SCIENCE

QUARTER FOUR
LESSON 1: DISGESTIVE SYSTEM
The function of the digestive system is digestion, the breakdown of organic compounds into
their simple forms for use by the cells. Digestion is the chief function of the digestive system.
It breaks down food mechanically and chemically. The journey of the food starts from the
mouth down to the anus takes about 18-20 hours.

A. INGESTION is the first process that happens in digestive system. It is the journey of taking
in food or any substance into the body through the mouth. The journey of food starts when a
bit of hamburger enters your mouth.

B. DIGESTION is the second process involved in digestive system. It is the process that
involves break down of large food molecules into smaller molecules for easy absorption of
the cells. Both chemical and mechanical digestions begin immediately in the mouth. While
the food is in the mouth, the teeth cut, crush, and break it apart into tiny pieces while the
tongue helps mix food with saliva secreted by the salivary glands forming into a moist ball
called bolus so it can be easily swallowed. This process is known as mastication or chewing
considered as a mechanical digestion, which is the initial stage of digestion. The saliva
contains salivary amylase, the enzyme that breaks down starch into smaller carbohydrate.
Then, the bolus passes from the mouth to the esophagus - a tube that attaches the mouth to
the stomach. A series of wave-like muscle contractions known as peristalsis push and
transport foods and liquids in small sections to the stomach.

The stomach is a J-shaped, bag-like muscular organ that can hold approximately one liter of
fluid and food. The primary function of the stomach is to store food, which turns to chyme
after being acted on by the stomach acid. Chyme is a semifluid material formed from bolus
that is acted upon by the gastric juices secreted by the stomach. The walls of the stomach
have special cells that secrete gastric juices like hydrochloric acid and pepsin that begin the
chemical breakdown of proteins.

The liver produces bile, a green fluid that turns large fat droplets into smaller ones and
stores them in the gall bladder. When necessary, bile gets into the small intestine and helps in
the digestion of fat. The pancreas makes three different kinds of enzymes namely amylase,
peptidase, and lipase released through a pancreatic duct that aid in the digestion of all three
organic compounds such as carbohydrates, proteins, and fats respectively. The process takes
about half of a liter of digestive juices each day. The liver is the biggest organ inside the body
with a mass of about two kilograms.

Gall bladder - a small pear-shaped sac that can hold about 50ml of bile. The pancreas is a
small organ found below the stomach.

The small intestine is an organ that breaks down food further into substances, such as
glucose, that can be absorbed by the villi. It has three parts namely the duodenum, the
jejunum, and ileum. The duodenum is the first and shortest part of the small intestine that
starts at the lower end of the stomach and extends for about 20 cm to 25 cm in length.
Basically, it is in charge for the continuous breaking-down process as it partially receives the
chyme from the stomach, it resumes chemical digestion of food, and prepares for absorption
through the villi.

Organic compounds such as carbohydrates, proteins, and fats are specifically broken down
with the aid of different enzymes. Carbohydrates are broken down into sugars by enzymes
like amylase, maltase and lactase. Proteins are broken down into amino acids by enzymes like
trypsin and peptidase. Fats are broken down into fatty acids by the enzyme lipase. After
about four hours, the stomach pushes food into the small intestines. See Figure 2 and Figure
2.1. The production and release of enzymes and acids in the digestive system is called
secretion. It aids in the breaking down of complex food molecules into their chemical building
blocks. The jejunum is the second part of the small intestine that is 2.5 cm in length. Its wall
works for absorption through enterocytes or columnar cells of small nutrient particles which
have been previously digested by the enzymes in the duodenum.

C. Absorption is the third process that happens in the digestive system. It occurs mostly in
the small intestine where several digestive juices, pancreatic juice, and bile aid in the
chemical digestion of food. Absorption is the process of passing the soluble food molecules
in the wall of the small intestine through the villi – the tiny, finger-like projections from the
epithelial lining of the intestinal wall. Each villus contains blood capillaries that enable it to
absorb water, glucose, amino acids, vitamins, minerals, and fatty acids.

