEG F)

900 950 1000 1050 1100 1150 1200 1250 1300 1350 1400 1450 1500 (DEG K)
COMBUSTOR OUTLET TEMP

Figure 5-25, Combustor Characteristic: Two-Stage Fuel Injector

(Reduced Pressure Loss Conditions)

5-27
 measureable smoke levels were detected at combustor outlet temperatures
above 1367 K (2000°F).

• Fuel Effects

A design point charateristic produced with the two-stage injector using

kerosene fuel is shown in Figure 5-26. Comparing this characteristic
with the JP-4 fueled test shown in Figure 5-22 shows only minor variations
in NOx and unburnt species. No smoke emissions were detected with the
heavier fuel.

• Inlet Valve Distortion

A comparative design point characteristic was generated with the upstream

control valve partially closed in order to assess the effects of inlet
air flow distortion on the combustor operation. The results are shown
in Figure 5-27 which closely reproduce the characteristics of Figure
5-26 which was obtained with the inlet control valve in the wide open
position. Both tests were conducted using kerosene fuel.

Table 5-2 is a matrix which shows the combustor test conditions that were evaluated
with the two-stage fuel injector.

Appendix A contains figures showing combustor characteristics at the test conditions

shown in Tables 5-1 and 5-2.

TWO-STAGE FUEL INJECTOR

30- FUEL: KEROSENE
(GM/KG. FUEL)

20-
-
EMISSIONS INDEX

1800 2000
OUTLETTEMP. — (DEG. F)

OUTLETTEMP. — (DEG. K)

Figure 5-26. Combustor Characteristic: Two-Stage Fuel Injector

(Design Point Conditions - Kerosene Fuel)

5-28
 TWO-STAGE FUEL INJECTOR
FUEL: KEROSENE

iOO 2000
OUTLETTEMP. — (DEG. F)

OUTLETTEMP. — (DEG. K)

Figure 5-27. Combustor Characteristic: Two-Stage Fuel Injector (Design

Point Conditions - Kerosene Fuel) Inlet Valve Partially
Closed

Table 5-2

Combustor Test Conditions: Two-Stage Fuel Injector

Inlet Inlet Pressure

Temperature Pressure Loss Dilution Reference
Deg K (°F) kPa (psig) (%) Valve Fuel Figure

705 (809) 308 (30.1) 4.0 Open JP-4 5-22

705 (809) 308 (30.0) 3.8 Open JP-4 5-24

715 (827) 256 (22.5) 0.009 Closed JP-4 5-25

707 (812) 312 (30.6) 3.6 Open Kerosene 5-26

710 (819) 312 (30.5) 3.4 Open Kerosene 5-2 7

720 (836) 239 (20) 0.01 Closed JP-4 A-7

728 (851 ) 294 (27.9) 0.04 Closed JP-4 A-8

742 (876) 701 (87.0) 3.8 Open Kerosene A-9

5-29
5.7 CONCEPTUAL FULL-SIZE TRIM COMBUSTOR DESIGN

A preliminary design layout of a full-size trim combustor suitable for the recuper­
ative Centaur gas turbine is shown in Figure 5-28. The design incorporates the
two-stage liquid fuel injection system and fulfills the original guidelines by
sharing many features of the production natural gas-fueled combustion system,
including:

• liquid fuel torch igniter for light-off purposes only

• flim cooling of combustor liner
• inward flow radial swirler for combustion stabilization
e outer casing and support pin system
• dilution port system

The two-stage liquid fuel injection system is a key element of the combustion
system which has demonstrated, in a bench-scale test program, the capability

PILOT FUEL SECONDARY FUEL

INLET INJECTION SLOT
TORCH LINER FILM COOLING
COMBUSTOR IGNITER STRIPS
SECONDARY FUEL
INLET
SUPPORT(—
pin r

DILUTION
PORTS

CENTERBODY 44.4 cm

SWIRL PILOT FUEL

VANES INJECTION
SECONDARY OUTER CASING l ORIFICE
FUEL LINE AIR ASSIST
SWIRLER
INLET

Figure 5-28. Conceptual Recuperative Centaur Trim Combustor Layout

5-30
of meeting the trim combustor performance requirements. The detailed design
of the full-size fuel injector in terms of such parameters as fuel injection
velocity, number of fuel injection points, fuel film length, and air assist
flow ratio for both the main and pilot burners may require a further experi­
mental iteration in order to arrive at the bench-scale performance levels.

