Human anatomy by Dr/ Medhat

HUMAN BIOLOGY AND

SYSTEMS
for dental students
BY

DR. MEDHAT ATTA SALAH

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 Human anatomy by Dr/ Medhat

Anatomical position: the human body is regarded as standing erect, the

eyes looking forward, the arms by the sides, the palms of the hands and the
toes directed forward and the thumb directed laterally.

Anatomical planes:
Sagittal plane: a vertical plane which —
divides the body into right & left parts. If it is
dividing two equal halves, it’s called median
— plane.
Coronal plane: a vertical plane which —
— divides the body into front & back parts.
Transverse plane: a horizontal plane —
— which divides the body into upper & lower parts.
NB: - The plane may be in the center of the body and split it into two equal halves (midsagittal)
— away from the midline and split it into unequal parts (para-sagittal).

DESCRIPTIVE TERMS
Terms of movements:
— 1- Flexion= to bend: Decrease in the angle between articulating bones.

— -Extension= to straighten: Increase in angle between articulating bones.

— 2- Abduction: Movement of a bone away from the midline.

— -Adduction: Movement of a bone toward the midline.

— 3- Supination: Movement of forearm so palm is turned forward or upward.

-Pronation: Movement of forearm so palm is turned backward or downward.

NB: eversion and inversion are similar to supination and pronation (occur around
ankyle joint in the foot)
4- Protraction: to move forward.

-Retraction: to move backward.

5- Lateral rotation: rotation laterally.

-Medial rotation: rotation medially.

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 Human anatomy by Dr/ Medhat

6- Circumduction: flexion, abduction, extension and adduction in a cone.

Terms of relationship (position):

1- anterior: nearer to the front surface of the body.

-Posterior: nearer to the back surface of the body.

2- superior: nearer to the head.

— -Inferior: away from the head.

3- medial: nearer to the median plane

— -Lateral: away from the median plane

4- proximal: nearer to the root of the part.

-Distal: away from the root of the part.

—
— Terms of comparison: they used in embryology.

— 1- Cranial: nearer to the head. - Caudal: away from the head.

2- Dorsal: nearer to the back. - Ventral: away from the back.

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 Human anatomy by Dr/ Medhat

BONE

The skeleton; it is the bony and cartilaginous frame work of the body ; it is
formed of 34 single + 86 paired bones
Functions of bones :
1- Protection of vital organs (brain; heart).
2- Formation of blood cells (in bone marrow).
3- Form the skeleton.
4- Store for calcium and phosphorus.
5- Give attachment to muscles and form joints.
Types of bone: According to shape, bone classified into.
1- Long bones 2- short bone.
3- flat bone. 4- irregular bone.
— —5-pneumatic bone. 6- sesamoid bone
Long bone
— - Typically longer than wide
- Have a shaft and 2 ends, the shaft is
a tubular middle part of the bone that contain BM.
—- long bone is surrounded by periosteum.
— - it present in limb bones as Femur, humerus.
- at birth the 2 ends are carilagenous and called
Epiphysis but the shaft called Diaphysis and
the junction between them called Metaphysis.
Ossification of long bone :
— - Definition: it is the process of bone formation.
-Types: 2 types of ossifications; intramembranous and intracartilagenous .
Intramembranous ossification Intracartilagenous ossification
- no cartilage model is formed. — - a cartilage model is formed at first.
- membranes (fibrous tissue)are - cartilage then replaced by bone (at
transformed directly into bone (at — ossification center).
ossification center). - begins at the 8th week of

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 Human anatomy by Dr/ Medhat

- begins at 5th week of pregnancy. — pregnancy.

— - example: clavicle and skull bones. — - example: long bones in limbs.

— Centers of ossifications: 2 centers of ossifications appear (1ry and 2ry)

* primary center: in the middle of shaft before birth to ossify the shaft.
* secondary: appear after birth at both ends to ossify the epiphysis.
Ossification progresses until only 2 plates of cartilage remain:
— a- epiphyseal plate of cartilage.
b- articular cartilage at ends of bones (share in joint formation).
The epiphyseal plate of cartilage: temporary area (disappear after puberty), it lies
— between diaphysis and epiphysis. it allows growth of bones in length.
NB: metaphysis is the region of diaphysis adjacent to epiphyseal plate.
Blood supply of long bones:
1- Nutrient artery: enter the bone via nutrient foramen to supply the shaft
— from inside
2- Peri-osteal twigs of vessels: supply the bone from outside
3- Articular vessels: supply ends of bone
Short bones: small sized bones with no shafts, each formed of mass of
cancellous bone surrounded by membrane of compact bone, Carpal and
— tarsal bones.
Flat bones: thin and flattened, thin layers of compact bone around a layer of
— spongy bone as in Skull, ribs and sternum.
Irregular bones: irregular in shape with many processes, do not fit into
other bone classification categories, as in Vertebrae and hip.
Pneumatic bone: bone with cavities filled with air as para nasal sinuses .
Sesamoid bone: nodule of bone inside certain tendons to prevent friction of
tendons, as in patella.