D. Assimilation is the fourth process that occurs in the digestive system. It is the movement
of digested food nutrients into the blood vessels of the small intestine through diffusion and
use of nutrients into the body cells through the microvilli – microscopic cellular membrane
projections that serves to expand the surface area for diffusion and also to lessen any
increase in volume. See figure 4. The third part of the small intestine is the ileum which is
about 3.5 meters in length. Its main function is the assimilation (absorption) of B12 and the
re-assimilation (reabsorption) of conjugated bile salts.

The Large intestine is divided into caecum, ascending colon, transverse colon, descending
colon, and sigmoid colon. This is where reabsorption of liquid, electrolytes and some
vitamins from the undigested food takes place. It secretes mucus to aid in the formation of
feces and maintains alkaline conditions. This is the last segment of the gastrointestinal tract
that completes absorption and compacts waste.

E. Egestion is the last process that occurs in the digestive system. It is the release of
undigested food collected in the rectum called feces and pushed out of the body through the
anus by defecation.

CELL CYCLE
The same thing happens with the living cells. The cell cycle can be compared to as the life
cycle of a cell, a series of growth and developmental steps a cell undergoes between its
“birth” and reproduction. Every living thing undergoes reproduction. The nutrients taken by
an individual will provide energy for metabolic processes, for growth and development as
well as for reproduction.

The Chromosome

All living things contain a self-replicating genetic material that directs the activities and
functions of the cells. Deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA is the genetic material located inside
a chromosome in the nucleus of the cell. The DNA from the parents is transmitted to the
offspring to ensure the continuity of life. The DNA is a helical structure consisting of two
strands.

This shows the organization or packaging of DNA molecules by proteins or histones to form
different levels of chromosome packaging. This is necessary so that the long and numerous
DNA molecules can be organized and be accommodated inside the nucleus of a eukaryotic
cell. The DNA helix illustration in Figure 1 shows a structure called nucleosomes which is
composed of globular structures known as histones where the DNA strands are attached,
and coiled looking like beads attached on a string in a form of chromatin measuring up to 11
nm. The next level of organization is a series of chromatin molecules forming a 30-
nanometer chromatin fiber of packed coiled nucleosomes called solenoid. This solenoid level
of packaging becomes supercoiled forming loops that are visible and are usually called
chromatin loops which further leads to condensation of the chromosomes up to 700 nm.
When the DNA molecules is replicated and undergoes also packaging and coiling, it would
form the entire mitotic chromosome or metaphase chromosome which measures up to1,400
nm which is illustrated at the bottom of the diagram in Figure 1.

Parts of the Chromosome

1. Chromatids – two identical halves of a replicated chromosome after the Synthesis phase or
the S phase of the cell cycle.

2. Centromere – the attachment points of the two chromatids of a chromosome. It is also

described as the constriction point which divides the chromosome into two sections, or
“arms.”

3. Short arm – or p arm - upper arms of the chromosome which is usually shorter.
4. Q arm - lower arms of the chromosome which is usually longer.

The Cell Cycle

The chromosomes of a cell change their form as they undergo cell transitions from one stage
to another in a typical cell cycle as shown in Figure 3. The cell cycle may be divided into two
stages: the interphase where the chromosomes are long, and extended, and the cell division
or mitotic phase where the chromosomes become condensed or thickened.

Interphase is the interval between two cell divisions. During this stage, the cell is not dividing;
it merely grows. The chromosome doubles or replicates itself because the DNA molecule
contained in the chromosome produces a precise copy of itself.

Interphase is the interval between two cell divisions. During this stage, the cell is not
dividing; it obtains nutrients and metabolizes, grows, replicates its DNA in preparation for
mitosis.