Although no integrated scaling codes exist for a two-stage fuel injection. Vortex
Air Blast combustor. Solar Turbines Incorporated's background in the design and
evaluation of bench-scale model combustion systems indicates that performance param­
eters of full-size units such as liner temperature levels, outlet gas temperature
pattern factors, and combustion efficiency can be reasonably duplicated by bench-
scale models. Even in the realm of gaseous and particulate emissions, geometrically
similar bench-scale and full-size combustors have demonstrated closely comparable
characteristics (Refs. 3, 4, 12, 13, and 14).

Although the design is specifically aimed at the Solar Turbines Incorporated recu­
perative Centaur gas turbine, the concept is considered to be appropriate to appli­
cation in a wide range of gas turbines where an external can-type trim combustor
can be accommodated.

5.8 CONCLUDING REMARKS

• The bench-scale combustor test program has provided a satisfactory level

of test and operational data to be able to design a full-size recupera­
tive Centaur trim combustor concept that has a high probability of meeting
the original design guidelines.

• The two-stage fuel injector design shows significant advantages over a

single-stage type. A minimum fuel flow, continuously operating pilot
allows smooth transition to higher fuel flow operation, thus replacing the
need for a continuously operating torch igniter. The two-stage fuel
injector allows the use of the standard Centaur torch igniter in its
normal role where it is shut off after main combustor light-off.

• The overall performance characteristics of the bench-scale combustor meet

the original performance requirements set for the system. The moderate
loading of the combustor allows high efficiency, stable, and smokeless
operation at both design point inlet conditions and at combustor pressure
drops only one percent of the design point level of 3.5 percent.•

• Although the engine start regime could not be fully investigated, prelim­
inary indications are that the combustor performance in terms of the
transient efficiencies during the low speed engine operation would be
acceptable.

5-31
• The Vortex Air Blast bench-scale combustor demonstrated an insensitivity
to the level of inlet air maldistribution that is likely to occur in
actual operation.

• Outlet gas temperatures of up to 1422 K (2100°F) could be achieved on the

bench-scale combustor without exceeding a maximum local liner metal
temperature of 1144-1172 K (1600-1650°F). At these levels there is every
likelihood that the design guideline life requirement of 12,000-15,000
hours can be achieved. The available margin over the life requirement
will, however, depend strongly on the exact cyclic nature of the trim
combustor. Typical industrial gas turbine combustion system design
guidelines call for maximum liner metal temperatures not to exceed
1144 K (1600°F) in order to meet a 30,000 hour life requirement with
10,000 start/stop cycles. Solar Turbines Incorporated has operated exper­
imental uncooled combustion systems for several hundred hours at metal
temperatures up to 1311 K (1900°F) with no indications of distortion or
cracking. Transient operation of the bench-scale combustor to outlet
gas temperatures up to 1644-1700 K (2500-2600°F) was possible over a
wide range of combustor pressure loss factors with high efficiency and
zero smoke if liner metal temperatures up to 1256-1283 K (1800-1850®F)
can be accepted. Even at these extreme liner metal temperatures, the
potential for structural failure of the combustor through buckling or
distortion is minimized due to the low pressure differential across the
liner, particularly when operating in a hybrid mode. The transient
temperature gradients set up in the liner during cycling in the hybrid
mode will probably control the available combustion system life.

A subsequent hardening of the recuperative Centaur solar-fossil hybrid

operating strategy will define the actual maximum combustor outlet tem­
perature required. If necessary, the ful1-size trim combustor design
can include an increased level of liner cooling without compromising the
basic performance of the unit.

5-32
 Section 6

HYBRID RECUPERATIVE CENTAUR - RECOMMENDED TEST CELL

DEMONSTRATION PROGRAM

This section describes a program recommended by Solar Turbines Incorporated to

demonstrate, in a ground-level test cell, the recuperative Centaur gas turbine
operating in a simulated solar-fossil hybrid energy input mode. Because a solar
receiver will not be involved, the solar input will be simulated by a second com­
bustion system operating in parallel with the liquid fuel trim combustor. The
second combustor will be essentially identical to the trim combustor and controlled
to simulate the outlet temperature-time characteristics of the metal tube and
ceramic tube pilot-scale power plant receiver designs. A schematic of the twin
parallel combustor arrangement is shown in Figure 6-1.

It is anticipated that the special hardware fabricated for the test cell demonstra­
tion program, such as combustion systems and ducting, would be adequate for the
duration of the demonstration program but would not necessarily conform to Solar
Turbines Incorporated's standard production design practices. In addition, fuel
system and control system components would not necessarily be production-packaged.
This means that at the completion of the demonstration program further engineering
design effort would be required to complete the overall engine system configuration.