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 Human anatomy by Dr/ Medhat

Skeletal system
1. Axial skeleton: formed of:
— - Skull & mandible.
— - Vertebral column.
— - Sternum.
— - Ribs.
— 2. Appendicular skeleton: formed of:
— - Upper limb: which is formed of:
— ♥Shoulder girdle (clavicle & scapula).
— ♥Arm bone (Humerus).
♥Forearm bones(Ulna; medially & radius;
— laterally).
— ♥Carpal bones (8 bones).
— ♥Metacarpal bones(5).
— ♥Phalanges ( 3 except for thumb, only 2)
— - lower limb: which is formed of:
— ♥ pelvic girdle (hip bones).
— ♥thigh bone (Femur).
— ♥leg bones (tibia,medially & fibula, laterally).
— ♥ tarsal bones (7 bones).
— ♥Metatarsal bones(5)..
— ♥Phalanges ( 3 except for big toe, only 2)

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 Human anatomy by Dr/ Medhat

JOINTS
Definition: it is the point of meeting of 2 or more bones or cartilage with
certain tissue inbetween, according to this tissue; joints classified into:
1-Fibrous joints (bones —
— held together by dense collagen fibers).
— 2-Cartilaginous joints (bones held together by cartilage). —
— 3-Synovial joints (bones held together by ligaments). —
FIBROUS JOINTS
- Articulating bones are held very closely together by
— connective tissue. dense irregular
— - Fibrous joints permit little or no movement. 3 types
1. Sutures: fibrous joints between bones of the skull.
2.Gomphoses: as in articulations of the teeth with the
sockets of the maxilla and mandible.
3. Radioulnar joints

CARTILAGENOUS JOINTS
— - Lacks a synovial cavity.
— - Allows average amount of movement.
- Bones are tightly connected by
— cartilage.
- Two types of cartilaginous joints
— # Synchondroses (1ry).
— # Symphyses (2ry).
primary cartilagenous Secondary cartilagenous
— - present in peripheral joints — - present in central joints
— - example : epiphyseal plate of cartilage.— - example : intervertebral discs.
— - Allows no movement — - Allows gliding movement.
- temporary joints (ossify after that). - permanent joints.

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 Human anatomy by Dr/ Medhat

SYNOVIAL JOINTS

Characters(Structure)of Synovial Joints

— 1- Fibrous Capsule
A sleeve-like capsule encloses the synovial
— cavity.
2- Synovial membrane: loose CT lining the
fibrous capsule, and also covers all internal
joint surfaces excluding articular cartilage. It
produce and absorb synovial fluid and
— protect the joint cavity.
— 3- Synovial fluid
Pale yellow, viscous fluid secreted by
— synovial membrane. Its functions are:
— —- lubricating the joint cavity. - absorbing shocks.
— - supplying oxygen and nutrients to the articular cartilage and articular discs.
4- Articular cartilage: Hyaline cartilage covers the surface of each bone, it
— contains neither blood vessels nor nerves.
5- Joint cavity: Potential space filled with synovial fluid, to minimize tear
of articular cartilage and allow spread of synovial fluid.
6- Reinforcing ligaments: A ligament joins a bone to another bone across a
synovial joint for strengthen joint, it is usually thickened portions of fibrous
capsule.

— Classification of synovial joints

1. Plane joints: Flat articular

surfaces allow minimal gliding
movement. Example: inter-carpal
— joint.

2. Uni-axial joints: Allow two

— movements around single axis.

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 Human anatomy by Dr/ Medhat

A. Hinge joints: movement(flexion and extension) around —

— transverse axis as in elbow joint.

B. Pivot joints: —
movement(rotation) around longitudinal axis as in median Atlanto-axial
— joint.

— 3. Bi-axial joints: Allow 4 movements around two axes.

A. Ellipsoid joint: an oval convexity is introduced into elliptical —

— concavity, example: Radio-carpal joint.

B. Saddle joint: —
concavo-convex opposing surfaces of saddle shape. Example: carpo-
— metacarpal joint of thumb.

— 4. Multi-axial joints: Allow free movement as:

— - Ball & socket joints. Examples: hip & shoulder joints. —

MUSCLES

Types of muscle:

Skeletal Cardiac Smooth

- In the skeleton. - in the heart - in viscera and BV.
- voluntary. - Involuntary. - involuntary.
- striated. - striated. - unstriated.
— - movement. — - pump the blood. — - storage.

Forms =shape of skeletal muscles:

According to the direction of fibers in relation to axis of the muscle; the
— muscle may be:
1- Parallel type: may be.
—a - Strap like: parallel from end to end, as in Sartorius.—
b- Fusiform: narrow to a tendon at both ends, as in biceps.
c- Quadrilateral: as in throhyoid.
2- oblique type: like a feather so they called pennate, they may be:
a- Unipennate: like one half of a feather, as in flexor pollicis longus.
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 Human anatomy by Dr/ Medhat

b- Bipennate: like a complete feather, as in rectus femoris.

— c- Multipennate: many feathers separated by septa, as in deltoid muscle.
d- Circumpennate: fibers converge from the walls of a cylindericl space to a
— buried central tendon, as in tibilalis anterior.
3- Radial type: the fibers converge from a wide origin to a narrow insertion
— this type also called triangular or fan shaped, as in temporalis.