The interphase is divided into three sub-stages, namely:3

1. First gap period or G1 where

 cell grows initially

 synthesis of protein and ribonucleic acid or RNA occurs

 mitochondria increase in number

2. Synthesis stage or S phase where

 DNA are synthesized thus replicating the chromosomes in

preparation for the next cell division.

3. Second gap period or G2 where

 cell grows rapidly

 cell prepares for the actual cell division

CELL DIVISION
kaya mo ‘yan

Cell Division

Cell division phase occurs every after interphase. In eukaryotic cells, these types of cell
division occur: mitosis and meiosis.

1. Mitosis

Each time a child goes to the doctor, a nurse measures his height and mass.

A child’s height and mass increases because the number of cells in his body increases

as he develops. Our body cells increase its number through the process known as

mitosis.

Mitosis is a cellular process wherein two nuclei and two cells are produced

due to the division of the original nucleus, each of which contains the same

chromosome number as the parent cell. Mitosis is divided into four stages namely:

prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. Figure 5 shows the different stages
of mitosis.

Prophase Stage

 The repeated coiling of chromosomes occurs resulted to its thicker and

shorter structure. These are made up of two sister chromatids that are

identical to each because of the replication of DNA during the S phase.

 The two chromatids are still attached at the centromere.

 The nuclear membrane breaks down.

Metaphase Stage

 Chromosomes align at the equatorial plane.

 Each spindle fiber from both centrosomes connects to each chromosome

through its kinetochore.

Anaphase Stage

 Spindle fibers begin to contract and become shorter. Continued

contraction causes the separation of the genetically identical sister

chromatids.

 Centromeres divide.

 The single chromatids move towards the opposite poles

Telophase Stage

 The chromosomes are now at the opposing poles of the spindle.

 The microtubules disappear.

 Two sets of chromosomes are surrounded by new nuclear membranes,

completing the nuclear division process known as karyokinesis.

 Cytoplasmic division called cytokinesis occurs concurrently, splitting the

cell into two.

What happens after telophase?

Two new nuclear membranes are formed, and two new nuclei are seen. There

are two new daughter cells that are produced from one dividing parent cell. Thus,

mitosis has come to an end.

In telophase, the cell plate continues to grow and gets attached with the cell membrane. This
results to the formation of two daughter cells. Each cell is bounded with cell membrane. New
cell walls form between the two cell membranes at the area where the cell plate was formed
earlier.

2. Meiosis

There are two main types of cells possessed by multicellular eukaryotic

organisms: somatic, or body cells and gametes, or sex cells. Majority of the cells are

called somatic or body cells. These consist of two complete sets of chromosomes,

making them diploid in number (2N).

Multicellular eukaryotic organisms that undergo sexual reproduction use

gametes, or sex cells, to produce offspring. Gametes are haploid cells, union of which

result to creation of a new organism with diploid number of chromosomes in all its

somatic or body cells hence, to create new individuals for the species, two parents

are very necessary to provide the gametes.

Meiosis involves two divisions, Meiosis I and Meiosis II. Each follows similar

stages as mitosis (prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase). Before meiosis,

the reproductive cell is in the interphase stage whereby DNA replicates to produce

chromosomes having two sister chromatids. Then, the cell will undergo second

growth phase called interkinesis. This stage happens between Meiosis I and II,

however, DNA does not replicate in this stage

Meiosis I.

The first meiotic division, also known as Meiosis I, is a reduction division

phase (diploid - haploid). There are two daughter cells produced after Meiosis 1, each

daughter cell is carrying haploid number of chromosomes. This consists of four

stages, namely, prophase I, metaphase I, anaphase I, and telophase I.

Prophase I Stage

Meiosis starts with this stage and includes the following substages: leptotene,

zygotene, pachytene, diplotene, and diakinesis. Figure 8 shows the different

substages of prophase I.
Substage 1: Leptotene

Each chromosome is made up of sister chromatids. These are

long threadlike structures which result from the replication of DNA

during the Synthesis or S phase of the cell cycle.