6.1 DEMONSTRATION PROGRAM CONTENT

The proposed 12 month program would culminate in an engine test period where simu­
lated hybrid operation will be demonstrated in a test cell. The various program
tasks are as follows:

• Task 1 - Test Cell and Engine Preparation

The task involves the check-out of the existing gas turbine test cell
instrumentation and engine auxiliary systems. Structural alterations to
the test cell layout may also be required depending upon the selection of
the particular engine test configuration option. The options are briefly
described in Section 6.3. Engine rebuild may also be required, depending
upon the configuration selected.

6-1
 AIR INTAKE

RECUPERATOR

COMPRESSOR
DISCHARGE

MODULATING
VALVE SOLAR TRIM
RECEIVER COMBUSTOR
COMBUSTOR

Figure 6-1. Recuperative Centaur Simulated Hybrid Arrangement

• Task 2 - Design and Fabricate Ducting

New ducting required to accommodate the two parallel combustors will be

designed and fabricated as required.

• Task 3 - Valve and Hardware Specification and Procurement

The modulating control valves required upstream of the two combustors

will be specified and procured together with the appropriate actuation
and control systems. The hot dump valve will be based on similar Solar
Turbines Incorporated designs and fabricated.

• Task 4 - Fabrication of Combustors and Casings

The preliminary full-size combustor design generated under the bench

scale program (Section 5) will be used to produce fabrication drawings
and to manufacture two sets of combustion system hardware; one combustor
system to simulate the solar receiver.

e Task 5 - Rig Test Combustors

The established Solar Turbines Incorporated strategy for combustion system

development requires that new combustor designs be rig tested before the
hardware is installed in an engine. This protects a high-cost engine
facility from major damage due to a premature combustor failure. A rig
test of the full-size combustor system can reveal performance deficiencies
that might not be as apparent in the smaller bench-scale size range. In
addition, any combustor performance problems can be remedied during this
period of rig testing rather than consuming the more expensive engine
operating hours to accomplish the same task.

6-2
 • Task 6 - Install Combustors and Ducting

After successful completion of the combustor rig tests, the combustion

systems and associated ducting will be installed on the engine.

a Task 7 - Control System Definition

A control system definition scenario is shown in Figure 6-2. Early work

results in a control system hardware specification. Subsequent work on
this task involves preparation of the microprocessor software and debugg­
ing the software using the Interp simulator program which enables the
IBM 370 computer to function as a controller. Successful debugging
leads to preliminary programming of the microprocessor hardware and set­
up of the the dedicated microprocessor ready for initial engine tests.

• Task 8 - Engine Test and Development

The final phase of the demonstration program involves the engine test of
the simulated solar-fossil hybrid system. The test program will cover the
following main areas:

— light-off and acceleration to no-load conditions on the trim combustor

— light-off of the trim combustor at low flow conditions

— steady-state operation using dual energy-input, i.e., both combustors

operating over the full range of "solar/liquid fuel" input ratio

— changeover from "solar" input to liquid fuel combustor input simulating

cloud cover occurrance

— demonstration of emergency engine shut down using the hot dump valve

The engine test and development phase will be used to refine the control system
and combustion system operation to an acceptable level and to define any major
limitations to the engine operational envelope.

6.2 DEMONSTRATION PROGRAM SCHEDULE

The demonstration program schedule is shown in Figure 6-3. The starting point
corresponds to the completion of the bench-scale combustor program covered in
Section 5.

The engine test and development period (Task 8) is scoped to include sufficient
engine operating hours to allow combustion, controls and hardware problems to be
successfully resolved.

6-3
 DEVELOPMENT OF STORED PROGRAM
FOR MICRO PROCESSOR BASED CONTROLLER*
USING COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN

Figure 6-2. Microprocessor Control System Definition Scenario

 MONTHS
Task
6 10 11 12
1. Test Cell & Engine
Preparation

2. Design & Fab. Ducting

3. Valve and Hardware Spec. &

Procurement

4. Fabricate Comb. & Casings

5. Rig Test Combustors

6. Install Comb, and Ducting

7. Control System Spec.

Procure, and Set-Up

8. Engine Test and Development* •

Figure 6-3. Test Cell Demonstration Program Schedule

6.3 TEST CELL CONFIGURATION OPTIONS

Various options are available for the engine configuration that is to be

tested during the demonstration program. These are as follows:

