POWER SUPPLY

The input to the circuit is applied from the regulated power supply. The a.c. input i.e.,
230V from the mains supply is step down by the transformer to 12V and is fed to a rectifier. The
output obtained from the rectifier is a pulsating d.c voltage. So in order to get a pure d.c voltage,
the output voltage from the rectifier is fed to a filter to remove any a.c components present even
after rectification. Now, this voltage is given to a voltage regulator to obtain a pure constant dc
voltage.
 230V AC D.C
Output
50Hz

Step down Bridge

transformer Rectifier
Filter Regulator

Fig: 2.3 Block diagram of power supply

2.1.1 TRANSFORMER

Fig 2.4 Transformer

A transformer consists of two coils also called as “WINDINGS” namely PRIMARY &
SECONDARY.
They are linked together through inductively coupled electrical conductors also called as
CORE. A changing current in the primary causes a change in the Magnetic Field in the core &
this in turn induces an alternating voltage in the secondary coil. If load is applied to the
secondary then an alternating current will flow through the load. If we consider an ideal
condition then all the energy from the primary circuit will be transferred to the secondary circuit
through the magnetic field.

So

2.1.2 Rectifier
A rectifier is a device that converts an AC signal into DC signal. For rectification purpose
we use a diode, a diode is a device that allows current to pass only in one direction i.e. when the
anode of the diode is positive with respect to the cathode also called as forward biased condition
& blocks current in the reversed biased condition.

Rectifier can be classified as follows:

1) Half Wave rectifier

Fig.2.5 Half Wave Rectifier

This is the simplest type of rectifier as you can see in the diagram a half wave rectifier
consists of only one diode. When an AC signal is applied to it during the positive half cycle the
diode is forward biased & current flows through it. But during the negative half cycle diode is
reverse biased & no current flows through it. Since only one half of the input reaches the output,
it is very inefficient to be used in power supplies.
2) Full wave rectifier

Fig.2.6 Full Wave Rectifier

Half wave rectifier is quite simple but it is very inefficient, for greater efficiency we
would like to use both the half cycles of the AC signal. This can be achieved by using a center
tapped transformer i.e. we would have to double the size of secondary winding & provide
connection to the center. So during the positive half cycle diode D1 conducts & D2 is in reverse
biased condition. During the negative half cycle diode D2 conducts & D1 is reverse biased. Thus
we get both the half cycles across the load.
One of the disadvantages of Full Wave Rectifier design is the necessity of using a center
tapped transformer, thus increasing the size & cost of the circuit. This can be avoided by using
the Full Wave Bridge Rectifier.

2.1.3 FILTER CAPACITOR

Even though half wave & full wave rectifier give DC output, none of them provides a
constant output voltage. For this we require to smoothen the waveform received from the
rectifier. This can be done by using a capacitor at the output of the rectifier this capacitor is also
called as “FILTER CAPACITOR” or “SMOOTHING CAPACITOR” or “RESERVOIR
CAPACITOR”. Even after using this capacitor a small amount of ripple will remain.
 We place the Filter Capacitor at the output of the rectifier the capacitor will charge to the
peak voltage during each half cycle then will discharge its stored energy slowly through the load
while the rectified voltage drops to zero, thus trying to keep the voltage as constant as possible.

Fig 2.7 Waveforms of Filter Capacitor

If we go on increasing the value of the filter capacitor then the Ripple will decrease. But
then the costing will increase. The value of the Filter capacitor depends on the current consumed
by the circuit, the frequency of the waveform & the accepted ripple.