Substage 2: Zygotene

The homologous chromosomes start to pair off through the

process known as synapsis. Pairs of chromosomes that are similar in

size and shape are called homologous chromosomes or tetrads.

Substage 3: Pachytene

The repeated coiling of chromosomes occurs resulting to its contraction and thickening
making the homologous pair of chromosomes to be very close to each other. At this stage, the
process called crossing over happens. Here, the exchange of segments between the sister
chromatids of the homologous chromosomes occurs. The exchanging process form a cross-
linkage called a chiasma. After crossing over, the sister chromatids of each chromosome may
not be identical with each other based on the genetic material they contain.

Crossing-over is a complicated process that results to genetic variability.

Substage 4: Diplotene

The two homologous chromosomes forming a tetrad begin to

repel one another and move apart. They are held only by the chiasma.

Substage 5: Diakinesis

This is the last stage of meiosis prophase 1. Diakinesis stage is

characterized by chiasmata terminalization. After diakinesis, the dividing

cell enters metaphase.

At this stage, bivalents or homologous pair chromosomes

distribute them evenly in the nucleus. The nuclear membrane breaks

down and the nucleolus disappears. Chiasma moves towards the end,

which is called terminalization. Chromatids remain attached only at the

terminal chiasmata and enter the metaphase stage.

Metaphase I Stage

 Spindle fibers from the centrosomes of each pole connect to bivalents or

tetrads through the kinetochores. Homologous chromosomes line up at the

equatorial plane. There is double alignment of the chromosomes.

Anaphase I Stage

 Spindle fibers begin to contract and separate the bivalent or tetrads.

 Homologous chromosomes separate and migrate to each pole of the cell.

Telophase I Stage

 Chromosomes decondense.

 Nuclear membranes reform.

 Cytokinesis or the cytoplasmic division occurs and two haploid (N) daughter

cells with chromosomes with two sister chromatids are formed

Meiosis II.

The second meiotic division forms four daughter cells, each carrying haploid

number of chromosomes. This consists of the following stages, namely, prophase II,
metaphase II, Anaphase II, and telophase II.

Prophase II Stage

 Chromosomes (chromatids) condense to form metaphase chromosomes.

 Nuclear membrane dissolves and nucleolus disappears.

 Centrosomes move towards each pole of the cell.

Metaphase II Stage

 Spindle fibers attach to chromatids at the kinetochores.

 Chromosomes line up at the equatorial plane. (Single alignment of

chromosomes).

Anaphase II Stage

 Spindle fibers shortened and separated the sister chromatids.

 Chromatids that are now called chromosomes move towards each pole of the

cell.

Telophase II Stage

 Single-stranded chromosomes decondense.

 Nuclear membrane and nucleolus reforms.

 Cytoplasm divides (cytokinesis).

 Four haploid (n) daughter cells are formed

 MEIOSIS
significance
REVIEW WELL!

Meiosis is a type of cell division that takes place during the creation of sex cells. During
meiosis, the chromosome number is decreased by half. This is to ensure that the zygote
would receive the exact number of chromosomes during fertilization.

The creation of germ cells or gametes is referred to as gametogenesis. These gametes are
used for sexual reproduction. During gametogenesis, a cell which contains one set of every
pair of chromosome comes from a diploid cell (2N). Male and female individuals produce
their gametes through meiosis. In males, gametogenesis is known as spermatogenesis. This
process produces spermatozoa (singular form is spermatozoon) or sperm cells.
Gametogenesis in females is known as oogenesis, since it produces oocytes and yields
mature ova (singular form ovum) or egg cells.

Both processes begin with meiosis. The creation of sperm cells happens in the testes while
egg cell production happens inside the ovary. The formation of embryo does not occur
normally without the process of meiosis.

Meiosis functions for the proper conditioning of cells inside the gonads in preparation for
reproduction and for genetic diversity among organisms. But the basic function of meiosis is
to maintain the standard number of chromosomes of the organism or species after the union
of sex cells during fertilization. This is possible when the division and the reduction of
chromosome number of gametes from diploid (2N) to haploid (N) occurs.