• Option #1 - Single-Shaft Recuperative Centaur, Hot End Drive

Generator Set

The test cell that Solar Turbines Incorporated has dedicated to the recu­
perative Centaur is currently configured as a combustion system test loop
shown in Figure 6-4. The natural gas-fueled engine is currently a two-
shaft arrangement, as are all production units, and power absorbtion is
by water dynamometer. Because the engine is two-shaft the drive is through
the hot end, i.e., exhaust collector, of the unit. Rebuilding the engine
for a generator set would mean that the set would necessarily be a hot
end drive, as a cold end drive would not be practical in terms of the
test cell modifications required. A hot end drive generator set implies
a separate reduction gearbox and generator with intervening couplings and
the engine must be rebuilt with the appropriate hot end drive turbine
components. It should be noted that Solar Turbines Incorporated no longer
supplies the Centaur engine in a hot end drive configuration, thus the
turbine items and reduction gearbox are obsolete parts and scheduling
problems could occur if this option were to be selected.

• Option #2 - Single-Shaft Recuperative Centaur, Hot End Drive Dynamometer

This option is similar to the first, except that power absorption is by

dynamometer rather than by generator. This removes the availability
problem of the reduction gearbox; however, the hot end drive turbine
component availability might still be a problem. The use of a dynomometer
rather than a generator set does change the overall mechanical inertia of

6-5
 Figure 6-4. Recuperative Centaur Combustor Test Loop

the system although this does not necessarily mean that the transient
response of the engine would be significiantly different than when opera­
ting with a generator.

• Option #3 - Split-Shaft Recuperative Centaur, Hot End Drive Dynamometer

This option is the simplest in terms of engine modifications as it requires

no changes to the current test cell arrangement. The use of a split-shaft
engine, however, does not require the operation of the combustion system
over the same range of inlet and outlet pressure and temperature conditions
that would be imposed by a single-shaft unit.

• Option #4 - Single-Shaft, Simple Cycle Centaur, Cold End Drive Generator

Set

This option represents Solar Turbines Incorporated's current production

Centaur generator set configuration. The term "cold end drive" denotes
that the drive to the generator set is taken through the "cold end" or
compressor end of the unit. The reduction gearbox is then made an integral
part of the engine casing and incorporates the auxiliary drives. A section
through such an engine is shown in Figure 6-5.

As mentioned previously, it is not possible to accommodate a cold end

drive generator set in the existing recuperative engine test cell so that
exercising this option requires the use of an existing "house" engine in
an alternate test cell. This engine is currently simple cycle and would
require ducting modifications to allow operation with the twin, external
parallel combustion systems. The absence of a recuperator with the assoc­
iated reduction in thermal inertia would impose quite different transient
conditions on the combustor and control systems.

6-6
 Figure 6-5 Cold End Drive Centaur

• Option #5 - Single-Shaft, Recuperative Centaur, Cold End Drive Generator

Set

This option involves the addition of a recuperator to the system described

in Option #4 and provides an overall configuration identical to the pre­
ferred one of Section 4.5, Ducting and casing modifications would be
required to allow operation with the twin, external parallel combustion
systems.

6.4 DEMONSTRATION PROGRAM COSTS

A summary of the component costs involved in each of the demonstration program

options is shown in Table 6-1. The cost of existing Solar Turbines' in-house
experimental engines are not included. The fabricated ducting, combustion and
control systems hardware would be deliverable items and applicable to the pilot-
scale power plant.

6-7
 Table 6-1

Test Cell Demonstration Program Costs

1981$ x 1 ,000

0 ptions*

Cost Element 1 2 3 4 5

e ENGINE TEST PERIOD 550 500 500 500 500

technical, engineer support, fuel,
cell preparation, etc.

@ COMBUSTOR FABRICATION 170 170 170 170 170

2 combustors plus spares, casings
and instrumentation

6 COMBUSTOR RIG TEST 65 65 65 65 65

atmospheric proof test and
development

® VALVES 40 40 40 40 40
modulating valve procurement and spec,
vent valve design and fabrication

9 DUCTING DESIGN 25 25 25 25 25

9 DUCTING FABRICATION 35 35 35 40 35

ft GENERATOR AND SWITCHGEAR 110 — — — —

ft GEARBOX 90 — — — —

6 INSTALLATION OF G/B AND GENERATOR 10 — — — —

ft ENGINE REBUILD 15 15 15 15 15

ft HOT END TURBINE PARTS 35 35 — — —

6 RECUPERATOR — — — — 240
procurement and installation

ft COMBUSTION SPECIALIST SUPPORT 25 25 25 25 25

ft CONTROL SYSTEM HARDWARE 50 50 50 50 50

ft CONTROL SYSTEM DEFINITION 80 80 80 80 80

ft PROGRAM MANAGEMENT 80 80 80 80 80
test plans, analysis, reporting

ft TOTAL COST 1 ,380 1,120 1 ,085 1 ,090 1 ,325

*Option Configuration

1 1 - shaft, H.E.D., generator set, recuperative

2 1 - shaft, H.E.D., dyno, recuperative
3 2 - shaft, dyno, recuperative
4 1 - shaft, C.E.D., generator set, simple
5 1 - shaft, C.E.D., generator set, recuperative

6-8
 Section 7

RECOMMENDATIONS

• System Configuration

As a result of the study and with inputs from other EPRI central receiver
contractors. Solar Turbines Incorporated recommends that a single-shaft, recu­
perative Centaur generator set with a parallel 1iquid-fue1ed combustion system
arrangement is the optimum selection for a pilot-scale experimental power
plant.

• Test Cell Demonstration

A satisfactory test cell demonstration of the engine systems configuration

could be accomplished by simulating the solar receiver with a second combustion
system controlled to reproduce the same time-outlet temperature-airflow charac­
teristics as the metal tube and ceramic tube receiver designs. If cost is of
primary importance then Option #3 is recommended as a test cell configuration
where the maximum amount of information can be generated with minimum outlay.
For the closest replication of the pilot-scale, experimental power plant sys­
tem, Option #5 should be considered. The test cell demonstration phase be
proceeded by a rig evaluation of the full-size combustor design prior to incor­
poration in the engine facility. Consideration should be given to using #2
diesel fuel in the full-size combustor in order to assess its overall impact
on the combustion system performance and systems integration.

7-1
 Section 8

REFERENCES

1. "Solar Thermal Conversion to Electricity Utilizing a Central Receiver, Open

Cycle Gas Turbine Design", EPRI Summary Report ER-387-SY, March 1977, Black &
Veatch Consulting Engineers.

2. "Closed Cycle High-Temperature Central Receiver Concept for Solar Electric

Power", EPRI Summary Report ER-403- SY, August 1976, Boeing Engineering and
Construction.

3. Roberts, P. B., et al., "Advanced Low NOx Combustors for Supersonic High Alti­
tude Aircraft Gas Turbine", 1976 ASME Gas Turbine and Fluids Engineering Con­
ference (Paper No. 76-GT-12).

4. Roberts, P. B., et al., "Wide Range Operation of Avanced Low NOx Aircraft Gas
Turbine Combustors," 1978 ASME Gas Turbine Conference (Paper No. 78-GT-128).

5. "Procedure for the Continuous Sampling and Measurement of Gaseous Emissions

From Aircraft Trubine Engines", SAE Aerospace Recommended Practice, ARP 1256,
1971 .

6. Marchionna, N. R., "Effect of Inlet-Air Humidity on the Formation of Oxides of

Nitrogen in a Gas Turbine Combustor", NASA TMX-68209, NASA Lewis Research
Center, 1973.

7. Mularz, E. J , "Lean, Premixed, Prevaporized Combustion for Aircraft Gas Tur­

bine Engines", NASA TM 790148, June 1979.

8. Roffe, G., and Ferri, A., "Effect of Premixing Quality on Oxides of Nitrogen
on Gas Turbine Combustors", NASA CR-2657, Feb. 1976.

9. Cooper, L., "Effect of Degree of Vaporization Open Emissions for a Premixed,

Prevaporized Combustion System", Premixed Prevaporized Combustor Technology
Forum held at NASA-lewis Research Center on Jan. 9-10, 1979, CP-2078.

10. Dickan, R. A., Dodds, W. J., and Ekstedt, E. E., "Lean Premixed Prevaporized
(LPP) Combustor Conceptual Design Study," NASA CR-159629.

11. Roffe, G., and Venkatoramani, K.S., "Emission Measurements for a Lean, Premixed
Propane/Air System at Pressures up to 30 Atmospheres", NASA CR-159421.

12. Roberts, P. B., et al., "Development of a Low NOx Annular Combustor", 26th
International Gas Turbine Conference and Exhibit, Houston, Texas, March 8-12,
1981, ASME Paper No. 81-GT-40.

13. Sood, V. M. and Shekleton, J. R., "Ongoing Development of Low Emisison Indus­
trial Gas Turbine Combustion Chamber", ASME 79-GT-203.

14. Sood, V. M. and Shekleton, J. R., "Ongoing Development of a Low Emission

Axisymmetric Annular Vortex Combustor for an Industrial Gas Turbine", ASME
80-GT-58-

8-1
 APPENDIX A

COMBUSTOR CHARACTERISTICS
 PERCENT COMBUSTION EFFICIENCY
100.0

99.5

SINGLE STAGE FUEL INJECTOR

FUEL: JP-4 99.0

AIR ASSIST VALVE OPEN

AIR ASSIST
VALVE CLOSED

AIR ASSIST VALVE OPEN

AIR ASSIST
VALVE CLOSED

COMBUSTOR OUT! FT TFMPFRATl IRF

Figure A-1 Single-Stage Fuel Injector (Design Conditions)

A-3
 SINGLE STAGE FUEL INJECTOR
FUEL: JP-4

1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 (DEG F)

-i |i I i l I l I l
1050 1100 1150 1200 1250 1300 1350 1400 1450 1500 (DEG K)
COMBUSTOR OUTLETTEMP

Figure A-2, Single-Stage Fuel Injector (Reduced Pressure Loss Conditions)

EMISSIONS INDEX — (GM/KG FUEL)

14.0 —

12.0 -

4.0 — SINGLE STAGE FUEL INJECTOR

FUEL: JP-4

2400 2600 (DEG

1150 1200 1250 1300 1350 1400 1450 (DEG K)

COMBUSTOR OUTLET TEMP

Figure A-3. Single-Stage Fuel Injector (Reduced Pressure Loss Conditions)

A-4
 22.0 -
EMISSIONS INDEX — (GM/KG FUEL)

SINGLE STAGE FUEL INJECTOR

FUEL: JP-4

2600 (DEG R)

1100 1150 1200 1250 1300 1350 1400 (DEG K)

COMBUSTOR OUTLET TEMP

Figure A-4. Single-Stage Fuel Injector (Reduced Pressure Loss Conditions)

(GM/KG FUEL)

SINGLE STAGE FUEL INJECTOR

FUEL: JP-4
-
EMISSIONS INDEX

1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 (DEG F)
----------- 1----------------1—,------------- 1------------------ 1----------------- 1------ ------------I I J I I I
900 950 1000 1050 1100 1150 1200 1250 1300 1350 1400 (DEG K)
COMBUSTOR OUTLET TEM P.

Figure A-5. Single-Stage Fuel Injector (Reduced Inlet Conditions)

A-5
 200.0
(GM/KG FUEL)

140.0

SINGLE STAGE FUEL INJECTOR

FUEL: JP-4
-
EMISSIONS INDEX

2000 (DEG F)

J|1 I I I I I 1 I 1--
850 900 950 1000 1050 1100 1150 1200 1250 1300 1350 (DEG K)
COMBUSTOR OUTLETTEMP

Figure A-6. Single-Stage Fuel Injector (Reduced Inlet Conditions)

30.0 -

TWO-STAGE FUEL INJECTOR

FUEL: JP-4

O 20.0 —

- 15.0 —

2 10.0

5.0 —

2000 2400 (DEG. F)

1100 1150 1200 1250 1300 1350 1400 1450 1500 1550 1600 (DEG. K)
COMBUSTOR OUTLETTEMP.

Figure A-7. Two-Stage Fuel Injector (Reduced Pressure Loss Condition)

A-6
 TWO STAGE FUEL INJECTOR
FUEL: JP-4
EMISSIONS INDEX — (GM/KG. FUEL)

3.2 PPH.

PILOT FUEL PILOT AND

ONLY MAIN FUEL

1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500 2600 (DEG F)
l I I I I I I----------1--------- 1------
900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 (DEG K)
COMBUSTOR OUTLET TEMP

Figure A-8. Two-Stage Fuel Injector (Reduced Pressure Loss Condition)

660.0

580.0

500.0

420.0
TWO STAGE FUEL INJECTOR
FUEL: KEROSENE

340.0

z 260.0

180.0

100.0

600 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 (DEG F)

1------1----- 1------1----- 1— --- 1 I I I l I I I I l... 1
700 750 800 850 900 ' 950 1000 1050 1100 1150 1200 1250 1300 1350 1400 1450 (DECK)
COMBUSTOR OUTLET TEMP

Figure A-9. Two-Stage Fuel Injector (Design Conditions, Kerosene Fuel)

A-7