— End of the muscle: may be.

1- Tendon: cord like, inelastic and non vascular structure of white fibrous
— tissue to withstand pressure.
2- Aponeurosis: thin wide sheet of fibrous tissue for muscles of wide
insertion.
Parts of the muscle
@ origin: proximal fixed part of the muscle.
@ insetion: the distal movable part of the muscle.
* ligaments: strong bands of white fibrous tissue
— that connect bony points together.

— Muscular action
When a movement is carried out, a definite combination of muscles is called
— into action;
1- Prime mover: group of muscles that contract to start action, as flexor
— muscles of elbow joint(brachialis muscle).
2- Antagonists: group of muscles that relax during contaction of the prime
— mover as extensor muscles of elbow joint(triceps muscle).
3- Synergistic: muscles that contract to prevent unwanted movements done
— by the prime mover
4- Fixators: group of muscles that contract to fix the proximal joints to
— allow other joints to move freely and efficiently.
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 Human anatomy by Dr/ Medhat

BURSA
Definition: closed fibrous sac lined with synovial membrane and contain
— synovial fluid.
Function
— - diminishes friction between structures.
— - Allow free movement of structure.
Types: ——————————————
1- Subcutaneous:
— 2- subtendinous
— 3- articular.
FASCIA
— It is a fibro-areolar membranous laminae of 2 types:
Superficial fascia Deep fascia
- A fibro- areolar tissue containing - Dense inelastic membrane.
fat. - Present around BV and muscles.
— - Present under the body skin — - it is function is :
— - it is function is : * separate muscles and assist in their
* Facilitate the movement of skin. action.
* Form soft passage for BV and * form retinaculae which keep tendons in
— nerves of the skin. positions as in flexor retinaculum.
* Keep the warmth of the body. * it thickens to form aponeurosis as in
* Some muscles inserted into it. sole of foot and palm of hand
* Gives the body its smooth (protection).
contour. — * it gives attachment to certain muscles.

BLOOD VESSELS
— Blood vessels are of 3 types; arteries, veins and capillaries.

Artery Vein
—- Tubes carry blood from heart to tissues — —- carry blood from tissues to heart.
- they branch and rebranch; called - they accompany arteries in their
arterioles(3mm); end as capillaries(7µ). course so called venae comitants.
- thick wall. - thin wall.

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 Human anatomy by Dr/ Medhat

- elastic. - empty. - collapsed. - full of blood.

- reddish. — - bluish.
- no valves. — - has valves(blood in one direction).
Connections between arteries and veins :
1- capillaries.
— 2- sinusoids: in liver, spleen and BM of wide lumen and thin wall.
3- arterio-venous anastomoses (direct connection): blood pass directly from
— arteries to veins without passing in capillaries, as in;
- dermis of skin - mucous membrane of the nose
— - tip of the tongue.
End arteries;
Arteries of insufficient anastomoses as when obstructed lead to death as in;
— cerebral, coronary, renal, splenic, mesenteric and spinal arteries.
Tortuous arteries;
Arteries that supply highly mobile organs like lips(as in facial artery),
protrudable organs like tongue(as in lingual artery), expansile organs like
— uterus(as in uterine artery).

— Anastomosis:
the communication between neighboring vessels.
Significance of anastomosis: it allow collateral circulation in case of
— obstruction of one vessel.

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
— Is formed of 3 components; lymph, lymphatic vessels and lymph nodes
Lymph: is a clear fluid present in lymphatic vessels, it comes from excess
— fluid from organ or tissue that cannot be dealt with blood capillaries.
Circulation of lymph: Smaller lymphatic vessels arise from lymph capillary
network carry lymph to LN then it passes through LN and collected by
other vessels, these vessels carry lymph to anther LN or to larger
lymphatic vessels, the lymph finally poured into blood through largest
— lymphatic vessels (as thoracic duct).

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Lymph nodes (LN): They are the stations between lymphatic vessels. It
present in groups (3 or 4), these groups named after the place where they lie;
they linked by lymphatic vessels, they may be:
*Primary : the nodes that receive afferents direct from tissues.
*Secondary: the nodes that receive afferents from previous LN.
♥Function of LN:
— - Filters of lymph as bacteria and cancer cells destroyed in it.
— - Factories for lymphocytes production.
Lymphatic vessels: vessels that carry lymph, they are of 2 type, Afferent;
the vessels that carry lymph to LN and Efferent; the vessels that carry
— lymph from LN.
NB: Lymphatic vessels are not present in epithelium, brain, cartilage and
— bone marrow.

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 Human anatomy by Dr/ Medhat

SYSTEMS OF THE BODY

— NERVOUS SYSTEM
Function of Nervous System: is regulation and control of ALL functions of
— the body.
-The nerve cell (neuron): is the structural
— and functional unit of the nervous system.
- It has: 1- body 2- processes (axon
— and dendrites).
— - Dendrites: Transmit information toward cell body.
— - Axon: Transmit information away from cell body.