GAMETOGENESIS:

Multicellular organisms are formed by the union of gametes or sex cells. These sex cells, eggs
and sperms are created through the process gametogenesis. For gametogenesis to occur
successfully, meiosis is required in reducing the number of chromosomes of gametes from
diploid (2N), having a complete set of chromosomes, to haploid (N) where the gametes carry
only half the standard number of chromosomes. When these eggs and sperms unite during
fertilization, a diploid zygote forms. The zygote has one full set of chromosomes received
from each parent.

In humans, both the father and the mother contribute 23 chromosomes each through their
sex cells. Thus, the zygote has 46 chromosomes. The zygote divides through mitosis many
times. This produces a new diploid multicellular organism.

Four haploid cells (N) are produced after meiosis. These cells undergo development for them
to become mature and functional gametes. The process of gametogenesis differs between
male and female organisms. This happens inside the gonads or the testes and ovaries.

Gametogenesis involves the following steps:

1. Multiple mitotic divisions and cell growth of reproductive cells. This

explains why there are numerous sperm cells produced.

2. Two meiotic divisions (Meiosis I and II) occurs to produce haploid cells.

3. Haploid daughter cells undergo development for them to become functional

mature gametes.

SPERMATOGENESIS:
1. Nucleus (plural form nuclei) is found in the head.

2. Mitochondrion (plural form mitochondria) is at the middle piece that connects the

head to its tail. It provides energy for the locomotion.

3. Acrosome is a cap-like structure which develops on the head. It contains digestive

enzymes. These enzymes penetrate the outer sheath of the ovum, resulting to the merging of
the sperm and the ovum haploid nucleus.

OOGENESIS:

This process refers to the creation of gametes called ova which happens inside the ovaries
among female organisms. It begins during the developmental stages of fetus inside a
mother’s womb, when the reproductive cells of females are formed by meiosis. Figure 3
shows the phases of the formation of an ovum or egg cell.

 The reproductive female cells known as oogonium (plural oogonia) undergoes

mitosis and cell growth until it is ready to undergo meiosis and becomes primary

oocyte. This primary oocyte is diploid (2N).

 The primary oocyte begins Meiosis I but

stops its development in prophase I until puberty, when a girl begins her menstrual cycle.

 Each month, a hormone known as Follicle-stimulating hormone (FHS) will trigger the
continued division of the primary oocyte. The pituitary gland isresponsible for the production
of FHS. The functions of both the ovaries and the testes are controlled by this hormone.

 The primary oocyte divides during the

first meiotic division and two cells of unequal size are formed. One of the cells

receives the complete parts of the cytoplasm and forms a secondary oocyte,

the other cell of smaller size, becomes a polar body. Both cells contain only

one of the pairs of the complete set of chromosomes.

 The haploid secondary oocyte is released by the rupture of the follicles of the
ovary during ovulation and move into the fallopian tube and divides again

during the second meiotic division, but its development is arrested in

metaphase II. After fertilization is initiated, the secondary oocyte completes its

second meiotic division, resulting in the formation of a mature ovum and

another polar body. At this point, the ovum is ready to fuse with the

spermatozoan. The polar body may or may not divide, and eventually

degenerate at the end of Meiosis II. The polar bodies shed the excess haploid

sets of chromosomes.

 If fertilization occurs, the ovum is stimulated to complete meiosis II. It

contains a lot of stored food which is used by the growing embryo at the start

of its development.

What would happen if meiosis suddenly stops?

The process of meiosis is needed in the formation of gametes, sexual

reproduction, and for the increase of genetic diversity. If there is no meiosis,

reproduction among sexually producing creatures will never occur. Production of

offspring would stop and eventually, no more future generations. The earth will suffer

extinction of most species among multicellular eukaryotes.

What would happen when something goes wrong during meiosis?