Where,
Vr= accepted ripple voltage.( should not be more than 10% of the voltage)
I= current consumed by the circuit in Amperes.
F= frequency of the waveform. A half wave rectifier has only one peak in one cycle so
F=25hz
Whereas a full wave rectifier has Two peaks in one cycle so F=100 Hz.
2.1.4 VOLTAGE REGULATOR
A Voltage regulator is a device which converts varying input voltage into a constant
regulated output voltage. Voltage regulator can be of two types
1) Linear Voltage Regulator
Also called as Resistive Voltage regulator because they dissipate the excessive voltage
resistively as heat.
2) Switching Regulators.
They regulate the output voltage by switching the Current ON/OFF very rapidly. Since
their output is either ON or OFF it dissipates very low power thus achieving higher efficiency as
compared to linear voltage regulators. But they are more complex & generate high noise due to
their switching action. For low level of output power switching regulators tend to be costly but
for higher output wattage they are much cheaper than linear regulators.
The most commonly available Linear Positive Voltage Regulators are the 78XX series where the
XX indicates the output voltage. And 79XX series is for Negative Voltage Regulators.

Fig.2.8 pin diagram of voltage regulator

After filtering the rectifier output the signal is given to a voltage regulator. The maximum
input voltage that can be applied at the input is 35V.Normally there is a 2-3 Volts drop across the
regulator so the input voltage should be at least 2-3 Volts higher than the output voltage. If the
input voltage gets below the Vmin of the regulator due to the ripple voltage or due to any other
reason the voltage regulator will not be able to produce the correct regulated voltage.

 IC 7805
7805 is an integrated three-terminal positive fixed linear voltage regulator. It supports an
input voltage of 10 volts to 35 volts and output voltage of 5 volts. It has a current rating of 1 amp
although lower current models are available. Its output voltage is fixed at 5.0V. The 7805 also
has a built-in current limiter as a safety feature. 7805 is manufactured by many companies,
including National Semiconductors and Fairchild Semiconductors.
 The 7805 will automatically reduce output current if it gets too hot. The last two digits
represent the voltage; for instance, the 7812 is a 12-volt regulator. The 78xx series of regulators
is designed to work in complement with the 79xx series of negative voltage regulators in systems
that provide both positive and negative regulated voltages, since the 78xx series can't regulate
negative voltages in such a system.

The 7805 & 78 is one of the most common and well-known of the 78xx series regulators,
as it's small component count and medium-power regulated 5V make it useful for powering TTL
devices.

SPECIFICATIONS IC 7805

Vout 5V

Vein - Vout Difference 5V - 20V

Operation Ambient Temp 0 - 125°C

Output Imax 1A

Table. 2.1. Specifications of IC7805

Fig 2.9 Pin diagram of 7805

  IC7812

Here is a 7812 voltage regulator circuit, but this is not a power supply with a 12V output
voltage and load current 1A. IC LM7812 only serves as the input voltage of an LM723 regulator
IC. So these power supply circuits with a larger load current capability with a variable voltage at
the maximum voltage of 6V.
Output voltage range of the 7812 voltage regulator circuit is 2.5V-6V with 6A-8A load
current. Increasing load current through the transistor BD139 and TIP142 are sourced from the
DC voltage of a transformer 10A.

Fig 2.10 7812 Pin Connection

Arduino UNO
The Arduino UNO is a standard board of Arduino. Here UNO means 'one' in Italian. It was
named as UNO to label the first release of Arduino Software. It was also the first USB board
released by Arduino. It is considered as the powerful board used in various projects. Arduino.cc
developed the Arduino UNO board.

Arduino UNO is based on an ATmega328P microcontroller. It is easy to use compared to other

boards, such as the Arduino Mega board, etc. The board consists of digital and analog
Input/Output pins (I/O), shields, and other circuits.

The Arduino UNO includes 6 analog pin inputs, 14 digital pins, a USB connector, a power jack,
and an ICSP (In-Circuit Serial Programming) header. It is programmed based on IDE, which
stands for Integrated Development Environment. It can run on both online and offline platforms.

The components of Arduino UNO board are shown below:

Let's discuss each component in detail.

o ATmega328 Microcontroller- It is a single chip Microcontroller of the ATmel family.