Classificationof the nervous system

— Anatomical classification
— * Central nervous system (CNS) 1- Brain 2- Spinal cord
* Peripheral nervous system (PNS) 1- Cranial nerves 2- Spinal nerves
NB: components of the brain are:
— 1- cerebrum.
2- cerebellum: located at the back of the brain, it is concerned with
— equilibrium & adjustment of motor activities.
— 3- Brainstem (Medulla oblongata, Pons and midbrain).
Functional classification
— * Somatic (voluntary)
— * Autonomic (involuntary)  Sympathetic & Parasympathetic
What is a nerve?

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 Human anatomy by Dr/ Medhat

- A whitish cord consists of nerve fibers that transmit nerve impulses (=

— information) TO and FROM the central nervous system.
— - Nerves are 1- SPINAL and 2- CRANIAL.
☺ Motor nerves carry nerve impulses (orders) TO muscles (to contract or
— relax) or glands (to secrete)
☺ sensory nerves carry nerve impulses (sensations such as pain and
— temperature) FROM the body (and surroundings) TO CNS.
What are the spinal nerves?
— Nerves that attached to the spinal cord, there are 31 pairs of spinal nerves 
—8 cervical nerves. 12 thoracic nerves. 5 lumbar nerves.
5 sacral nerves. 1 coccygeal nerve.
Structure of spinal nerve? (typical spinal nerve)
— 1- Each spinal nerve is attached to the spinal cord by 2 roots:
a- Anterior (ventral) root: motor. b- Posterior (dorsal) root: sensory,
— has a ganglion on it (= dorsal root ganglion).
— 2- The 2 roots unite to form the nerve trunk. contains mixed fibers.
— 3- the trunk divides into 2 primary rami:
a- Anterior primary ramus: supplies the skin and muscles of the anterior
— wall of the trunk + LIMBS.
— b- Posterior primary ramus: supplies the skin and muscles of the back.

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What is the cranial nerve?

— They are attached to the brain, there are 12 pairs of cranial nerves.
* Cranial nerves are:
I- Olfactory V- Trigeminal IX-Glossopharyngeal
II – optic VI- Abducent X- Vagus
III- Occulomotor VII - facial XI-Accessory
IV- Trochlear VIII- Vestibulocochlear XII- Hypoglossal

Meninges: the 3 coverings that surround the brain and spinal cord for
protection, they are:
— 1- Pia mater(inner covering): Firmly attached to brain and spinal cord.
— 2- Dura mater(outer covering): Attached to brain and spinal cord
— 3- Arachnoid mater (middle covering): in between pia and dura.
Autonomic nervous system
Regulation the functions of involuntary organs:
— 1- heart, 2- glands, and 3- smooth muscles.
— Classification: Sympathetic + Parasympathetic
Sympathetic
— - Supplies viscera & body wall. (ALL body)
— - Arise from spinal cord (thoraco-lumbar outflow)
- 2 sympathetic chains of ganglia are part of sympathetic division and lie on
— each side of vertebral column.
— Parasympathetic: Supplies viscera only.
— **Arise from brain stem and spinal cord (cranio-sacral outflow)
— **made up of preganglionic and postganglionic neurons
Function: metabolic functions during resting and relaxation i.e. secure
— situations.

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RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Its components are:
A-conducting part:
1- nose
2- pharynx
3- trachea
4- bronchi and bronchioles
B- respiratory part: respiratory
bronchioles, alveolar ductules and
alveoli.

1- The nose
- The nose is divided by nasal septum into 2 nasal cavities (right and left).
Each nasal cavity has:
1- an anterior opening, and
2- a posterior opening  open into nasopharynx.
Structures that open into the nasal cavity: 1- paranasal sinuses, 2- naso-
— lacrimal duct. open in the meatuses of nose
2- The pharynx: See GIT
3- Larynx (voice box)
— Its wall is made of a framework of cartilages, ligaments and muscles:
1- several cartilages  (functionkeep larynx always patent for
RESPIRATION). These cartilages are thyroid, cricoid, arytenoids and
— epiglottis.
2- ligaments that bound cartilages together.
3- muscles that move the cartilages.

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4- The trachea
- It is about 10 cm long and 2 cm wide (in adults).
— - Always patent (= opened) by C-shaped cartilages in its wall.
- Lies in the midline (in lower neck and upper thorax) in front of esophagus.
- Divides into 2 right and left main bronchi.
5- The main bronchi
Right Left
Wider, Longer and Narrower, Shorter.
More vertical More horizontal.
Divide before enters right lung. Divide before enters left lung.

6- The lungs
There are 2 lungs; right and left, each lung is
surrounded by a pleural sac.
Shape of lung: each lung is a half cone,
with:
— - Apex: above.
-A base: (= inferior surface),concave and
— related to diaphragm.
— -3 borders: (anterior, posterior, and inferior).
- 2 surfaces: lateral surface and the medial (mediastinal) surface contains
the hilum (root) of the lung
— hilum (root) of the lung (where structures enter and exit of lung),
1- pulmonary artery, 2- main bronchus, 3- two pulmonary veins,
— 4- nerves, 5- lymphatics. 6- bronchial vessels.
Function of the lung?
— 1- Respiratory (exchange of gases between air and blood).
— 2- Excretory: get rid of metabolic wastes (carbon dioxide) .
Right lung Left lung
Large Small

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Short(liver below it) Long

3 lobes by 2 fissures 2 lobes by 1 fissure
No cardiac notch Cardiac notch is present.
— 10 Bronchopulmonary Segments 8 Bronchopulmonary Segments
Pleura: is a closed serous sac. There are 2 pleurae; each pleura surrounds a
— lung. It is formed of 2 layers parietal and visceral layers.
—

CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
The Heart
- Lies inside the chest (thorax).
- It is a hollow muscular organ, covered by pericardium.
— - Formed of 4 chambers: Right atrium. Left atrium.
- Conical in shape, — Right ventricle. Left ventricles.
— having:
Apex — -Formed by left ventricle.
-It is leftmost, lowermost,
anteriormost part of heart.
— Base — - Formed by left atrium mainly.
3 surfaces *- Anterior (sterno- - Behind sternum and attached
— costal) — ribs.
- Formed by right atrium + right
ventricle + left ventricle+
beginning of pulmonary trunk
— and aorta.
- The atrio-ventricular (coronary)
groove separates the right atrium
from the right ventricle.
*- Inferior — - Lies on the diaphragm.
(diaphragmatic) - Formed by the 2 ventricles (left
ventricle + right ventricle )+ part
— of right atrium receiving IVC
*- Posterior = base
4 borders  Right border.  Formed by right atrium.
 Left border.  — Formed by left ventricle mainly.
 Lower border.  Formed by right atrium mainly, +
— apex of heart.
 Upper border.  Upper border of left atrium
— mainly..
Right atrium:
— - Receives VENOUS blood from all the body (including the heart).
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- Ejects blood into right ventricle (through tricuspid valve).

- Veins that drain into the right atrium: 1- inferior vena cava (IVC) : from
upper part of the body, 2- superior vena cava (SVC): from lower part of the
— body, 3- coronary sinus: from the heart itself.
- Separated from left atrium by interatrial septum.
Right ventricle:
- Receives blood from right atrium (via tricuspid valve).
- Ejects blood into pulmonary trunk (through pulmonary valve) - the blood
— goes to LUNGS (for OXYGENATION).
— - It contains 3 papillary muscles.
- Separated from left ventricle by interventricular septum.
Left atrium
- Receives OXYGENATED blood from lungs (via 4 pulmonary veins).
- Ejects blood to left ventricle (through bicuaspid or mitral valve).
— - forms the base of the heart.
Left ventricles
- Receives blood from left atrium (via bicuspid or mitral valve).
— - Ejects blood into aorta (through aortic valve)→ to body structures .
- It contains 2 papillary muscles.
NB: papillary muscles: finger-like projections that arise from wall of ventricle
, projects into the cavity , sends fibrous cords that are attached to cusps
of atrio-ventricular (tricuspid or mitral) valves. Function: prevent
reopening of valves during ventricular contraction.

Right ventricle Left ventricle

- Receives blood from right - Receives blood from left
atrium (via tricuspid valve). atrium (via mitral valve).
- Ejects blood into pulmonary - Ejects blood into aorta
trunk (through pulmonary (through aortic valve)→
valve) to LUNGS(for to all structures of body.
OXYGENATION).
papillary - It contains 3 papillary -It contains 2 papillary
muscles: muscles. — muscles.
Interventricular septum separates the 2 ventricles.
Artery arising Pulmonary trunk Aorta
from it
Shape in Crescentic Circular
Cross-section
Wall thickness Thick 3 times thicker than right
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ventricle.
NB:
Valves of the heart:
— 1- tricuspid valve. Between right atrium and right ventricle.
— 2- bicuspid or mitral Between left atrium and left ventricle.
— 3- Pulmonary valve. Between right ventricle and pulmonary trunk.
— 4- Aortic valve. Between left ventricle and aorta.
- The right and left coronary arteries supply the heart. They arise from the
ascending AORTA.

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DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Components of the digestive system:
The digestive system
--------------↓↓-------------- ----------↓↓----------
A – The alimentary canal B- the digestive glands:
1- mouth. 1- salivary glands
2- pharynx. 2- liver
3- esophagus 3- pancreas
4- stomach
5- small intestine a- duodenum.
b- jejunum.
c- ileum.
6- large intestine a- cecum.
b- vermiform appendix.
c- ascending colon.
d- right colic flexure.
e- transverse colon.
f- left colic flexure.
g- descending colon.
h- sigmoid colon.
i- rectum.
j- anal canal

The mouth: The mouth contains the

tongue and it is lined by mucous membrane
rich in blood vessels, nerves and mucous
glands. The mouth is kept moist by
secretion of salvia.

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— The palate: it is the roof of the mouth. It is formed of two parts :

— -Hard palate: the anterior part, it is bony separates mouth from nose-
— -Soft palate: the posterior p. it is muscular with uvula hanging down.
The Tongue: a muscular organ, covered with mucous membrane. It is present
in the floor of mouth, it is important for: mastication, sucking , speech and
taste sensation.
The pharynx
A wide funnel–shaped muscular tube, 12-14 cm long. It descends from the
base of the skull to esophagus, in front of cervical vertebrae.
Parts of pharynx: are three
- Nasopharynx: behind nose, receives 2 openings of Eustachian tubes.
- Oropharynx: behind the mouth, and is separated from nasopharynx by
the soft palate. It is a common passage for air and food.
- Hypopharynx: behind the larynx, continuous with esophagus below.
NB: The auditory (Eustachian) tube connects the nasophaynx to middle ear cavity.
The esophagus
Function: transmission of food and drinks from pharynx to stomach. It is
closed except during swallowing.
- A narrow muscular tube, 25 cm long, descends in the middle line.
- It begins in the neck as the continuation of the pharynx.
- It ends by joining the stomach.
- The esophagus is divided into 3 parts:
a- Cervical part: in front of vertebral column, and behind the trachea.
b- Thoracic part: descends in the mediastinum between the two lungs
c- Abdominal part: passes through diaphragm to join the stomach.
The stomach
Position: in the upper part of abdomen, mainly on
— the left side.

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Parts of the stomach: 3 parts:

1- Fundus * Above the level of cardiac orifice.
* Lies under the heart, separated by diaphragm.
* Usually filled with gases
2- Body the large main part of the stomach
3- Pylorus. the canal the ends by the pyloric sphincter
Shape: is variable, it may be like the letter J .
Size: variable, according to its food content.
— The stomach has:
2 ends Cardiac end: join Pyloric end: join duodenum
esophagus
2 borders Lesser curvature: Greater curvature: convex.
concave.
2 surfaces Anterior: Posterior:

Related to: liver, * Related to: (stomach bed):=

diaphragm, ribs and diaphragm , spleen, pancreas,
abdominal wall. transverse colon and left kidney

Function of the stomach: Reservoir of food  for digestion (gastric

juice’ enzymes) and proper mixing. Protective: gastric HCl.
The Small Intestine
A muscular tube, 6 meters long, for digestion and absorption of food.
It is divided into three parts:
( a) The duodenum:
- Is the firsts part of small intestine. 25 cm long. and is C-shaped, around
the head of pancreas.

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- It consists of four parts: 1st is two inches, 2nd is 3 inches, 3rd is 4 inches
and 4th is one inch.
 The bile duct and the pancreatic duct open together into the 2 nd part of
the duodenum.
( b) The jejunum: The second part of small intestine. It forms the upper
2/5 of small intestine.
( c) The ileum: Forms the lower 3/5 of small intestine . it joins the cecum
at ileo-cecal valve, which lies in the right iliac fossa.
The Large intestine:
The tube is about 180 cm long. It forms a
frame around the small intestines. It is
divided into 10 parts:
1- cecum: blind-ended most dilated part in
right iliac fossa. It joins the ileum.
2- vermiform appendix: a narrow empty part , descends from the coeoum
3- Ascending colon: a fixed part , ascends in front of right kidney
4- Right colic flexure: lies below the liver .
5- Transverse colon: a movable part, extends horizontally below stomach.
6- left colic flexure: lies below the spleen, on the left side .
7- Descending colon: a fixed part, descends in front of left kidney
8- Pelvic (or sigmoid) colon: present in the pelvis, it is S- shaped .
9- Rectum: a dilated part, present in pelvis in front of sacrum .
10- Anal canal: it is the terminal part, ends by the anus by which is an
opening surrounded by the anal sphincter.
Difference between small and large intestine:
Small intestine Large intestine
Diameter small Large
Length: 6 meters 180 cm
The wall smooth Sacculated
longitudinal muscle Continuous form 3 long bands

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Fat pouches Absent Present

Parts Three Ten

The DIGESTIVE GLANDS

Salivary glands:
There are 3 pairs of exocrine glands.
Function: secretion of saliva, to keep the mouth clean, moist and help in
digestion, swallowing and speech.
( a) parotid gland: lies blow the ear.
( b) submandibular gland: lies below the angle of the mandible.
( C ) Sublingual gland: lies in the floor of mouth, under the tongue.
The liver
The largest gland in the body.
Position: occupies the upper right part of
the abdominal cavity. It lies below
diaphragm under shelter of the ribs.
- It has 2 surfaces: a- diaphragmatic
(under diaphragm), b- visceral (postero-
inferior) surface: in contact with:
stomach duodenum, colon and right
kidney.
- Lobes of liver: i- two main: large right and small left lobes. ii- two
accessory: quadrate lobe & caudate lobe: are parts of right lobe .
- Hilum of liver: called porta hepatis, it is the place where hepatic artery,
portal vein and bile duct enter
the inferior surface of liver.
The gall bladder:
- A pear-shaped sac, present
under the liver. It has 3 parts:

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fundus, body and neck connected to cystic duct.

- Function: Bile is stored and concentrated in gall bladder.
- the biliary system: small bile ducts between hepatic lobules unite to give
right and left hepatic ducts, which come from right and left lobes of liver.
At porta hepatis, they fuse together forming the common hepatic duct,
which joins the cystic duct (of gall bladder ) to give common bile duct.
The latter opens into 2nd part of duodenum.
The pancreas
- A soft elongated organ, fixed on the posterior abdominal wall, behind the
stomach.
- Length: 20 cm long. It extends horizontally from duodenum to the spleen
- Parts: 4  (head, neck, body, tail):
- Head: is surrounded by the duodenum .
- Neck: lies behind the pylorus of the stomach
- Body: the main part, it has 3 surfaces: anterior, posterior and inferior.
- Tail: small part, reach the hilum of the spleen .
- Histology: The pancreas is divided into 1- lobules, formed of pancreatic
cells in groups called acini that has
very small ducts. 2- Islets of
Langerhans, its cells for insulin
hormone and others.
- Pancreatic duct open into the 2nd
part of duodenum.
- Function: a mixed gland:
1- It secretes insulin hormone to
blood and
2- secrets pancreatic juice to
duodenum.

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URINARY SYSTEM
Components:
1- 2 kidneys (right and left) 2- 2 ureters (right and left)
3- Urinary bladder 4- urethra
kidneys (right and left)
-Position: in the upper part of posterior abdominal wall behind the
peritoneum (retropreritoneal organ), opposite T12 to L3 vertebrae
-Shape and size: bean-shaped organ, measures 12 × 6—×—3 cm. Has:
- 2 ends (poles): - 2 borders: - 2 surfaces:
— #upper end: broad. #lateral border: convex. # anterior surface:
#lower end: rounded, #medial border: irregular.
located 5 cm from the concave and show # Posterior surface:
— iliac crests. — hilum. flat.

Anteriot relations of both kidneys:

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Of the RT kidney Of the LT kidney

1- Right suprarenal gland.
2- Right lobe of liver
3- 2nd part of the duodenum
4- Right colic flexure
5- Loops of jejunum
1- Left suprarenal gland:
2- spleen.
3- pancreas. 4-stomach.
5- Lt colic flexure.
6-loops of jejunum

Posterior relations of kidney(the same in both kidneys):

1- Superiorly the diaphragm.
2- inferiorly, - Psoas major - quadrates lumborum - transverses
abdominis.
-Coverings of the kidney: fibrous capsule, perirenal fascia and pararenal
fat.
-Blood supply: 1- renal artery (from abdominal aorta), 2- renal vein
(drain into inferior vena cava).
-The hilum of the kidney is present on the medial border and transmits the
renal artery, renal vein and ureter.
-In coronal section of the kidney: it consists of 1- CORTEX: outer part,
reddish, 2- MEDULLA: inner paler part, 3- cavities of minor and major
calyces that continue into the ureter.
-The nephron: is the structural and
functional UNIT of the kidney.
— Each kidney has ~ million nephrons.
Ureters
-muscular tube, 25 cm long
-transmits urine from kidney to
urinary bladder.
-Descends on the posterior abdominal wall and continue in the pelvis to
reach the urinary bladder. It pierce the posterior aspect of the bladder and
run obliquely before terminating at the ureteric orifices .This arrangement
— is believed to assist in prevention of reflux of urine into the ureter
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Urinary bladder
-hollow muscular organ
-a reservoir of urine and contracts to excrete it.
-Position: lies anteriorly in pelvis behind symphysis pubis (when become
distended with urine it extends into the lower abdomen).
-Openings: 3  2 ureteric openings and 1 urethral opening.
Relations (in male): in front of rectum, above prostate gland.
Relations (in female): in front of vagina, uterus and rectum.
urethra
- Conducts urine from bladder to outside.
- Surrounded by 2 sphincters (internal and external) to control the act of
micturition.
- In female: it is ~ 4 cm long and opens in vulva.
- In male: it is ~16 cm long, passes inside penis, and transmits also
semen.

MALE GENITAL SYSTEM

Male genital system consists of:

1- Gonads or primary sex organ: testes.

2- Male genital ducts: transport and stores

sperm, assists in their maturation, and
conveys them to the exterior, include;
epididymis, ductus deferens, spermatic
cord, ejaculatory ducts and urethra

3- Accessory sex glands: adds secretions to semen, include; seminal

vesicles, prostate, and bulbourethral glands

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4- Supporting structures: Scrotum supports testes and penis delivers

— sperm into female reproductive tract.

Testis:
The primary reproductive organs in the male. It is a mixed gland
responsible for sperm production and testosterone production.
Site: in the scrotum, each testis lies in one scrotal compartment
suspended by spermatic cord.
- Shape: Ovoid in shape, has 2 poles(upper &lower), 2 surfaces(medial
&lateral) and 2 borders ( ant. &post).
- posterior aspect: straight and related to epididymis(laterally) and vas
deferens (medially).
- Anterior, medial and lateral surfaces are convex, smooth and covered by
tunica vaginalis.
- both poles are convex, upper pole has the spermatic cord attached to it.