Meiosis may not always proceed normally. Problems during meiosis

sometimes happen and cause great harm during embryonic development. Accidents

like miscarriages, genetic errors, and birth defects may occur. These accidents may

affect the movement of the chromosomes and the functioning of the spindle fibers.

In humans, non-disjunction of the chromosomes in Meiosis 1 or Meiosis 2 have been

known to cause abnormal conditions such as:

Down syndrome is also identified as Trisomy 21. This condition happens in

chromosome pair 21. During Meiosis I, chromosome pair 21 did not detach from

each other at Anaphase I. One of the gametes produced acquires both members of

the pair of chromosomes. The offspring has 47 chromosomes in his or her cells

instead of the standard 46 chromosomes. Problems with the way the body and the

brain develop are the effects brought by this excess chromosome. Common physical

characteristics of people with Down syndrome include:

1. short neck

2. small ears

3. small mouth

4. small stature

5. flattened nose

6. low muscle tone

7. upward slanting eyes

8. short hands and short fingers

9. Brushfield spots - or white spots on the colored part of the eye.

Cri-du-chat Syndrome

Cri-du-chat, the French for cat’s cry, is the sound of a baby having this

condition when he/she cries. This is a genetic condition which is also known as 5p-

(5p minus) syndrome and cat cry syndrome. This is caused by deletion, an

uncommon genetic condition whereby a part of the genetic segment in the small arm

known as the p arm of chromosome 5 is missing. Persons with cri-du-chat syndrome

suffers different symptoms. The variation of symptoms depends on the size of the
deleted part of the p arm. Common physical characteristics of people with Cri-du-

chat syndrome include:

1. small head size

2. widely-spaced eyes

3. round or moon-like face

4. high-pitched cat-like cry

5. low weight at birth and

6. weak muscle tone during infancy

Patau Syndrome

Patau syndrome is also identified as Trisomy 13 syndrome. This is a condition

in which each cell of the body of the affected individual has three copies of

chromosome 13 instead of two which is the standard number. This results to an

excess of genetic material which bring disruptions to the normal development of the

individual.

Persons having this chromosomal condition suffer serious physical

abnormalities and intellectual disability which include:

1. cleft lip

2. cleft palate

3. heart defects

4. weak muscle tone

5. brain abnormalities

6. extra fingers or toes

7. eyes are poorly developed

Klinefelter Syndrome

Klinefelter Syndrome is also identified as 47, XXY syndrome. This condition

is a sex chromosome disorder due to the occurrence of an extra X chromosomes in

the cell among male individuals. Normally, each human cell has 46 chromosomes.

Twenty-two pairs or 44 chromosomes are called body chromosomes while only one

pair or two of these are called sex chromosomes. Humans have two sex

chromosomes, the X and the Y. Males possess one X sex chromosome and one Y sex

chromosome (XY), and females have two X sex chromosomes (XX). Males with

Klinefelter syndrome hold an extra X chromosomes (XXY) or 47 chromosomes in their

cells. This results to multiple genes in the X chromosomes. These extra genetic

materials interrupt many developmental activities including sexual development.

Common physical characteristics of people with Klinefelter syndrome include:

1. small testes

2. breast enlargement

3. decreased bone density

4. decreased muscle mass

5. unusually small penis or micropenis

6. presence of few hair on the body and face

The affected individual produces a decreased amount of testosterone

hormone, a hormone that controls the male sexual development even before birth

and during puberty. The affected males are infertile.

Why is meiosis important?

Meiosis is important in the formation of sex cells. It makes sure that all

organisms produced sexually contain the standard number of chromosomes. Among

human beings and most other mammals, meiosis produces genetic variation through

recombination whereby different species exchange genetic materials. This process

produces offspring with mixed traits that vary from either parent. When two germ

cells combine during fertilization, the chances for genetic variation to occur increase

even further. Due to this random recombination of DNA in sexual reproduction,

diversity of life on Earth increases.