The processor code inside it is of 8-bit. It combines Memory (SRAM, EEPROM, and
Flash), Analog to Digital Converter, SPI serial ports, I/O lines, registers, timer,
external and internal interrupts, and oscillator.
o ICSP pin - The In-Circuit Serial Programming pin allows the user to program using the
firmware of the Arduino board.
o Power LED Indicator- The ON status of LED shows the power is activated. When the
power is OFF, the LED will not light up.
o Digital I/O pins- The digital pins have the value HIGH or LOW. The pins numbered
from D0 to D13 are digital pins.
o TX and RX LED's- The successful flow of data is represented by the lighting of these
LED's.
 o AREF- The Analog Reference (AREF) pin is used to feed a reference voltage to the
Arduino UNO board from the external power supply.
o Reset button- It is used to add a Reset button to the connection.
o USB- It allows the board to connect to the computer. It is essential for the programming
of the Arduino UNO board.
o Crystal Oscillator- The Crystal oscillator has a frequency of 16MHz, which makes the
Arduino UNO a powerful board.
o Voltage Regulator- The voltage regulator converts the input voltage to 5V.
o GND- Ground pins. The ground pin acts as a pin with zero voltage.
o Vin- It is the input voltage.
o Analog Pins- The pins numbered from A0 to A5 are analog pins. The function of Analog
pins is to read the analog sensor used in the connection. It can also act as GPIO (General
Purpose Input Output) pins.

ARDUINO UNO

The Arduino Uno R3 is a microcontroller board based on the ATmega328 (datasheet). It has 14
digital input/output pins (of which 6 can be used as PWM outputs), 6 analog inputs, a
16 MHz crystal oscillator, a USB connection, a power jack, an ICSP header, and a reset button. It
contains everything needed to support the microcontroller; simply connect it to a computer with
a USB cable or power it with a AC-to-DC adapter or battery to get started.
The Uno differs from all preceding boards in that it does not use the FTDI USB-to-serial driver
chip. Instead, it features the Atmega16U2 (Atmega8U2 up to version R2) programmed as a
USB-to-serial converter.

Revision 2 of the Uno board has a resistor pulling the 8U2 HWB line to ground, making it easier
to put into DFU mode.

Revision 3 of the board has the following new features:

 1.0 pinout: added SDA and SCL pins that are near to the AREF pin and two other new
pins placed near to the RESET pin, the IOREF that allow the shields to adapt to the
voltage provided from the board. In future, shields will be compatible both with the board
that use the AVR, which operate with 5V and with the Arduino Due that operate with
3.3V. The second one is a not connected pin, that is reserved for future purposes.
 Stronger RESET circuit.
 Atmega 16U2 replace the 8U2.

"Uno" means one in Italian and is named to mark the upcoming release of Arduino 1.0. The Uno
and version 1.0 will be the reference versions of Arduino, moving forward. The Uno is the latest
in a series of USB Arduino boards, and the reference model for the Arduino platform; for a
comparison with previous versions, see the index of Arduino boards.

Summary

Microcontroller ATmega328

Operating Voltage 5V

InputVoltage (recommended)7-12V

Input Voltage (limits) 6-20V

Digital I/O Pins 14 (of which 6 provide PWM output)

Analog Input Pins 6

DC Current per I/O Pin 40 mA

DC Current for 3.3V Pin 50 mA

Flash Memory 32 KB (ATmega328) of which 0.5 KB used by bootloader

SRAM 2 KB (ATmega328)

EEPROM 1 KB (ATmega328)

Clock Speed 16 MHz

Note: The Arduino reference design can use an Atmega8, 168, or 328, Current models use
an ATmega328, but an Atmega8 is shown in the schematic for reference. The pin configuration
is identical on all three processors.

Power

The Arduino Uno can be powered via the USB connection or with an external power supply. The
power source is selected automatically.

External (non-USB) power can come either from an AC-to-DC adapter (wall-wart) or battery.
The adapter can be connected by plugging a 2.1mm center-positive plug into the board's power
jack. Leads from a battery can be inserted in the Gnd and Vin pin headers of the POWER
connector.