EPIDIDYMIS
Site: comma shaped, 6 meter in length, attached to posteolateral aspect of
— testis.
Parts:
1- head: expanded upper end,
located on the superior surface
of the testis and receives sperm
from the efferent ductules.
2- body: of the epididymis lies
posterolateral to the testis and is
separated from the testis by the
sinus of the epididymis;
3- tail: located inferiorly and is continuous with the ductus deferens.

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FEMALE GENITAL SYSTEM

Female reproductive system is consists of :

1- Female internal reproductive organs: ovaries, uterus, fallopian

tubes, and vagina
2- Female external reproductive organs: vulva.
3- Accessory glands of female: bartholin's gland, skene's gland and
mammary glands.
Ovary
The primary reproductive organs in the female. It is a mixed gland
responsible for ova production and estrogen & progesterone production.
Size: 3×2×1 cm.
Shape &General features:
the ovary is almond shape so has 2 ends(upper and lower), 2
surfaces(medial and lateral) and 2 borders(anterior and posterior).
Site: in the side of the lesser pelvis in the ovarian fossa, which has the
following boundaries:
- In front and above: external iliac vessels.
- Behind: ureter and internal iliac vessels.

The uterus
The uterus is a hollow muscular organ.

The wall of uterus consists of 3 layers :

1- Epimetrium: outer serosal covering, very thin.

2- Myometrium: middle muscular part, thick.

3- Endometrium: inner mucosal lining layer, thin.

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The uterus is divided into 3 parts :

1- Fundus. 2- Body. 3- Cervix.

The uterine cavity is lined with endometrium (uterine mucosa).

The endometrium (uterine mucosa): is the Functional layer of

endometrium:  [- It consists of both the Compact (or superficial) and
Spongy (or intermediate) layers. - It is shed during menstruation and
delivery].

Fallopian (uterine) tube

* A tube opened at both ends:
a- at one end  it opens into cavity of the uterus.
b- at the other end  it opens into peritoneal cavity (very close and attached
to OVARY).
* Function:
1- Transport of released OVUM from ovary to uterus.
2- A site for fertilization of ova.

* Parts: The tube has 4 parts: 1- Infundibulum (ovarian end), 2- Ampulla

(widest part), 3- isthmus (narrow), and 4- intramural part; the narrowest
part, inside wall of uterus).

- Ampulla is the widest part (where fertilization occurs).

- Its ovarian end is a- funnel shaped, b- with fimbria project from its edge.
The fimbria  surround the ovary &  direct the released ova into uterine
tube.

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The endocrine system

The pituitary gland (hypophysis cerebri)

Site: present in the pituitary fossa (under the brain and attached to it).

Formed of 2 lobes: anterior and posterior.

- Anterior lobe (adenohypophysis): secretes many hormones (such as

growth hormone, thyroid stimulating hormone, adrenal cortex stimulating
hormone, follicle stimulating hormone, ….others).

- Posterior lobe (neurohypophysi): formed of axons of hypothalamic

nerve cells, secretes 1- antidiuretic hormone = vasopressin (act on the
kidney  more water re-absorption) and 2- oxytocin (acts on uterus and
mammary gland).

The thyroid gland

Formed of 2 lobes connected by an isthmus. The lobes lie on each side of
trachea and larynx. The isthmus lies in front of the trachea.

Site: in lower part of neck.

Each lobe is a pear-shaped with an upper and a lower poles and 3

surfaces, medial (related to trachea and larynx), lateral, and posterior.

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Function: secretes thyroid hormones ( stimulate metabolism).

The parathyroid gland

Are 4 small glands.

Site: on the back of the thyroid gland (2 superior and 2 inferior).

Function: secrete parathyroid hormone (it regulates calcium level in

blood by acting on bone, kidney and small intestine).

The suprarenal (adrenal) gland

Two (right and left) glands, lie on the upper pole of the kidneys.

Each gland consists of :

1- Cortex: outer part, secretes: (a- cortisone, b- aldosterone, c- sex

hormones.

2- Medulla: inner part, secretes noradrenaline and adrenaline

hormones.

The thymus
A lymphoid organ.

Present in the thoracic cavity behind sternum, and in front of the great
vessels and heart.

Function: essential for development of T-lymphocytes.

SKIN
The largest organ in the body, forms 8% of the total body mass. Its
surface area varies with height and weight.

FUNCTIONS OF SKIN
1- protective: against microbial invasion, and UV radiation damage.
2- secretory: formation of sweat
3- Control of body temperature: through the rapid increase or reduction in
the flow of blood to external surface area and by sweating.
4- It is a major sense organ, richly supplied by nerve terminals and
specialized receptors for touch, temperature, pain and other stimuli.

STRUCTURE OF SKIN

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A- EPIDERMIS
The epidermis is a compound tissue consisting mainly of a continuously
self-renewing, keratinized, stratified squamous epithelium, its cells are
keratinocytes and Nonkeratinocytes as melanocytes, Langerhans cells,
lymphocytes and Merkel cells.

B- DERMIS
- It composed of collagenous and elastic network in a ground substance of
glycoproteins.
- contain nerves, blood vessels, lymphatics of epidermis.
- The dermis can be divided into two zones; papillary layer and reticular
layer.

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