The board can operate on an external supply of 6 to 20 volts. If supplied with less than 7V,
however, the 5V pin may supply less than five volts and the board may be unstable. If using
more than 12V, the voltage regulator may overheat and damage the board. The recommended
range is 7 to 12 volts.

The power pins are as follows:

 VIN. The input voltage to the Arduino board when it's using an external power source (as
opposed to 5 volts from the USB connection or other regulated power source). You can
supply voltage through this pin, or, if supplying voltage via the power jack, access it
through this pin.
  5V. The regulated power supply used to power the microcontroller and other components
on the board. This can come either from VIN via an on-board regulator, or be supplied by
USB or another regulated 5V supply.
 3V3. A 3.3 volt supply generated by the on-board regulator. Maximum current draw is 50
mA.
 GND. Ground pins.

Memory

The ATmega328 has 32 KB (with 0.5 KB used for the boot loader). It also has 2 KB of SRAM
and 1 KB of EEPROM (which can be read and written with the EEPROM library).

Input and Output

Each of the 14 digital pins on the Uno can be used as an input or output, using pin Mode
(), digital Write(), and digital Read()functions. They operate at 5 volts. Each pin can provide or
receive a maximum of 40 mA and has an internal pull-up resistor (disconnected by default) of
20-50 k Ohms. In addition, some pins have specialized functions:

 Serial: 0 (RX) and 1 (TX). Used to receive (RX) and transmit (TX) TTL serial data.
These pins are connected to the corresponding pins of the ATmega8U2 USB-to-TTL
Serial chip.
 External Interrupts: 2 and 3. These pins can be configured to trigger an interrupt on a
low value, a rising or falling edge, or a change in value. See the attach
Interrupt() function for details.
 PWM: 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, and 11. Provide 8-bit PWM output with the analog
Write() function.
 SPI: 10 (SS), 11 (MOSI), 12 (MISO), 13 (SCK). These pins support SPI
communication using the SPI library.
 LED: 13. There is a built-in LED connected to digital pin 13. When the pin is HIGH
value, the LED is on, when the pin is LOW, it's off.

The Uno has 6 analog inputs, labeled A0 through A5, each of which provide 10 bits of resolution
(i.e. 1024 different values). By default they measure from ground to 5 volts, though is it possible
to change the upper end of their range using the AREF pin and the analog Reference() function.
Additionally, some pins have specialized functionality:

 TWI: A4 or SDA pin and A5 or SCL pin. Support TWI communication using the Wire
library.

There are a couple of other pins on the board:

 AREF. Reference voltage for the analog inputs. Used with analog Reference().
 Reset. Bring this line LOW to reset the microcontroller. Typically used to add a reset
button to shields which block the one on the board.

See also the mapping between Arduino pins and ATmega328 ports. The mapping for the
Atmega8, 168, and 328 is identical.

Communication

The Arduino Uno has a number of facilities for communicating with a computer, another
Arduino, or other microcontrollers. The ATmega328 provides UART TTL (5V) serial
communication, which is available on digital pins 0 (RX) and 1 (TX). An ATmega16U2 on the
board channels this serial communication over USB and appears as a virtual com port to
software on the computer. The '16U2 firmware uses the standard USB COM drivers, and no
external driver is needed. However, on Windows, a .inf file is required. The Arduino software
includes a serial monitor which allows simple textual data to be sent to and from the Arduino
board. The RX and TX LEDs on the board will flash when data is being transmitted via the
USB-to-serial chip and USB connection to the computer (but not for serial communication on
pins 0 and 1).

A Software Serial library allows for serial communication on any of the Uno's digital pins.

The ATmega328 also supports I2C (TWI) and SPI communication. The Arduino software
includes a Wire library to simplify use of the I2C bus; see the documentation for details. For SPI
communication, use the SPI library.

PRACTICAL PART:
LED INTERFACING WITH ARDUINO: